Electric Motors - 21EE44

MODULE 3

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

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Module 3
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
3.1 Losses in Three phase Induction Motor:
The power losses in an induction motor can be classified as,
i)Constant Losses ii)Variable losses
i) Constant losses/Fixed losses:
Constant losses are those losses which are considered to remain constant over normal working
range of induction motor. The fixed losses can be easily obtained by performing no-load test on the
three phase induction motor. These losses are further classified as
1. Iron or core losses
2. Mechanical losses
Iron or core losses are further divided into hysteresis and eddy current losses. Eddy current
losses are minimized by using lamination on core. Since by laminating the core, area decreases and
hence resistance increases, which results in decrease in eddy currents. Hysteresis losses are
minimized by using high grade silicon steel. The core losses depend upon frequency of the supply
voltage. The frequency of stator is always supply frequency, f and the frequency of rotor is slip
times the supply frequency, (sf) which is always less than the stator frequency. Hence the rotor core
loss is very small as compared to stator core loss and is usually neglected in running conditions.
Mechanical losses occur at the bearing and brush friction loss occurs in wound rotor induction
motor. These losses are zero at start and with increase in speed these losses increases. In three phase
induction motor the speed usually remains constant. Hence these losses almost remains constant.

ii)Variable Losses:
These losses are also called copper losses. These losses occur due to current flowing in
stator and rotor windings. As the load changes, the current flowing in rotor and stator winding also
changes and hence these losses also changes. Therefore these losses are called variable losses. The
copper losses are obtained by performing blocked rotor test on three phase induction motor.
2
Rotor Copper loss = 3𝐼2𝑟 𝑅2
Where 𝐼2𝑟 = Rotor Current per phase at a particular load
𝑅2 = Rotor Resistance per phase

3.2 Power Flow in three phase Induction motor:

The Induction motor converts electrical power supplied to it into mechanical power.
The three phase supply given to the stator is the net electrical input to the motor and it is denoted by
𝑃𝑖𝑛 =√3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos 𝜙

The part of input power is utilized to supply the losses in the stator which are stator core as well as
copper losses. The remaining power delivered to the rotor magnetically through the air gap with
help of rotating magnetic field, which is input to the rotor and is denoted by 𝑃2 and is given by
P2 = Pin − Stator losses(Core + Copper)
The entire rotor input is not goin to convert into mechanical energy it has to supply rotor losses.
Rotor copper losses are dominant loss , iron loss are small and hence neglected.
2
∴ 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑐 = 3𝐼2𝑟 𝑅2
After supplying these losses, the remaining part of P2is converted into mechanical energy and
mathematically represented as
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑐
When the rotor is connected to the load some part of 𝑃𝑚 is utilized to provide the mechanical losses
or friction windage losses. The power available to the load is at the shaft is called shaft power or
useful power.
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∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

The rating of the motor is expressed interms of value of 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 .
The above stages are diagrammatically called power flow diagram of an induction motor.

Figure 3.1 Power flow in three phase Induction motor

Gross mechanical power developed Pm
Rotor Efficiency = =
Rotor Input P2
Net output at shaft Pout
Motor Efficiency = Net electrical input to motor = Pin

3.3 Relationship between 𝑷𝟐 ,𝑷𝒄 and 𝑷𝒎 :

The relationship between P, T and 𝜔 is given by
𝑃=𝑇𝜔
Now 𝑃2 is the rotor input form stator side through rotating magnetic field which is rotating at
synchronous speed 𝑁𝑠 and corresponding angular speed is 𝜔𝑠
The relationship between 𝑃2 ,𝑇 and 𝜔𝑠 is given by
𝑃2 = 𝑇 × 𝜔𝑠
2𝜋𝑁
𝑃2 = 𝑇 × 60 𝑠 --------1
Rotor tries to deliver this torque to load. So rotor output is gross mechanical power developed 𝑃𝑚 at
speed N. The relationship between 𝑃𝑚 , T and N is represented as
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑇 × 𝜔
2𝜋𝑁
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑇 × 60 --------2
The rotor copper loss is the difference between 𝑃2 and 𝑃𝑚
∴ 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑚
2𝜋
∴ 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑇 × 60 (𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁) --------3
Dividing the equation 3 by 1
2𝜋
𝑃𝑐 𝑇× (𝑁 −𝑁) (𝑁𝑠 −𝑁)
60 𝑠
= 2𝜋 =
𝑃2 𝑇 × ×𝑁𝑠 𝑁𝑠
60
(𝑁𝑠 −𝑁)
w.k.t =𝑠
𝑁𝑠
𝑃𝑐
=𝑠 or ∴ 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑃2
𝑃2
∴ 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠 × 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
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Therefore, total rotor copper loss is slip time rotor input.

𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑐 i.e𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃2 − 𝑠𝑃2
∴ 𝑃𝑚 = (1 − 𝑠)𝑃2
The gross mechanical poer developed is (1-s) times rotor input
∴ 𝑃2 : 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑚 ∶∶ 1: 𝑠: (1 − 𝑠)

4.5 Efficiency of an Induction motor:

The overall efficiency is defined as useful power output to net electrical power input.
𝑃
% 𝜂 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 100
𝑖𝑛

4.6 Equivalent circuit of Induction motor:

The Three phase induction motor can be treated as transformer, which basically works on the
principle of electromagnetic induction. The stator acts as primary while the rotor acts as a rotating
secondary.
The equivalent circuit of any machine is simplified RL circuit which shows the various
parameter of the machine such as its Ohmic losses and also other lossesThe losses are modelled just
by inductor and resistor. The copper losses are occurred in the windings so the winding resistance is
taken into account. Also, the winding has inductance for which there is a voltage drop due to
inductive reactance and also a term called power factor comes into the picture. There are two types
of equivalent circuits in case of a three-phase induction motor.
Let 𝑅1 , 𝑋1 be the stator resistance and reactance per phase.
𝐸1 , 𝐼1 be the stator induced EMF and stator current respectively.
𝑅2 , 𝑋2𝑟 be the rotor resistance and reactance under running condition.
𝐸2𝑟 , 𝐼2𝑟 be the rotor induced EMF and rotor current under running condition.
𝑉1 be the supply voltage
The no load current 𝐼𝑜 is having two components
1) ′𝐼𝑐 ′active component of current
2) ′𝐼𝑚 ′ magnetising component of current
These two currents gives the elements of an exciting branch i.e𝑅𝑜 , &𝑋𝑜 no load resistance and
reactance respectively.
𝑉 𝑉
𝑅𝑜 = 1 which represents no load losses , 𝑋𝑜 = 1 which represents flux
𝐼
𝑐 𝑚𝐼
The basic equivalent circuit is as shown in the figure 3.2

Figure 3.2 Basic Equivalent circuit.

𝐸2𝑟
𝐼2𝑟 =
√𝑅22 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2

As the load changes , speed changes corresponding slip value also changes. As slip changes the
reactance 𝑋2𝑟 changes there fore 𝑠𝑋2is represented as variable reactance.
Consider the rotor impedance

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𝑠𝐸2 𝑠𝐸2 𝐸2
𝐼2𝑟 = = =
𝑅 2 2
√𝑅22 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2 𝑠√( 2 ) +𝑋22 √(𝑅2 ) +𝑋22
𝑠 𝑠
Assuming equivalent rotor circuit under running condition had fixed reactance 𝑋2, fixed voltage 𝐸2
𝑅
but variable resistance 𝑠2
𝑅2 𝑅2 (1−𝑠)
Now = 𝑅2 + − 𝑅2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅2
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑅
The variable rotor resistance 𝑠2 has two parts
1) Rotor resistance 𝑅2 itself which represents copper loss.
(1−𝑠)
2) 𝑅2 𝑠 which represents load resistance 𝑅𝐿 .
Equivalent circuit of rotor circuit can be modified as shown figure 3.3

Figure 3.3 Rotor Equivalent circuit

Transfer all the rotor parameter to stator to write equivalent circuit referred to rotor.
𝐸 𝐸
K= 𝐸2 = Transformation ratio, 𝐸2′ = 𝐾2 , 𝐼2𝑟′
= 𝐾𝐼2
1
𝑋 𝑅
𝑋2′ = 𝐾22 = Rotor reactance referred to stator , 𝑅2′ = 𝐾22 = Rotor resistance referred to stator.
𝑅 𝑅 1−𝑠 1−𝑠
𝑅𝐿′ = 𝐾𝐿2 = 𝐾22 ( 𝑠 ) = 𝑅2′ ( 𝑠 )
Exact Equivalent circuit referred to stator can be as shown figure 4.4

