2019

Vellore Institute of Technology University Vellore, Tamil Nadu,

India, - 632014

முனைவர் சுப்பிரமைியன் கு.

SPECIAL MACHINES:
THEORY,MODELING,CONTROL AND
APPLICATIONS

Vellore Institute of Technology University Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, - 632014 |

Switched Reluctance
Motor
 Chapter 2

Switched Reluctance Motor

In chapter 1, stepper motor construction, operation and its control presented. The switched
reluctance motor works on reluctance torque. The reluctance torque produced by the
action of switching (exciting) the winding, is called switched reluctance motor (SRM).
The origin of the reluctance motor can be traced back to 1842, but the “reinvention” has
been possibly due to the advent of inexpensive, high power electronics switching devices.
2.1 Introduction
Figure 2.1 shows the photograph of the SRM illustrates the SRM stator, rotor and
assembled view of SRM. The stator coils is controlled by individual switches therefore the
winding connection are taken out by wire (blue and black), a portion of the rotor
projected called rotor poles, and it is kept inside the stator core hold by the end bearings.

Fig. 2.1 Photo of Switched Reluctance motor

Like stepper motor SRM also no need of equal stator and rotor poles and excitation either
being on stator or in rotor not in both. However, SRM rotates continuously, consequence
of that two windings diametrically placed are excited at a time.
2.2 Salient features
Since, SRM differs constructional view with other machines is shown in Fig.2.2, the
cross sectional view of SRM is shown in Fig.2.2 (a), and Fig.2.2 (b) illustrates the
photograph of SRM rotor.

Fig. 2.2 Photo of Switched Reluctance motor

Few of the salient feature of switched reluctance motor are
 Doubly salient, singly exited motor
 Stator-salient poles with winding
 Rotor-usually cage rotor. (without winding)-so low inertia.
 Conduction angle of phase current is controlled and synchronised by means of
shaft position sensor.(while stepper is fed with square wave phase current)
 SRM is designed for efficient power conversion at high speed than that of
BLDC motor.
 In rotor, since there are no magnets, rotor maximum permissible temperature
is higher than PM.
 Under fault condition, SC current and OC voltage are small.
 Starting torque can be very high without problem of excessive inrush current.

2.3 Disadvantages
Even though switched reluctance motors are have advantages few of its
disadvantages are
 A shaft position sensor for commutation and speed feedback is required.
 Pulsed or non-uniform torque production leading to torque ripple or acoustic
noise. But it is easier to achieve smooth torque at low speed, where many
loads are more sensitive to torque ripple.
 Torque and noise are sensitive to size of motor. In large motors, control is
simple but expensive than field oriented induction motor drive.
 Torque ripple is nothing but the current ripple in DC supply, to minimise this
ripple requires large filter capacitors. If DC supply is taken from rectifier, then
significant AC line harmonics will also be introduced in system.
 For optimum performance air gap needs to be same as that of induction motor
of comparable diameter, so reducing manufacturing tolerance.
2.3 Classifications of SRM

Switched reluctance Motors

Rotary Linear
Switched reluctance Motors Switched reluctance Motors

Radial field Axial field

Basic Structure:
Double salient with Single - Stack Multi Stack
Concentric winding
Only this will be
highly emphasized Short flux path machines: Adjacent pole windings
(Diametrically are in series to form a phase winding
opposite windings
are in series to form
a phase)
 Fig.2.3 Configuration of switched reluctance motors

Initially it may be classified either as rotary switched reluctance motor or linear

switched reluctance motor based on the movement of the movable member as shown in
Fig.2.3.
2.4 Applications
The simple motor structure and inexpensive power electronic requirement have
made the SRM an attractive alternative to both AC and DC machines in adjustable-speed
drives. Few of such applications are listed below.
 General purpose industrial drives;
 Application-specific drives: compressors, fans, pumps, centrifuges;
 Domestic drives: food processors, washing machines, vacuum cleaners;
 Electric vehicle application;
 Aircraft applications;
 Servo-drive.
2.5 Comparison of Switched Reluctance and Stepper Motors
Let considered both machines are operating in linear magnetic circuit, the switched
reluctance motors are similar to the stepper motors except
 Few number of poles
 Step angle is greater than stepper motors
 Generally one tooth per pole
 Higher power output
 Rotor position feedback system is essential to commutation of the phase
currents
 Generally it is designed for efficient conversion of power but stepper motor
is designed to maintain step integrity in position control

2.6 Construction
SRM are made up of laminated stator and rotor cores with Ns =2mq poles on the
stator and Nr poles on the rotor. The number of phases is 𝑚 and each phase is made up of
concentrated coils place on 2𝑞 stator poles. Most favored configuration amongst many
more options are 6/4 three phase and 8/6 four phase SRM’s as shown in the Figure
2.4.1(a).
These two configurations correspond to q=1(one pair of stator poles (and coils) per
phase) but q may be equal to 2, 3 when, for the three phase machine, we obtain 12/8 or
18/12 topologies applied either for low speed high torque direct drives or for high speed
stator generator systems for aircraft. The stator and rotor pole angles 𝛽𝑠 and 𝛽𝑟 are, in
general, almost equal to each other to avoid zero torque zones.
It has wound field coils of a dc motor for its stator windings and has no coils or
magnets on its rotor. Both the stator and rotor have salient poles, hence the machine is
referred to as a doubly salient machine. Such a typical machine is shown in Figure
2.4.1(a), and a modified version with two teeth per pole is shown in Figure 2.4.1(b).
Fig. 2.4 Switched reluctance motor configurations (a) one teeth per pole (a) two teeth per pole
The rotor is aligned whenever diametrically opposite stator poles are excited. In a
magnetic circuit, the rotating member prefers to come to the minimum reluctance position
at the instance of excitation. While two rotor poles are aligned to the two stator poles,
another set of rotor poles is out of alignment with respect to a different set of stator poles.
Then, this set of stator poles is excited to bring the rotor poles into alignment. Likewise,
by sequentially switching the currents into the stator windings, the rotor is rotated. The
movement of the rotor, hence the production of torque and power, involves switching of
currents into stator windings when there is a variation of reluctance; therefore, this
variable speed motor drive is referred to as a switched reluctance motor drive.
2.7 Principle of Operation
The rotor is aligned whenever the diametrically opposite stator poles are excited. In a
magnetic circuit, the rotating part prefers to come to the minimum reluctance position at
the instance of excitation. While two rotor poles are aligned to the two stator poles,
another set of rotor poles is out of alignment with respect to a different set of stator poles.
Then, this set of stator poles is excited to bring the rotor poles into alignment. This
elementary operation can be explained by Fig.2.5 (a) and Fig. 2.5 (b).

