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Avery Florkey

Professor Leonard

English 1201-510

1 May 2022

Why Do Bridges Collapse?

Imagine that you are driving to work at about 8:30 in the morning. So far it has

been another day that will eventually blend in with the rest. You repeat the same daily

steps that lie within your routine: wake up, shower, get dressed, grab a quick breakfast,

and run out the door. There is more traffic than normal, perhaps because of the brand-

new factory that opened downtown, and many new employees are commuting to work.

As you sit in your car, only moving a few inches every couple of minutes, you decide to

turn on the radio. In a booming voice, the broadcaster proclaims, “...breaking news! Last

night’s thunderstorm is causing a great deal of problems throughout the city. There was

a colossal car crash last night on one of the city’s oldest bridges, Bridge Victoria. The

remains of that vehicle collision are being cleaned up now...” No wonder there is such a

backup on the highway, there was another accident on Bridge Victoria due to inclement

weather! After slowly creeping your way through the city you finally reach the last

segment of your commute to work, Bridge Victoria. Everything is going swimmingly, and

you are even going to arrive at work early despite the excessive traffic. As you drive,

you hear an ear-splitting boom. Suddenly you begin to fall downwards for what feels like

an eternity. You can hear screaming, glass is shattering everywhere, and you are

thrown about the inside of your car. In the few seconds of chaos, all you can do is close
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your eyes and try to comprehend what is happening. Everything abruptly stops. All is

dark and the air has turned into a thick cloud of dust. You try to move but there is not

anywhere to go. Realization hits and instantaneously you conclude: the bridge

collapsed… but why and how?

Unfortunately, these stories can become a part of anyone’s life. While this does

not occur regularly, bridges do fail and many of those that are still standing are close to

failure. Within this paper, readers will have the chance to obtain the basic knowledge of

seven prevalent bridge forms. For reference, a few of history's most devastating bridge

failures that have affected people worldwide are mentioned. Then, readers can learn the

causes of why a bridge might collapse from each assessment, though the primary

reason for bridge failure is human error/insufficient expertise.

One of the most common types of bridges used for day-to-day purposes would

be the arch bridge. As stated in its name, the arch bridge is composed of an arch,

among other things. When needed, multiple arches can be placed side-by-side to reach

across a distance. There are three subcategories of arch bridges: deck arch, through

arch, and half-through arch. Due to the placement of the arch in comparison to the deck

each receives a specific name. The deck of a bridge is normally a roadway or walkway.

A deck arch bridge has its arch completely underneath the deck. While a through arch

bridge has the arch placed above its deck and the half-through arch bridge has the deck

running through the middle of the arch. The supports that connect the arch and deck are

called spandrels. Arch bridges can be constructed with a closed-spandrel system (solid

all the way through) or an open spandrel arrangement (separate columns). Spandrels

must be strong enough to support and distribute both the live load and the dead weight.
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The live load is temporarily applied pressure like vehicles and people. Dead weight is

the permanent weight of the bridge’s structure. Typically, components of an arch bridge

are built from steel, iron, and concrete. Any materials used must be able to withstand a

massive amount of compressive pressure. Any version of an arch bridge has an equal

potential to be fixed (hingeless), single-hinged, 2-hinged, or 3-hinged. The structure of a

fixed arch bridge is stiff and because of this characteristic, they bear a considerable

amount of pressure at the foundation. If an arch bridge is fixed, the foundation must be

strong, and the ground beneath should be stable. Regularly, fixed arch bridges are used

for shorter spans. However, 2-hinge and 3-hinged arch bridges are more commonly

built. This style is better suited for longer spans because rather than placing force at the

foundation, the hinges can put force on the abutments and the crown (only in 3-hinge).

Arch bridges come with their own set of pros and cons. A particularly important aspect

of a bridge is its ability to let substantial amounts of water pass underneath. Arch

bridges are at the top of the rank in that category because of their structural design.

Their design also creates this bridge to have strength under plenty of pressure. Since its

foundation must be strong enough to support gravitational force as well as applied

pressure, there are specific locations where arch bridges can be built. Arch bridges

bend under wind due to their flexibility, so they require frequent maintenance. In turn,

arch bridges are costly. Overall, an arch bridge is typical, which is why it is so prevalent

in construction (“Arch Bridges”).