Figure 3.4 Exact Equivalent circuit referred to stator

The Equivalent circuit further simplified by shifting no-load branch to the left of the stator
parameter. The approximate Equivalent circuit is as shown in figure 3.5 (a)

Figure 3.5(a) Approximate Equivalent circuit referred to stator (b) Simplified circuit
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The above circuit can be further simplified by combining stator and rotor resistances, similarly
stator and rotor reactance can be added together. The Simplified exact Equivalent circuit is as
shown in the figure 3.5(b)
𝑅 𝑋
𝑅1𝑒 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2′ = 𝑅1 + 𝐾22 and 𝑋1𝑒 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2′ = 𝑋1 + 𝐾22

NOTE:
1) Voltage equations: Refer Figure 4.4 exact equivalent circuit , Supply voltage 𝑉1
is the phasor sum of 𝐸1 and voltage drop across stator resistance and reactance
𝑉̅1 = −𝐸̅̅̅1 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐼1 𝑅1 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐼1 𝑋1
Similarly in the rotor circuit. ̅̅̅̅
𝐸2𝑟 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐼2𝑟 𝑅2 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐼2𝑟 𝑋2𝑟

2) Power Equations from Equivalent circuit

𝑃𝑖𝑛 =3𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜙
Stator core loss = 𝐼𝑐2 𝑅𝑜 , Stator copper loss =3𝐼12 𝑅1
′ )2 ′
Rotor copper loss 𝑃𝑐 = 3(𝐼2𝑟 𝑅2
′ ) 𝑅′ 2
3(𝐼2𝑟 2
Rotor input 𝑃2 = 𝑠
2
′ ) 𝑅′
3(𝐼2𝑟 2
Mechanical power developed 𝑃𝑚 = (1 − 𝑠)𝑃2 = (1 − 𝑠) 𝑠
2
3(𝐼′2𝑟 ) 𝑅′2
𝑃 (1−𝑠)
Torque developed T= 𝜔𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑁𝑠
𝑠

60
′ 𝑉1
Rotor current 𝐼2𝑟 =
2
√(𝑅1𝑒 +𝑅𝐿′ ) +(𝑋1𝑒 )2

3) In order to obtain the maximum power output according Maximum power transfer theorem
Load resistance must be equal to source impedance.
𝑅𝐿′ = 𝑍1𝑒 .
2𝜋𝑁
4) Synchronous watt: 1 𝑁 − 𝑚 = 60 𝑠 𝑆𝑦𝑛 − 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 or
60
1𝑆𝑦𝑛 − 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑁 𝑁 − 𝑚
𝑠

4.7 Phasor diagram of 3 phase Induction motor:

The phasor diagram of loaded induction motor is similar to
the loaded transformer
Let 𝜙 be the magnetic flux links with both primary and
secondary.
Stator voltage per phase 𝑉1 has to counter balance self
induced e.m.f 𝐸1 and has to supply voltage drops 𝐼1 𝑅1 and
𝐼1 𝑋1. So on stator side voltage equation is given by
𝑉̅1 = −𝐸̅̅̅1 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐼1 𝑅1 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐼1 𝑋1
Similarly in the rotor circuit rotor emf in the running
condition has to supply the drop across impedance as rotor is
short circuited.
∴ ̅̅̅̅
𝐸2𝑟 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐼2𝑟 𝑅2 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐼2𝑟 𝑋2𝑟 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐼2𝑟 𝑍2𝑟

The Induction motor draws no load current 𝐼𝑜 which is phasor

sum of 𝐼𝑐 and 𝐼𝑚 . The total stator current 𝐼1
𝐼̅1 = 𝐼̅0 + ̅̅̅̅
′
𝐼2𝑟
𝐼̅𝑜 = 𝐼̅𝑐 + ̅̅̅
𝐼𝑚 Figure 3.6 Phasor diagram
The phasor diagram is shown in the figure 3.6.
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4.7.1 Steps to draw the phasor diagram