Fig. 2.5 Switched reluctance motor operation (a) Phase C aligned (b) Phase A aligned
2.7.1 Static Torque Production
Figure 2.6(a) shows cross sectional view of a primitive reluctance motor. When
current is passed through stator phase winding, rotor tries to align with stator poles, i.e. it
produces a torque that rotates rotor in order to attain a minimum reluctance position.
 Fig. 2.6 Elementary reluctance motor (a) cross sectional view (b) Field energy and co
energy
Therefore, the instantaneous torque is given by,

𝜕𝑊′
𝑇= 𝑎𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (2.1)
𝜕𝜃
𝑖
From Fig.2.6 b, the co-energy 𝑊 ′ is written as𝑊 ′ = ∫0 𝛹𝑑𝑖.
The equivalent expression is
𝜕𝑊𝑓
𝑇=− 𝑎𝑡 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (2.2)
𝜕𝜃
𝜓
From Fig.2.6 b, the field energy stored 𝑊𝑓 is written as𝑊𝑓 = − ∫0 𝑖𝑑𝜓
If magnetic saturation is neglected, then the relationship between flux linkage and current
is a straight line whose slope is instantaneous inductance L,
𝛹 = 𝐿𝑖 (2.3)
1
𝑊 ′ = 𝑊𝑓 = 𝐿𝑖 2 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 (2.4)
2
Therefore,
1 𝑑𝐿
𝑇 = 𝑖2 𝑁−𝑚 (2.5)
2 𝑑𝜃
Therefore, the average torque produce by the motor is given by
number of stroke per revolution
Average torque = work per stroke × (2.6)
2π
Or
𝑞𝑁𝑟
𝑇𝑎 = 𝑊 × 𝑁𝑤 − 𝑚 (2.7)
2𝜋
Then the electromagnetic power can be written as
𝑃𝑔 = 𝑊 × 𝑇𝑎 (2.8)
2.8 Inductance (L) Variation of SRM
As rotor rotates, the inductance L varies between two extreme values: La
(maximum) occurs when rotor and stator poles are un-aligned Lu (minimum) occurs when
rotor inter polar axis is aligned with stator poles. The variation with rotor position is
shown in idealized form in Fig. 2.7, in which the neglect of fringing results in sharply
defined 'corners' which coincide with particular positions. If the rotor and stator pole arcs
are different, there will be a small 'dwell' at maximum inductance. Likewise if the inter
polar arc of the rotor exceeds the stator pole arc, there is a 'dwell' at minimum inductance.
The upper and lower corners occur when rotor and stator pole corners are in conjunction,
and between these positions the inductance varies more or less linearly as the overlap area
varies.

Fig. 2.7 Variation of inductance of SRM with rotor position (a) idealised value
(b) Current wave forms (c) high speed current

If the steel is assumed to be infinitely permeable and fringing is neglected, the inductance
can be estimated approximately as:
𝜇𝑜 𝑟1 𝑙𝑎
𝐿(𝜃) = 2𝑁𝑝2 𝑃𝑔 + 𝐿𝑢 = 2𝑁𝑝2 + 𝐿𝑢 (2.9)
𝑔
2.8.1 Relationship between speed and fundamental switching frequency:
Each phase produces a torque pulse on each passing of rotor pole. So, fund.
Frequency in one phase is
𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑓1 = 𝑛𝑁𝑟 = 𝑁 𝐻𝑧 (2.10)
60 𝑟
Where, n is speed in rev/s, Nr is number of rotor poles. If q phases are there, steps per
revolution is q Nr, step angle

2×𝜋
𝜀= 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 (2.11)
𝑞 × 𝑁𝑟
Note:

a. Torque is produced for angle β, smaller than stator and rotor pole arc. To
produce unidirectional torque through 3600, pole arc must be smaller than
step angle. i.e. β > ε
b. To get largest possible variation of phase inductance with rotor position, inter
2×π
polar arc of rotor must exceed stator pole arc. i.e. - βr >βs
Nr

2.8.2 Speed / Torque Characteristics

The torque-speed characteristic of an SRM drive is shown in Fig. 2.8. It can be
divided into three regions such as constant torque, constant power and natural region
which is the region below the base speed𝜔𝑏 , which is defined as the highest speed when
maximum rated current can be applied to the motor at rated voltage with fixed firing
angles or it is the lowest possible speed for the motor to operate at its rated power.