Tied-arch bridges are remarkably like an average arch bridge; however, the

support system in a tied-arch bridge makes all the difference. A tied-arch bridge is a

cross between a suspension bridge and an arch bridge. Tied-arch bridges are known for
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being prettier than regular arch bridges. This is because their foundations do not have

to be as strong or as sturdy since the tie-rods are resisting horizontal forces, not the

foundations. Since their foundations do not have to be as strong, there is a bit more

freedom where they can be built. Some examples of potential building sites are elevated

piers or unstable soil. An advantage of tied-arch bridges is that they can be built off-site

and be pieced together later. The welds of this bridge, especially the arch rib and tie

girders or the arch and vertical ties, are extremely important to its structural integrity. If

this bridge has poor welds at any place, they must be fixed immediately and repaired

regularly. These repairs are expensive and cumbersome. Tied-arch bridges are also

non-redundant, meaning if even just one tie girder malfunctions, the whole bridge could

give way. Lastly, tied-arch bridges are comparatively more extortionate to construct than

another bridge of the same length. Altogether, tied-arch bridges are pleasing to the eye,

just not to the wallet (“Tied-Arch Bridge Facts, History and Examples”).

Next up is the beam bridge. Beam bridges are easy to build and have the

simplest design in comparison to others. Beam bridges consist of a series of vertical

beams. A horizontal beam is laid on top and secured to the tops of the vertical beams.

The vertical beams are typically called piers, and the horizontal beams are what make

up the road/walkway. The horizontal beams must be strong enough not to bend beneath

their weight and hold up additional loads. As pressure is applied, the bottom surface is

stretched (known as tension) and the top surface is compressed. The solidity of the

bridge can be improved by placing the piers closer together because the farther apart

the piers are, the weaker the beam bridge becomes. Due to this factor, the beam bridge

is fitting for a place in need of clearance beneath the bridge. Beam bridges can create a
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“continuous span,” if multiple horizontal beams are connected. Beam bridges are cheap,

except for when they must reach across longer spans. Overall, beam bridges are

wonderful for reaching across large bodies of water. But, with multiple piers underneath

the deck, water passage is hindered a reasonable amount (“Nova Online | Super Bridge

| Build A Bridge”).

The cantilever bridge is the fancier variation of a beam bridge. Cantilever bridges

are composed of three main parts: central beam, outer beams, and cantilevers. The

outer beams are driven into the ground or an abutment. In this case, an abutment is a

pier that is on the shore that is driven into the ground to ensure stability. Two offshore

piers anchor the cantilevered part and attach to the outer beams. The piers of a

cantilever must be made up of durable materials to uphold both the live and dead loads.

Usually, piers are made up of prestressed concrete. Prestressed concrete (reinforced

concrete with steel tendons) is used abundantly because of its ability to resist cracking

and allow a bridge to carry heavier loads or span longer distances. The cantilevered

segments reach towards the middle, but they are too short. A small beam, known as the

central beam, is placed in the center to fill the gap. This section of the bridge works

similarly to that of a truss bridge or beam bridge because the compressed forces are at

the top while tension is held within the deck, differing from the rest of the bridge.

Cantilever bridges allow for substantial water passage and can stretch across long

distances (“Bridges - Cantilever Bridges”).

Like cantilever bridges, suspension bridges are used mostly for their capability to

span across long distances. Suspension bridges are visually appealing because of their

unique design. In an average model, there are two towers (pylons) that are secured in
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the ground and stand up vertically high above the water. From the peaks of the towers,

the main cable is attached and “draped” evenly across the bridge. Each end of the cable

has an anchorage onshore that is firmly attached to rock or concrete. To suspend the

deck, cables called suspenders are fastened to the main cable, then stretched vertically,

and finally connected to the deck. Since the bridge is ‘suspended,’ there is not a need to

be concerned if it will buckle. The suspenders hold the live and dead loads of a

suspension bridge. The main cable holds tension, while the towers are compressed

under pressure (“Nova Online | Super Bridge | Build A Bridge”).

Due to similar visual characteristics, cable-stayed bridges are frequently

mistaken for suspension bridges. The main difference between the two is their

displacement of pressure. Unlike a suspension, cable-stayed bridges have multiple

cables attached to both pylons, then directly attached to the deck. In some cases, each

cable will begin at different heights on the pylon and fasten to the deck at differing

spots. However, the cables can all start at the top of the pylons, ending at separate

locations on the deck. On average, cable-stayed bridges require fewer cables and are

less expensive than other bridges. Although, their potential lengths are ineffectual

(Mladjov).