1) Take flux 𝜙 as reference phasor .
′
2) Draw 𝐸1 and 𝐸2𝑟 lagging 𝜙 by 90𝑜 .
3) Show 𝐼2𝑟 lagging 𝐸2𝑟 by angle 𝜙2𝑟 .Show𝐼2𝑟 𝑅2 inphase with 𝐼2𝑟 and 𝐼2𝑟 𝑋2 leading the 𝐼2𝑟 by
90𝑜 .
′
4) Reverse 𝐸1 to get −𝐸1 , reverse 𝐼2𝑟 to 𝐼2𝑟 .
5) Represent 𝐼𝑚 in phase with 𝜙 , represent 𝐼𝑐 leading 𝜙 by an angle 90𝑜 .
6) Add phasor 𝐼𝑚 and 𝐼𝑐 to get 𝐼𝑜 .
′
7) Add phasor 𝐼𝑜 and 𝐼2𝑟 to get 𝐼1 .
8) Show 𝐼1 𝑅1 from the tip of −𝐸1 such that it is parallel to 𝐼1 . Show 𝐼1 𝑋1 from the tip of 𝐼1 𝑅1
such that it leading 𝐼1 by an angle90𝑜 .
9) Now join the origin to the tip of 𝐼1 𝑋1to get phasor 𝑉1.
10) Angle between 𝑉1 and 𝐼1 is 𝜙1 .

4.8 Circle Diagram:

For variable load conditions, the resistance changes and hence the current drawn by the
motor also changes. The locus diagram of such a current phasor is circular in nature and hence
called circle diagram.
A circle diagram is a graphical representation of the performance of an electrical machine.
It is commonly used to illustrate the performance of transformers, alternators, synchronous motors,
and induction motors. It is very useful to study the performance of an electric machine under a large
variety of operating conditions. Using this diagram all the performance characteristics of an
induction motor like power factor, efficiency, stator losses, rotor losses, maximum output,
maximum toque etc. can be predicted Thus circle diagram is graphical approach of predetermining
the operating characteristics of an induction motor.

No load and blocked rotor test is performed on 3 phase induction motor From here no load current
and the angle between voltage and current required for drawing circle diagram is calculated. The
angle will be large as in the no load condition induction motor has high inductive reactance. From
blocked rotor test, we need to calculate short circuit current and the lag angle between voltage and
current for drawing circle diagram. Also, we need rotor and stator copper loss.

4.9 No-Load and Blocked Rotor tests on Induction motor

4.9.1 No-Load test :
In this method motor is made to run at its rated speed without load by applying rated voltage
and frequency to stator circuit . With the help of the two wattmeters, the input power of the motor is
measured.
As the motor is on no load, the power factor is very low which is less than 0.5. The total power
input 𝑊𝑜 is the algebraic sum of the two wattmeter readings.T he observation table is

𝑽𝒐 volts 𝑰𝒐 volts 𝑾𝒐 = 𝑾𝟏 + 𝑾𝟐 (Algebraic

Sl.No
Rated Line voltage No load current sum) in watts

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Figure 3.7 Circuit diagram for No-load and Blocked Rotor test
Calculations are
𝑾𝒐
∴ cos 𝜙𝑜 =
√3 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜
−1 𝑾
∴ 𝜙0 = cos ( 𝑉𝒐 𝐼 )
√3 𝑜 𝑜
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑜 cos 𝜙𝑜 = Active component/core loss component of no load current
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜙0 = Magnetizing component / wattles component of no load current
𝑉𝑜 𝑉
No load resistance 𝑅𝑜 = , No load reactance 𝑋𝑜 = 𝐼 𝑜
𝐼𝑐 𝑚

The power input Wo consists of stator core loss/stator iron loss and friction and windage losses
Since rotor current is small and hence rotor copper loss is negligible. Rotor frequency is small ,
rotor iron losses are proportional to this frequency hence these losses are neglected. Therefore under
no load condition power input 𝑊𝑜 gives power spent for constant losses
∴ 𝐖𝐨 = 𝐍𝐨 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭
∴ 𝐖𝐨 = 𝐅𝐢𝐱𝐞𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬
4.9.2 Blocked Rotor test
1−𝑠
In this test, the rotor is blocked and it is not allowed to rotate. Since N=0, s= 1 and 𝑅𝐿′ = 𝑅2′ ( 𝑠 )
becomes zero. If the motor is slip ring induction motor then the windings are shortcircuited. A low
voltage 3-phase supply (obtained from a 3-phase auto-transformer) is applied to the stator. So that
full load current flows through the stator winding. The power input is measured by the two
wattmeters. The short circuit current, short circuit voltage and short circuit power is tabulated and
short circuit current corresponding to the rated voltage can be calculated by direct proportion.
𝑽𝒔𝒄 volts 𝑰𝒔𝒄 volts 𝑾𝒔𝒄 = 𝑾𝟏 + 𝑾𝟐 (Algebraic
Sl.No
Rated Line voltage Short circuit current sum) in watts