Fig. 2.8 Speed / Torque characteristics of switched reluctance motor

In the low-speed region of operation, the current rises almost instantaneously after
turn-on, since the back-emf is small. The current can be set at any desired level by means
of regulators, such as hysteresis controller or voltage PWM controller.
As the motor speed increases, the back-emf soon becomes comparable to the DC bus
voltage and it is necessary to phase advance-the turn-on angle so that the current can rise
up to the desired level against a lower back-emf. Maximum current can still be forced into
the motor by PWM or chopping control to maintain the maximum torque production. The
phase excitation pulses are also needed to be turned off a certain time before the rotor
passes alignment to allow the freewheeling current to decay so that no braking torque is
produced.
In region II, when the back-emf exceeds the DC bus voltage in high-speed
operation, the current starts to decrease once pole overlap begins and PWM or chopping
control is no longer possible. The natural characteristic of the SRM, when operated with
fixed supply voltage and fixed conduction angle θdwell (also known as the dwell angle), is
that the phase excitation time falls off inversely with speed and so does the current. Since
the torque is roughly proportional to the square of the current, the natural torque-speed
1
characteristic can be defined by T α .
ω2
Increasing the conduction angle can increase the effective amps delivered to the
phase. The torque production is maintained at a level high enough in this region by
adjusting the conduction angle θdwell with the single-pulse mode of operation. The
controller maintains the torque inversely proportional to the speed; hence, this region is
called the constant power region. The conduction angle is increased by advancing the
turn-on angle until the θ dwell reaches its upper limit at speed ωp . The medium speed
range through which constant power operation can be maintained is quite wide and very
high maximum speeds can be achieved.
In region –III, The θdwell upper limit is reached when it occupies half the rotor pole-
pitch, i.e., half the electrical cycle. θdwell cannot be increased further because otherwise
the flux would not return to zero and the current conduction would become continuous.
1
The torque in this region is governed by the natural characteristics, falling off as ω2 . The
torque-speed characteristics of the SRM are similar to those of a DC series motor, which
is not surprising considering that the back-emf is proportional to current, and the torque is
proportional to the square of the current.

2.9 Mathematical Modelling of SRM

The mathematical model of any system is used to analyse the system performances
and also predetermine the system dynamics. Consequence of that linear inductance profile
of the switched reluctance motor is shown in Fig.2.9 considered for further development
of modelling of SRM.

Fig. 2.9 linear inductance profile of Switched reluctance motor

 Figure 2.9 illustrates linear inductance profile L(θ) with each phase inductance
displaced by an angle θs given by inductance profile of each phase. The machine dynamic
equation is given by
𝜕𝜔
𝐽 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 − 𝑓𝜔 (2.12)
𝜕𝑡
Where TL is the load torque, and f the machine friction coefficient
1 1
θs = 2𝜋 (𝑁 − 𝑁 ) (2.13)
𝑟 𝑠
Where 𝑁𝑟 and 𝑁𝑠 are the number of rotor and stator poles respectively, when the motor
has equal rotor and stator pole arcs, i.e.𝛽𝑟 = 𝛽𝑠 , the following angle relations can be
written as
𝜋
θx = ( − 𝛽𝑟 ) (2.14)
𝑁𝑟
𝜋
θy = (2.15)
𝑁𝑟
Assume 𝛿 be the angle displacement of a phase in relation to another is given by
1 1
𝛿 = 2𝜋 ( − ) (2.16)
𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑠
Applying KVL to the stator winding of SRM, the system equation is given by
𝜕Ψ𝑖(Θ,𝑖𝑠 )
+ 𝑅𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉 (2.17)
𝜕𝑡

Where 𝑖 be the number of phase’s i.e. 𝑖 = 1,2,3

As on if the magnetic saturation and mutual inductance effects, the flux in each phase is
given by
𝜕Ψ𝑖(Θ,𝑖𝑠 ) = 𝐿 (𝜃)𝑉 𝐼𝑠 (2.18)
The total energy associated with the phases (𝑛 = 1) is given by
3
1
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∑ 𝐿 (𝜃 + (𝑛 − 1)𝜃𝑠 )𝐼𝑠 2 (2.19)
2
𝑖=1
And the motor total torque is given by
3
1 𝜕(𝐿 (𝜃 + (𝑛 − 1)𝜃𝑠 )) 2
𝑇= ∑ 𝐼𝑠 (2.20)
2 𝜕𝜃
𝑖=1
For mechanical torque equation, the angular velocity is given by

𝜕𝜃
=𝜔 (2.21)
𝜕𝑡

2.10 Power Converters for SRM Drives

Since the torque in SRM drives is independent of the excitation current polarity, the
SRM drives require only one switch per phase winding. This is contrary to the ac motor
drives where at least two switches per phase are required for current control. Moreover,
the windings are not in series with the switches in ac motor drives, leading to irreparable
damage in shoot-through faults. The SRM drives always have a phase winding in series
with a switch.
In case of a shoot-through fault, the inductance of the winding limits the rate of rise
in current and provides time to initiate protective relaying to isolate the faults. The phases
of the
SRM are independent and, in case of one winding failure, uninterrupted operation of the
motor drive operation is possible, although with reduced power output.
2.10.1 Classifications of Converters
The mutual coupling between phases is negligible in SRMs. This gives complete
independence to each phase winding for control and torque generation. While this feature
is advantageous, a lack of mutual coupling requires a careful handling of the stored
magnetic field energy. The magnetic field energy has to be provided with a path during
commutation of a phase; otherwise, it will result in excessive voltage across the windings
and hence on the power semiconductor switches leading to their failure.