The final type of traditional bridge is the truss bridge. Composed of a skeleton of

triangles assorted in an organized web, truss bridges create their own support system.

With triangles, a truss bridge can experience considerable amounts of stress or damage

and not collapse. There are three types of truss bridges: Kingpost, Queen post, and

Howe. Kingpost is the simplest form, a triangle with a vertical post in the center. The

slant posts of the triangle act in compression, and the king post (center post) act in
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tension. The Kingpost technique is typically used for short distances. Next is Queen

post which consists of a triangle with two vertical posts inside it, and a horizontal beam

that connects the top of each post. In Queen post, the triangle posts act in compression

and the vertical posts act in tension. Lastly, Howe Truss Bridges are made up of two

diagonal posts on the outside pointing towards each other. There is a chord (post) that

connects the top of the diagonals and a chord that connects the bottom of the

diagonals. This creates a trapezoid. Inside the trapezoid, there are diagonal timber

compression pieces as well as vertical tension pieces. In general, truss bridges are

extremely durable because of their use of triangles (“What Is a Truss Bridge?”).

There are many kinds of bridges that come with a unique set of instructions.

Learning about the general structure of common bridges and their specific purposes is

crucial to understanding how and why they are crumbling under pressure, if more will

give way in the future, and if there is anything that can be done to prevent more falls.

Bridge failures are a growing problem within the United States. A bridge is thought of as

being strong and having the ability to withstand enormous amounts of pressure when

thrusted upon them.

Fig. 1. Distribution of bridge failure causations in percentages (Milić et al.)

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However, there has been an increasing amount of bridge failures that have headlined

multiple news reports. While there are many differences between structural designs, all

bridges fall into the same main groups of causes for failure. Those sources for failure

are extreme weather, weight, and traffic events as well as deterioration of materials

inside of the structure, unqualified designers, and human error.

Inevitably, as time progresses, the environment that surrounds everyone

changes. In this case, the environment includes climate change as well as population

growth, otherwise known as urbanization. Extreme weather events and urbanization

impact bridges significantly. Such weather events include floods, earthquakes,

thunderstorms, tornadoes, and a host of other phenomena. Any factor that describes a

reason for bridge failure is more likely to affect older bridges than newer bridges.

According to Figure 7 in “Bridge Failures”, 72% of all extreme events that cause bridge

failure are due to flooding. Flooding can cause “...damage to bridge substructure,

resulting in displacement of abutments and piers and, if the water level is high enough,

it can damage or remove bridge bearings,” (Milić et al. 723-724). Damage to a bridge’s

substructure or removal of a bridge’s bearings is just a fancy way to say that flooding

can cause a bridge to deteriorate. In some instances, if floodwaters rise so high that

they cover a bridge or if a bridge is exposed to flood waters for a prolonged period the

structure will be at a higher risk of failure. Wind, like a tornado, is the next greatest

source of collapse, making up 6% in the category of extreme weather events while

earthquakes make up 3% (Milić et al. 723). Substantial wind induces the corruption of

the structure and shortens the lifetime of a bridge. Earthquakes that are of great enough

magnitude to disrupt any structure are uncommon, but there is always potential. When
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an earthquake transpires, “soil shifts in both horizontal and vertical directions, which can

result in scouring under the bridge substructure, and eventually lead to failure,” (Milić et

al. 723). During an earthquake, the foundation upon which a bridge is built shifts. This

puts the entire structure at risk. Flooding, wind, and earthquakes are just a few

examples of rigorous weather conditions that can cause a bridge to collapse or escalate

a bridge’s chance of failure.

Like the weather, urbanization is an unpredictable environmental shift that

influences the possibility of a bridge falling. Bridges are built to make transportation

more efficient and to last many years. However, similarly to the field of medicine,

knowledge, and construction codes change, but once a bridge is built it is not destroyed

and rebuilt to match every new guideline. As stated in “Bridge Failures,” “The majority of

bridges in the EU and USA were built more than fifty years ago, and were designed

according to older codes, which were not as conservative as the new ones,” (Milić et al.