Calculations are
𝒔𝒄
∴ cos 𝜙𝑠𝑐 = 𝑉 𝐼
√3 𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑐
−1 𝑾
∴ 𝜙0 = cos ( 𝑉 𝒔𝒄𝐼 )
√3 𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑐
𝑊𝑠𝑐
The equivalent resistance 𝑅1𝑒 = 3(𝐼𝑠𝑐 )2
𝑉𝑠𝑐
The Equivalent impedance referred to stator 𝑍1𝑒 = ∴
𝐼𝑠𝑐
2 2
Equivalent reactance referred to stato𝑟 𝑋1𝑒 = √𝑍1𝑒 − 𝑅1𝑒
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During this test full load rated current flows through the stator circuit, hence stator copper loss is
also dominant. Similarly the rotor also carries short circuit current to produce dominant rotor copper
loss. There fore at short circuit condition power input 𝑊𝑠𝑐 gives copper losses of the motor.
𝐖𝐬𝐜 = 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 + 𝐑𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬
But it is necessary to obtain short circuit current when normal voltage is applied and it determined
as below
𝑉
𝐼𝑆𝑁 = (𝑉 𝐿 ) × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = Short circuit current at normal voltage.
𝑠𝑐
Power input is proportional to square of the current, this can be obtained as
𝐼 2
𝑊𝑆𝑁 = ( 𝐼𝑆𝑁 ) × 𝑊𝑠𝑐 = Short circuit input power at normal voltage.
𝑠𝑐

4.10 Construction of the Circle Diagram

By using No load and Blocked rotor test, the circle diagram can be drawn using the following steps:
Step 1: Take reference Phasor V as vertical (Y – axis)
Step 2: Select suitable current scale such that diameter of the circle is about 20 to 30 cm.
Step 3: From No load test, 𝐼𝑜 and 𝜙𝑜 , are obtained. Draw vector 𝐼𝑜 , lagging 𝑉𝑝ℎ , by an angle 𝜙𝑜 ,
This is line 𝑂𝑂′ as shown in the figure 8.6
Step 4: Draw the horizontal line through extremity of IO i.e. 𝑂′ , parallel to horizontal axis.
Step 5: Draw the current ISN Calculated form Isc with the same scale, lagging 𝑉𝑝ℎ by an angle 𝜙𝑠𝑐 ,
from the origin O. This is Phasor OA as shown in the figure 3.8
Step 6: Join . the line 𝑂′ 𝐴 is called output line.
Step 7: Draw a perpendicular bisector of 𝑂′ 𝐴. Extend it to meet base line at point C. This is the
centre of the circle.
Step 8: Draw the circle, with C as a centre and radius equal to𝑂′ 𝐶 This meets the horizontal line
drawn from 𝑂′ at B as shown in the figure 3.8
Step 9: Draw the perpendicular from point A on the horizontal axis, to meet base line at point F and
meet horizontal axis at D.
Step 10: To draw the torque line assume Stator copper loss= Rotor copper loss.
The torque line separates stator and rotor copper losses.
FD= Fixed losses
AF= Stator copper loss + Rotor copper loss
𝐴𝐸 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
= 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐸𝐹
Mark point E on the line AF as per the ration. Join 𝑂′ 𝐸 this line is torque line show in the
figure.3.8
Step 11: Power scale : As AD represents WSN i.e. power output on short circuits at normal voltage,
the power scale can be obtained as,
𝐼 2
WSN=( 𝐼𝑆𝑁 ) 𝑋 𝑊𝑆𝐶 =………….. Watts
𝑆𝐶
𝑆𝑁 𝑊
Power Scale = 𝑙(𝐴𝐷) = ………. W/cm.
4.10.1 Predicting performance from the circle diagram
Let motor is running by taking a current OP as shown in the figure 3.8. Then the various
performance parameter can be obtained from the circle diagram at that load condition.
Using the power scale and various distances, the values of the performance can be obtained as
1) Total motor input =l(PT) x Power Scale = ………….W
2) Fixed loss = l(ST) x Power Scale = ………….W
3) Stator copper loss = l(SR) x Power Scale = ………….W
4) Rotor copper loss =l(QR) x Power Scale == ………….W
5) Total loss = l(QT) x Power scale =………….W
6) Rotor output =l(PQ) x Power scale =………….W
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7) Rotor input =l(PR) x Power scale == ………….W