Converter (q-phase) configuration for Switched reluctance Motors

Two stage Two switch 1.5- switches Single

(q+1)
power / phase (2q / phase (1.5q Switch /
switches
conversion switch) switch)
phase
a) Equal sharing q- Switches
b) C –Dump
 asymmetric c) C –Dump with free wheeling
 Variation of d) Shared switch g) R-Dump
asymmetric with e) Minimum switch with variable h) Bifilar
higher than 2q DC link with Front end i) Split DC supply
switches f) Resonant

Fig. 2.10 classification of topology

The manner in which this energy is handled gives way to unique but numerous
converter topologies for SRM drives. The energy could be freewheeled, partially
converting it to mechanical/electrical energy and partially dissipating it in the machine
windings. Another option is to return it to the dc source either by electronic or
electromagnetic means. All of these options have given way to power converter topologies
with q, (q+1), 1.5q, and 2q switch topologies, where q is the number of machine phases.
2.10.2 Asymmetric Converter Operation:
Figure 2.11 shows the asymmetric bridge converter delivering power to a SRM.
As soon as turning ON switches (IGBTs) T1 and T2 will circulate a current in phase A. If
the current rises above the commanded value, T1 and T2 are turned off.

Fig. 2.11 Asymmetric converter circuit

 The energy stored in the motor winding of phase A will keep the current in the same
direction until it is depleted. Hence, diodes D1 and D2 will become forward biased leading
to recharging of the source. That will decrease the current, rapidly bringing it below the
commanded value. This operation is explained with the waveforms of Fig.2.12 (a).

Fig. 2.12 voltage and current waveforms

Assuming that a current of magnitude Ip is desired during the positive inductance
slope for motoring action is shown in Fig.2.12(a), the command of current in phase A is
generated with a linear inductance profile. Here, phase advancing both at the beginning
and during commutation are neglected. The current command is enforced with a current
feedback loop where it is compared with the phase current 𝑖𝑎 . The current error is
presumed to be processed through a hysteresis controller with a current window of∆𝑖.
When the current error exceeds−∆𝑖, the switches T1 and T2 are turned off simultaneously.
Hysteresis current controller is considered here due to its simplicity in concept and
implementation. At that time, diodes, D1 and D2 take over the current and complete the
path through the dc source.
Note that the voltage of phase A is then negative and will equal the source voltage
(Vdc ). During this interval, the energy stored in the machine inductance is sent to the
source, thus exchanging energy between the load and source repeatedly in one cycle of a
phase current. After the initial start-up, during turn-on and turn-off of T1 and T2, the
machine phase winding experiences twice the rate of change of dc link voltage, resulting
in a higher deterioration of the insulation. This control strategy hence puts more ripples
into the dc link capacitor, thus reducing its life and also increasing the switching losses of
the power switches due to frequent switching necessitated by energy exchange. These can
be ameliorated with an alternate switching strategy.
The energy stored in the phase A can be effectively circulated in itself by turning off,
say, T2 only. In that case, the current will continue to flow through T1, phase A, and D1,
the latter having forward biased soon after T2 is turned off. The voltage across the winding
becomes zero if the diode and transistor voltage drops are neglected as shown in Figure
2.12 (b). That will take the phase current from (𝑖𝑝 + ∆𝑖) to (𝑖𝑝 − ∆𝑖) in a time greater
than had it been forced against the source voltage using the previous strategy. This
particular fact reduces the switching frequency and hence the switching losses. When the
current command goes to zero, both T1 and T2 are turned off simultaneously.
During this interval, the voltage across the winding is -Vdc as long as D1 and D2
conduct (i.e., until ia goes to zero) and thereafter the winding voltage is zero. The voltage
across T2 during its off time and when T1 is on is equal to the source voltage, Vdc. Hence,
the power switches and diodes have to be rated to a minimum of source voltage at least.
The current ratings of the switches are equal to or less than Ipq by interchanging the off
times between T1and T2 in one cycle of phase conduction.
Similarly, the current rating of the diodes can be evaluated. While such a self-
circulation will keep the current going for a longer time compared to recharging the source
voltage, it has the advantage of converting the stored energy to useful mechanical work.
While this form of control can be used for current control, the recharging of the source is
advantageous when the current has to be turned off rapidly. Such an instance arises when
the inductance profile becomes flat or is starting to have a negative slope. Any further
conduction of current in such regions entails a loss of energy or production of negative
torque, thus reducing the average motoring torque. Note that this converter requires two
transistors and two diodes for each phase, resembling the conventional ac motor drives.
2.10.3 Single Switch per Phase Converter Operation
Single-switch, per-phase converters are appealing due to their compactness of
converter package and hence a possible reduction in their cost compared to other
converters. They also have the disadvantage of being unable to apply zero voltage across
the machine phase during current conduction. Such an operational constraint increases the
circulation of energy between the machine and dc link, resulting in higher losses and
reduced system efficiency. Consequence of that, different topology suggested as follows,

2.10.4 Resistance-Dump Converter

Figure 2.13 shows a power converter configuration drive the SRM with one
transistor and one diode per phase.

Fig. 2.13 Converter for SRM with freewheeling path

When T1 is turned off, the current freewheels through D1, charging Cs, and later
flows through the external resistor R. This resistor partially dissipates the energy stored in
phase A. This has the disadvantage that the current in phase A will take longer to
extinguish compared to recharging the source. The energy, in addition, is dissipated in a
resistor, thus reducing the overall efficiency of the motor drive.
 Figure 2.14 shows the timing waveforms of the power converter having single
transistor and diode driving the SRM.