723). Progression and advancement are key components of survival in society. The

transportation of goods and people is vital. Meaning, more vehicles will be in use. It is

estimated that “...the number of vehicles will increase from one billion in 2010 to two

billion in 2030…Considering these changes in circumstances on the roads and

highways worldwide, some older bridges will inevitably collapse due to overloading,”

(Milić et al. 724). Overloading is weight that exceeds a structure’s limit. Due to

urbanization, bridges experience overloading constantly which can cause a bridge to

buckle under excessive amounts of pressure.

Along with overloading, urbanization has raised the rate of extreme traffic events.

These traffic events can involve vehicle collisions on the bridge, vehicle collisions with
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the bridge, boat or ship collisions with piers or the underside of the bridge, and many

more particular instances. Many of these collisions are due to an automobile operator’s

fallacies. For example, it is well known that bridges ice over before other parts of the

roadway. But many drivers disregard that, as well as speed limits which enhance the

risk of collision. Traffic events are not the only reason bridges are prone to failure due to

human error. The expertise, or lack thereof, can set up a bridge for failure.

Human error and corrupt built-in materials are the most preventable cause of

bridge failure as well as being the most prevalent reasons for bridge failure. Forensic

engineer, Neal FitzSimons, expresses bridge failures under the category of human error

as: “ignorance, incompetence, negligence and greed,” (Milić et al. 726). While these

adjectives seem harsh, they depict human error with the same tone as their

consequences. Human error covers a variety of things such as insufficient knowledge,

operational errors, errors in determining load capacities, errors during testing or

inspection, maintenance errors, bridge user errors, and design, construction, and

supervision errors. A bridge should show signs of deterioration and corruption of

materials; however, those signs are frequently overlooked. Progressing knowledge of

innovative design tactics is unveiling that many of history’s well-known bridge collapses

are due to human inadequacies. In the PBS documentary, “Why Bridges Collapse,”

three well-known bridge failures are mentioned: Polcevera Bridge in Genoa, Italy, the I

35W bridge in Minneapolis, and Silver Bridge over the Ohio River. From each bridge’s

design and close analysis, conclusions about what happened were able to be made.

For instance, because of the discoveries from Genoa, engineers have adjusted to avoid
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single-point failures and metal cable corrosion. To prevent collapse in the future,

engineers must dig deeper into previous tragedies (“Why Bridges Collapse”).

In closing, bridge failure is due to multiple issues such as extreme weather,

weight, and traffic events as well as deterioration of materials inside of the structure,

unqualified designers, and human error. To improve upon construction, it is crucial to

learn about the structure of all bridges, their specific purposes, and past collapses. As

said in the closing minutes of “Why Bridges Collapse,” “We may never completely

design all weaknesses out of the structures we build, but every disaster is a lesson we

can learn from to make bridges safer in the future,” (00:51:42-55).

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Works Cited

“Arch Bridges.” Arch Bridges - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics,

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/arch-bridges. Accessed 20

Mar. 2022.

“Bridges - Cantilever Bridges.” Cantilever Bridges - Beam, Ground, Load, and Piers -

JRank Articles, https://science.jrank.org/pages/1030/Bridges-Cantilever-

bridges.html. Accessed 20 Mar. 2022.

Ivana Milić, et al. “Bridge Failures, Forensic Structural Engineering and

Recommendations for Design of Robust Structures.” Građevinar, vol. 73, no. 07.,

Aug. 2021, pp. 717–36. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.14256/JCE.3234.2021.

Accessed 20 Mar. 2022.

(“Bridge Failures”).

Mladjov, Roumen V., et al. “Cable- Stayed Bridges.” STRUCTURE Magazine,

STRUCTURE, Oct. 2020, https://www.structuremag.org/?p=16503. Accessed 20

Mar. 2022.

“Nova Online | Super Bridge | Build A Bridge.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, Oct.

2000, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bridge/build.html. Accessed 20 Apr. 2022.

“Tied-Arch Bridge Facts, History and Examples.” Tied-Arch Bridge - Facts, Design and

Examples of Tied-Arch Bridges, http://www.historyofbridges.com/facts-about-

bridges/tied-arch-bridge/. Accessed 20 Mar. 2022.

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“What Is a Truss Bridge?” What Is a Truss Bridge,

https://www.tn.gov/tdot/structures-/historic-bridges/what-is-a-truss-bridge.html.

Accessed 20 Mar. 2022.

Why Bridges Collapse. PBS, 2019. EBSCOhost,

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&db=cat01128a&AN=scc.b2011316&site=eds-live. Accessed 20 Mar.

2022.