8) Slip s =𝑙(𝑄𝑅)𝑙(𝑃𝑅)
9) Power factor cosϕ = 𝑙(𝑃𝑇)𝑙(𝑂𝑃)
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑄
10) Motor efficiency = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑇
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑄
11) Rotor Efficiency = =
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑅

4.10.2 Full Load condition :

The full load motor output is given on the name plates in watte or h.p. Calculate the distance
corresponding to the full load output using the power scale. Then extend AD upwards from A
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
onwards, distance 𝐴𝐴′ = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 . Draw parallel to the output line 𝑂′ 𝐴 from 𝐴′ to the circle at
point P. This is the point corresponding to full load as shown in figure 3.8.
Full load current = l(OP) X Current scale.
Full load power factor = cos(∠𝑂𝑃𝑇)

4.10.3 Maximum Quantities

1) Maximum output: Draw a tangent to the circle parallel to 𝑂′ 𝐴, name that point as M. Draw a
perpendicular line from M to output line N.
Maximum power output = l(MN) X power scale
2)Maximum torque: Draw another tangent to the circle parallel to torque line 𝑂′ 𝐸 and name that
point as J. Draw a perpendicular line from J to torque line such that it meets at K.
Maximum Torque =l(JK) X Power scale
3)Maximum power factor = cos(∠𝑂𝐻𝐼)
4) Maximum input : It occurs at the highest point on the circle .i.e at pint L.
(l𝐿𝐿′ ) 𝑋 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒.
5)Starting torque: 𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 𝑙(𝐴𝐸)𝑋 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

Figure 3.8 : Circle diagram

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4.11 Harmonics:
• The presence of harmonics in electrical systems means that current and voltage are distorted
and deviate from sinusoidal waveforms.
• In an electric power system, a harmonic of a voltage or current waveform is a sinusoidal
wave whose frequency is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency.
• Harmonic frequencies are produced by the action of non-linear loads such as rectifiers,
discharge lighting or saturated electric machines. They are a frequent cause of power
quality problems and can result in increased equipment and conductor heating, misfiring in
variable speed drives and torque pulsations in motors and generators.

4.11.1 Effect of Harmonics of Induction Motor

• Induction motor performance is affected by the harmonics in the time variation of the
impressed voltage.
• The torque-slip characteristics as shown in Figure 3.9 is obtained when the space
distribution of flux wave along the air gap periphery is sinusoidal.
• But the air gap flux is not purely sinusoidal as it contains odd harmonics (5th, 7th, 11th etc).
• Hence at low speeds, the torque-slip characteristic is not smooth. The distribution of stator
winding and variation of air gap reluctance due to stator and rotor slots are main causes of
air gap flux harmonics.
• The harmonics caused due to variation of air gap reluctance are called tooth or slot
harmonics. Due to these harmonics produced in air gap flux, unwanted torque are developed
along with vibration and noise.
• Each space harmonic can be considered to produces its own asynchronous torque. The
induction motor can be considered as equivalent to number of induction motors in series
having poles equal to number of harmonics multiplied by number of poles. The torque
produced by fundamental component and the harmonic are shown in the Figure 3.9.

4.11.3 Crawling: Sometimes, squirrel cage induction motors exhibits a tendency to run at very
slow speeds (as low as one-seventh of their synchronous speed). This phenomenon is called
as crawling of an induction motor.

Figure 3.9 : Effects of Harmonics on torque slip characteristics

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• This action is due to the fact that, flux wave produced by a stator winding is not purely sine
wave. Instead, it is a complex wave consisting a fundamental wave and odd harmonics like 3rd,
5th, 7th etc. The fundamental wave revolves synchronously at synchronous speed Ns whereas
3rd, 5th, 7th harmonics may rotate in forward or backward direction at Ns/3, Ns/5, Ns/7 speeds
respectively. Hence, harmonic torques are also developed in addition with fundamental torque.

• Due to crawling, there is much higher stator current accompanied by noise and vibration. The
torque obtained from induction motor here is called synchronous torque.