Fig. 2.14 Waveforms of R- dump converter

The hysteresis current controller turns off 𝑇1 when the phase current exceeds the current
command, by∆𝑖. Turning off 𝑇1 will reduce the current, which in turn induces an emf in
the winding to sustain 𝑖𝑎 in the same direction. This emf forward biases diode𝐷1 . The
voltage across the resistor R is𝑉𝑎 (𝑖𝑎 𝑅𝑎 ). Note that the voltage across the resistor has a
positive polarity with respect to the positive rail of the source voltage. The voltage across
T1 during off time is then the sum of the source voltage and the voltage drop across the
resistor is expressed as:
𝑉𝑇1 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 + (𝑖𝑎 × 𝑅) (2.22)
Design considerations such as the turn-off transient voltage have to be included in
the rating of the switch T1. The selection of R not only determines the power dissipation
but also the switch voltage. A lower value of R increases the fall time of the current. If the
current comes under the negative slope region of the phase inductance, negative torque
will be generated, decreasing the average motoring torque A high value of R increases the
voltage drop across the winding and hence across T1.
2.10.5 Bifilar type
Figure 2.15 shows a converter configuration with one transistor and one diode per
phase but regenerating the stored magnetic energy to the source. This is achieved by
having a bifilar winding with the polarity as shown in the Fig.2.15.
 Fig. 2.15 Converter for SRM drive with bifilar winding
When the phase-A current is turned off by removing the base drive signal to T1, the
induced emf in the winding is of such polarity that D1 is forward biased. This leads to the
circulation of current through D1, the bifilar secondary winding, and the source, thus
transferring energy from the machine winding to the source. The various timing
waveforms of the circuit are shown in Figure 2.16.

Fig. 2.16 Bifilar converter waveforms

During current turn- off, the applied voltage across the bifilar secondary winding is
equal to the dc link voltage. The voltage reflected into the main winding is dependent
upon the turn’s ratio of the windings. Considering the turns ratio between the main
winding in series with the power switch and the auxiliary winding in series with the diode
as a, the voltage across the power switch is
 𝑉𝑇1 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 + 𝑎 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = (1 + 𝑎) 𝑉𝑑𝑐 (2.23)

This shows that the voltage across T1 can be very much greater than the source voltage.
One switch per phase comes with a voltage penalty on the switch. The volt ampere (VA)
capability of the switch will not be very different for one switch compared to two switches
per phase circuit. The disadvantage of this drive is that the SRM needs a bifilar winding
and such a form of winding is not economical for large motors. Also, the bifilar windings
require additional slot volume, reducing the power density of the SRM.
2.10.6 Split DC supply Converter
A split dc supply for each phase allows freewheeling and regeneration, as shown
in Fig.2.17. This topology preserves one switch per phase; its operation is as follows.
Phase A is energized by turning on T1. The current circulates through T1, phase A, and
capacitor C1. When T1 is turned off, the current will continue to flow through phase A,
capacitor C2, and diode D2. In that process, C2 is being charged up and hence the stored
energy in phase A is depleted quickly. Similar operation follows for phase B.

Fig. 2.17 Split dc supply based converter for SRM drive

The operation of this circuit for phase A is shown in Fig.2.18. A hysteresis
current controller with a window of ∇𝑖 is assumed. The phase voltage is 𝑉𝑑𝑐 ⁄2Vdc when
T1 is on, and when it is turned off with a current established in phase A, the phase voltage
is -𝑉𝑑𝑐 ⁄2. The voltage across the transistor T1 during the on time is negligible, and it is
𝑉𝑑𝑐 when the current is turned off. That makes the switch voltage rating at least equal to
the dc link voltage. As the stator current reference, goes to zero, the switch T1 is turned off
regardless of the magnitude of𝑖𝑎 . When the winding current becomes zero, the voltage
across T1 drops to 0.5 𝑉𝑑𝑐 and so also does the voltage across D2. Note that this converter
configuration has the disadvantage of de rating the supply dc voltage,𝑉𝑑𝑐 , by utilizing only
half its value at any time. Moreover, care has to be exercised in balancing the charge of C1
and C2 by proper design measures.
For balancing the charge across the dc link capacitors, the number of machine
phases has to be even and not odd. In order to improve the cost-competitive edge of the
SRM drive, this converter was chosen in earlier integral horse power (hp) product
developments, but its use in fractional hp SRM drives supplied by a single phase 120-V ac
supply is much more justifiable; the neutral of the ac supply is tied to the midpoint of the
dc link and so capacitors can be rated to 200 V dc, thus minimizing the cost of the
converter.

Fig. 2.18 operational wave forms

2.10.7 (q+1) Switch and Diode Configurations C – Dump Converter
The C-dump converter is shown in Fig. 2.19 with an energy recovery circuit. The
stored magnetic energy is partially diverted to the capacitor 𝐶𝑑 and recovered from it by
the single quadrant chopper comprising of𝑇𝑟 , 𝐿𝑟 and 𝐷𝑟 and sent to the dc source. Assume
that T1 is turned on to energize phase A and when the A-phase current exceeds the
reference, T1 is turned off. This enables the diode D1 to be forward biased, and the current
path is closed through 𝐶𝑑 which increases the voltage across it. This has the effect of
reducing the A-phase current, and, when the current falls below the reference by ∆𝑖 (i.e.,
current window), T1 is turned on to maintain the current close to its reference. When
current has to be turned off completely in phase A, T1 is turned off, and partially stored
magnetic energy in phase A is transferred to energy dump capacitor, 𝐶𝑑 . The remaining
magnetic energy in the machine phase has been converted to mechanical energy.
 Fig. 2.19 C –dump converter with energy recovery circuit for SRM
Figure 2.20 shows the variables of interest in this converter. This converter has
the advantage of minimum switches allowing independent phase current control. The main
disadvantage of this circuit is that the current commutation is limited by the difference
between voltage across Cd,Vo, and the dc link voltage. Speedy commutation of currents
requires larger vo, which results in increasing the voltage rating of the power devices.
Further, the energy circulating between Cd and the dc link results in additional losses in
the machine, Tr, Lr, and Dr, thereby decreasing the efficiency of the motor drive.

Fig. 2.20 Operational waveforms of C-dump converter with energy recovery

circuit
The energy recovery circuit is activated only when T1, T2, T3 or T4 switches are
conducting to avoid freewheeling of the phase currents. The control pulses to Tr end with
the turn-off of the phase switches. The control pulse is generated based on the reference
and actual value of E with a window of hysteresis to minimize the switching of Tr.
2.11 Position Sensors
In the SRM drives, rotor position is essential for the stator phase commutation and
advanced angle control. The rotor position is usually acquired by the position sensors. The
commonly used position sensors are phototransistors and photodiodes, Hall elements,
magnetic sensors, pulse encoders and variable differential transformers.
2.11.1 Phototransistor Sensor
The phototransistor sensor is based on the photoelectric principle. Fig.2.21 shows
the basic structure of the phototransistor sensor. As shown in the figure, a revolving
shutter with a 120° electric angle gap is installed on the rotor shaft, rotating with the rotor
of the SRM. Phototransistors of the same number as the motor phases (three phases in the
figure) are fixed on the stator. When the gap is aligned with the phototransistor PT1, the
phototransistor will generate a current due to the light, while phototransistor PT2 and PT3
have only a very small leakage currents because the light is blocked by the revolving
shutter. In this case, the stator phase associate with PT1 should be turned on. Similar
situation will occur when the gap of revolving shutter is aligned with PT2 or PT3.

Fig. 2.21 Photo transistor sensor

2.11.2 Hall Position Sensor
The function of a Hall sensor is based on the physical principle of the Hall effect
named after its discoverer E. H. Hall: It means that a voltage is generated transversely to
the current flow direction in an electric conductor (the Hall voltage), if a magnetic field is
applied perpendicularly to the conductor.
A typical structure of Hall position sensor for three phase motor is illustrated in
Fig.2.22. It is made up of three Hall components and a rotating plate with permanent
magnet fixed on the rotor shaft. Similar to the gap of the phototransistor sensors, the
permanent magnet on the rotating plate is installed suitably so that the output of the Hall
components can indicate the proper rotor position for the phase current control.

Fig. 2.22 Hall position sensor

2.12 Speed Control of SRM
The SRM is usually controlled by either closed-loop current control or open-loop
PWM voltage control. The methods of speed control of SRM are shown in Fig.2.23.

Speed Control

Open loop control Closed loop Control

With sensor Control Without sensor Control

Fig. 2.23 different techniques of speed control of SRM

The different current control of SRM is
 Hysteresis control
 Current regulation with PWM
 Delta Modulation
In hysteresis current control, the control action between two current levels equals to
∆𝑖
𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓 ± 2
where 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓 be the reference current and ∆𝑖 is the hysteresis band. The switching
frequency is uncontrolled. In current regulation with PWM, the current is regulated close
to 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓 using PWM. In delta modulation, the current is regulated around 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓 with
maximum switching frequency limited, and also called bang-bang current control.
2.12.1 Current Regulator
2.12.1.1Hysteresis Type
Figure 2.24(a) shows schematically the method of control. As the current
reference increases, the torque increases. At low currents the torque is roughly
proportional to current squared, but at higher currents it becomes more nearly linear. At
very high currents saturation decreases the torque per ampere again. This type of control
produces a constant-torque type of characteristic as indicated in Fig. 2.24(b). With loads
whose torque increases monotonically with speed, such as fans and blowers, speed
adjustment is possible without tachometer feedback, but in general feedback is needed to
provide accurate speed control.
In some cases the pulse train from the shaft position sensor may be used for speed
feedback, but only at relatively high speeds. At low speeds a larger number of pulses per
revolution is necessary, and this can be generated by an optical encoder or resolver, or
alternatively by phase-locking a high-frequency oscillator to the pulses of the
commutation sensor (Bose 1986). Systems with resolver-feedback or high-resolution
optical encoders can work right down to zero speed. The 'hysteresis-type' current regulator
may require current transducers of wide bandwidth, but the SR drive has the advantage
that they can be grounded at one end, with the other connected to the negative terminal of
the lower phase leg switch. Shunts or Hall-effect sensors can be used, or alternatively,
'Sensefets' with in-built current sensing. Much of the published literature on SR drives
describes this form of control.

Fig.2.24 (a) Hysteresis type regulator (b) constant-torque characteristic obtained

using the regulator Fig. (a)
2.12.1.2 Voltage PWM Control (Duty Cycle Control)
Figure 2.25 shows an alternative regulator using fixed-frequency PWM of the
voltage with variable duty-cycle. Current feedback can be added to the circuit of Fig. 2.25
to provide a signal which, when subtracted from the voltage reference, modulates the duty
cycle of the PWM and 'compounds' the torque-speed characteristic. It is possible in this
way to achieve under-compounding, over-compounding, or flat compounding just as in a
d.c motor with a wound field. For many applications the speed regulation obtained by this
simple scheme will be adequate. For precision speed control, normal speed feedback can
be added. The current feedback can also be used for thermal over current sensing.

Fig. 2.25 Duty cycle control (voltage PWM type)

A desirable feature of both the 'hysteresis-type' current-regulator and the voltage
PWM regulator is that the current waveform tends to retain much the same shape over a
wide speed range. When the PWM duty cycle reaches 100 per cent the motor speed can be
increased by increasing the dwell (the conduction period), the advance of the current-pulse
relative to the rotor position, or both. These increases eventually reach maximum practical
values, after which the torque becomes inversely proportional to speed squared, but they
can typically double the speed range at constant torque. The speed range over which
constant power can be maintained is also quite wide, and very high maximum speeds can
be obtained, as in the synchronous reluctance motor and induction motor, because there is
not the limitation imposed by fixed excitation as in PM motors.
2.12.1.3 Open Loop Control
Figure 2.26 shows the block diagram representation of speed control of SRM,
the rotor position estimated by signal obtained from the position sensor and consequence
of that windings are excited.

Fig. 2.26 Open loop control of SRM

The torque and speed of the machine is pre-set and can adjust as on if required in open
loop control.
2.12.1.4 Closed Loop Control
Figure 2.27 shows the block diagram of closed loop speed control of switched
reluctance motor. It comprised with inner and outer loop control.

Fig. 2.27 closed loop control of SRM

The measured speed (𝜔) is subtracted with the reference speed(𝜔∗ ) results the error
signal. It is gained with PI controller. The output of the PI controller is current
proportional to control voltage, is subtracted from the measured current signal. The output
of the current PI controller will generates the pulses which gated the power pulses.

2.12.2 Sensor less Control

In order to implement the sensor less control waveform detection schemes of
permanent-magnet SRM motors for the purpose of phase commutation were proposed, for
this conditions, detection schemes were established using mathematical models.
2.12.2.1 Back Emf Measurement
Detail analysis on sensing peaks of voltages across motor phase windings
and sensing the zero crossings of the back EMF is discussed in subsequent sections.
2.12.2.2 Inductance and Impedance Measurement
The stator winding inductance changes significantly between aligned and
unaligned position in switched reluctance motors. The suggested method of position
detection in these motors which is based on monitoring the phase current with the aim of
detecting the rate of change of phase current. The rate of change of current is dictated by
the incremental inductance of the phase circuit, and the incremental inductance is in turn a
function of rotor position and phase current. Hence the rotor position can be deduced
from knowledge of the phase current and its derivative with respect to time. This
method can be used for motors operated in chopping mode, and has the important
advantage that it is applicable even at low speed and standstill where the back EMF is
insignificant. However, the relationship between the rate of change of current and rotor
position is complicated by the dependence of incremental inductance on current.
Furthermore, the back EMF affects the current at high speed resulting a considerable
error.
A simple technique to sensing technique in which the motor voltage is applied to un
energised phase windings for a short interval. The change in phase current resulting from
the short sensing pulse is inversely proportional to the instantaneous value of the
phase inductance and hence rotor position can be deduced. Although this technique is
sensing impedance rather than inductance, a good approximation may be obtained by
careful control of the sensing pulses. The effect of back EMF is minimised because the
current in the sensing phase winding is small. Moreover, unique rotor position information
can be obtained if two sensing phases are used simultaneously.
An alternative analogue electronic technique was applied to measure the inductance
of an un energised phase using a linear frequency modulated converter. A frequency
encoded signal was generated whose time period varies linearly with the phase
inductance. The frequency signal is then converted to a voltage which is proportional to
the frequency and hence inductance. This technique eliminated the variation in phase
circuit resistance with temperature in the cost of additional hardware.
A method for rotor position sensing of permanent magnet machines through
measuring the modulation in the inverter carrier frequency component has been suggested.
The modulating effect results from the variation in motor winding impedance as rotor
position changes. Rotor position detection by calculating the phase inductance of an
interior permanent-magnet synchronous motor has been presented in the value of the back
EMF was evaluated with the knowledge of the position of the previous two instants. The
result of back EMF was then used in calculation of the inductance. The calculated
inductance was used to estimate the rotor position by using a modified look-up table
scanning algorithm which looked for a value of phase inductance that is closest to the
calculated value.
Rotor position detection by calculating the phase inductance of an interior
permanent-magnet synchronous motor has been presented in. The value of the back EMF
was evaluated with the knowledge of the position of the previous two instants. The result
of back EMF was then used in calculation of the inductance. The calculated inductance
was used to estimate the rotor position by using a modified look-up table scanning
algorithm which looked for a value of phase inductance that is closest to the calculated
value.
2.12.2.3 Flux Linkage
A technique has been proposed for rotor position estimation in the switched
reluctance motor which utilised the relationship between flux linkage and current. The
flux linkage was measured using sensing coils or estimated by integrating the phase
voltage. The calculated flux linkage was compared with a reference flux linkage value for
the corresponding current level. For a given current magnitude, the flux linkage increases
as the rotor approaches alignment and so when the flux linkage value measured from the
circuit exceeds the reference value, the rotor is assumed to have reached the desired
commutation point. This method can be applied even if no un energised phase windings
are present and in the operation mode which more than one phase are excited as the
measurement takes place in an active phase winding. However, the flux linkage and
current characteristic at several different rotor angles has to be measured and stored in
look up tables prior to operation.
2.12.2.4 Torque Control
As an alternative for variable reluctance stepping motors and switched
reluctance motors, it has been proposed that the output torque be directly controlled by
modulation of the phase commutation angles. The dc supply current was proposed as the
control input as it is an indirect measure of load torque. The technique showed a
significant increase in pull-out torque compared with open loop control methods. A
comparison of this technique with the inductance method suggested in shows that torque
control technique provides higher output torque and better efficiency over the entire
operating range and allows for operation at constant speed. However, the inductance
method provides automatic starting of the motor in closed-loop manner, whereas direct
control of the torque can lead to mechanical resonance problems at starting.
Alternatively, modulation of the phase commutation angles by monitoring the
freewheeling current and the initial current slope has been presented. The control
scheme proposed employs freewheeling current feedback and varies the advance angle
according to load changes. There is significant scope for development of the torque
control techniques particularly with regard to self-optimisation.
2.12.2.3 Computational based Technique
Advances in digital signal processing and microprocessor based control tools
have recently made it possible to estimate rotor position by analysing the phase current
and voltage in real time. Computationally intensive techniques for rotor position
estimation were proposed. One of these techniques was based on observer theory. Internal
states of the system are estimated from some conveniently measured input and output
parameters. Researchers presented observer models and algorithms for rotor position
estimation in stepping motors and switched reluctance motors
2.13 Four Quadrant Operation of SRM
A two-phase SRM with concentric windings is considered for four quadrant
operations are shown in Fig. The machine is a two-phase SRM with one phase forming the
main phase and the other forming an auxiliary phase. The torque is mainly extracted from
the operation of the main phase. The auxiliary phase is intended for commutation of
current in the main phase winding. Note that the auxiliary winding also lends itself to
sensing the rotor position by monitoring its current and flux linkages or by other variables
and means.
 A number of opportunities which open up with this kind of two-phase machines are
to be noted. The number of turns in the main and auxiliary windings need not be equal to
each other and, as well, their wire sizes also need not be equal. The only requirement of
the machine is that the phase windings must be spatially (phase) shifted from each other.
As the focus of the paper is neither on design of such machines nor on the requirement to
optimize the drive system performance, further treatment of the machine is not given for
lack of space.

Fig. 2.28 Converter for four quadrant operation of SRM

The power converter chosen to work with the two machine phase windings is
shown in Fig. 2.28. This is only one of the single controllable- switch-based converter
topologies. The power converter obtains its dc link either from a single-phase (as shown in
figure) or from a three-phase ac through appropriate rectifiers and an electrolytic
capacitor. The machine-side converter consists of a controllable switch Q, two diodes D
and D, and a capacitor C. The main winding is controlled with the controllable switch
directly. When it is turned on (mode 1), the main winding is applied with the dc-link
voltage. If there is current in the auxiliary winding, then it goes to charge the dc-link
capacitor C, and closes the path through the capacitor C. When Q is turned off, (mode 2) a
path for the current is provided through diode D and capacitor C and also through
auxiliary winding and D. Note that the capacitor C is very small compared to the dc-link
filter capacitor C almost by a factor of 100–200. During the turn-off of the controllable
switch, it is seen that the capacitor gets charged or the current is circulated through the
auxiliary winding and during both operations, the main winding is involved. From this, it
is seen that the current in the auxiliary winding is also controlled by the controllable
switch indirectly. Alternately, one can perceive D and C as a snubber circuit for
transferring energy from the main winding during turn-off instants of current control and
commutation and also as an energy source to force current through the auxiliary winding.
More on the converter operation, analysis, and design will be published in the near future.
Diode D is optional it may be noted and if it is used it need not be a fast acting type. With
this, the circuit becomes very compact and it is believed that it has the lowest number of
elements compared to other circuits in the literature.
Exercises:
2.1 How switched reluctance motor (SRM) differ from synchronous motor?
2.2 State the advantage of double-salient arrangement both stator and rotor of SRM.
2.3 Draw cross-sectional view of SRM.
2.4 With aid of block diagram of SRM, explain the working principle of operation.
2.5 State the advantages and disadvantages of SRM
2.6 State the application of SRM
2.7 Distinguish between SRM and variable stepper motor.
2.8 What is the step-angle of three phase switched reluctance motor having 12 stator
poles and 8 rotor poles? What is the commutation frequency in each phase at
speed of 6000 rpm?
Ans. Step angle=150, f = 800 Hz.
2.9 What is the step-angle of 5 phase switched reluctance motor having 10 stator
poles and 4 rotor poles? What is the commutation frequency in each phase at
speed of 6000 rpm?
Ans. Step angle = 180, f= 400Hz
2.10 A switched reluctance motor with 8- stator poles and 6- rotor poles has a stator
pole arc of 300 and rotor pole arc of 320. The aligned inductance is 10mH and
unaligned inductance is 1.5mH. Calculate instantaneous torque when rotor is
300 before aligned position when phase current is 7A, assume saturation and
fringing effects are neglected.
Ans. cannot be determined. Reason – Constrains not satisfied.
2.11 In the motor of problem 49, what is the maximum energy conversion in one
stroke if current is limited to 7 A. Determine the average torques corresponding
to maximum energy conversion.
Ans. W=0.20825J, Ta=0.596N-m.
2.12 In the motor of problem 49, what is the flux linkage in the aligned position
when flux current is 7A. If this flux linkage can be maintained constant while
the rotor rotates from unaligned position to aligned position at low speed.
Determine energy conversion and average torque.
Ans. 70 mVs, 1.63J, 4.66N-m
2.13 A switched reluctance motor with 6 stator poles and 4 rotor poles has a stator
pole arc of 300 and rotor pole arc of 320.the aligned inductance is 10.7mH and
unaligned inductance is 1.5 mH. Assume saturation neglected. Calculate
instantaneous torque when rotor is 300 before aligned position and phase current
is 7 amps. Neglect fringing.
(I could not solve u Try and tell me) Ans. 0.43nm
2.14 In the motor of problem 49, what is the maximum energy conversion in one
stroke if current is limited to 7 A. Determine the average torque corresponding
to maximum energy conversion.
Ans: W=0.225J, 0.43nm
2.15 In the motor of problem 4.10, what is the flux linkage in the aligned position
when flux current is 7 ampere? If this flux linkage can be maintained constant
while the rotor rotates from unaligned position to aligned position at low speed.
Determine energy conversion and average torque.
Ans. 74.9 mV, 1.6J, 3.1N-m