• When two harmonic fluxes of same order one because of stator and the rotor because of rotor
interact with each other at one particular speed and produces harmonic synchronous torque just
like that produced in synchronous motor. These torques are caused by tooth harmonics. The
stable operation at synchronous speed caused by slot harmonics is called synchronous crawling
which is associated with vibration and noise.

4.11.4 Cogging (Magnetic Locking Or Teeth Locking):

• Sometimes, the rotor of a squirrel cage induction motor refuses to start at all, particularly if the
supply voltage is low. This happens especially when number of rotor teeth is equal to number of
stator teeth, because of magnetic locking between the stator teeth and the rotor teeth. When the
rotor teeth and stator teeth face each other, the reluctance of the magnetic path is minimum, that
is why the rotor tends to remain fixed. This characteristic of the induction motor is called
cogging or magnetic locking of induction motor.
• Apart from this, there is one more reason for cogging. If the harmonic frequencies coincide with
the slot frequency due to the harmonics present in the supply voltage then it causes torque
modulation. As a result, of it cogging occurs. This characteristic is also known as magnetic teeth
locking of the induction motor

4.12 Special type of rotor construction

• In case of squirrel cage induction motor there is no provision made for adding external
resistance. If the resistance is designed in such a way that it gives better running performance
then it has high starting current and consequently low starting torque. This is the major
disadvantage of squirrel cage induction motor.
• In squirrel cage induction motor high starting torque can be obtained by the use of deep bar or
double cage rotors.
• Both these types make use of “skin effect” in which distribution of current is not uniform but the
alternating current has the tendency to concentrate near the surface of the conductor.
• Due to this effective area of cross section of the the conductor is reduced and hence resistance of
the conductor is increased when carrying the alternating Current.
• The skin effect depends on nature of material, diameter of wire, shape and frequency. Due to
skin effect, it is possible to achieve high resistance during starting and low resistance during
running.

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4.12.1 Deep bar rotor construction

Figure 3.9 Deep Bar Rotor construction

• There is no constructional difference between stator of deep bar rotor motor and that of ordinary
induction motor.
• The rotor consists of deep bars, short circuited by two end rings one on each side. The magnetic
leakage flux lines are shown by dotted lines.
• The leakage inductance of the bottom strip is greater than that of top strip as more flux links with
bottom strips compared to top strip.
• During the starting, the rotor frequency is equal to the stator frequency and hence leakage
reactance of bottom strip is largest and current in it is least.
• The top strip has low leakage reactance and current in it is large. Thus, the current in low
reactance top strip will be greater than that in high leakage reactance lower strip will lead that of
the current in lower one.
• Thus, there is non-uniform distribution of current which is shown in the figure that is Skin effect.
• Due to skin effect Effective cross-sectional decreases. Rotor resistance increases resulting in
High starting torque.
• As leakage reactance is proportional to frequency The non-uniform distribution of current
depends upon the rotor frequency.
• Thus with the help of deep bar rotor Starting performance (Torque) of Induction machine has
improved.
• The net reactance of deep bar rotor at standstill is higher than that in a normal bar design ⇒
Hence breakdown or pull out torque in deep bar rotor is lower.

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Figure 3.10 Torque slip characteristics of Deep bar rotor

4.12.2 Double Cage Rotor Construction

Figure 3.11 Double cage rotor

• The double cage induction motor has two cages in the rotor circuit used for increasing the
starting torque. The rotor of the squirrel cage induction motor has two winding in the rotor.
• The outer cage has the rotor bars of high resistance and low reactance. The inner cage has rotor
bars of low resistance and high reactance. Each rotor bars are short circuited by the end rings.
• The outer cage bars are made high resistivity materials like aluminum, brass or bronze etc. The
cross section area of outer cage bars is less as compared to the cross section area of the inner
cage bars. Therefore, the outer cage bars have more resistance than the innner cage bars.
• When a double cage induction motor is switched on, the most of the current flows through the
outer cage bars and as the outer cage bars offers low impedance the torque of the motor
improves.
• The resistance of the outer cage bars is about 5-6 times of the resistance of the inner cage bars.
Therefore, the deep bar double cage induction motor produce more starting torque.
• At start, the frequency of the rotor induced voltage is equal to the stator frequency. The high
frequency rotor current tends to flow through the outer cage bars due to skin effect and due to
low leakage reactance .
• The inner cage bars have more reactance than the outer cage bars reactance. The conductor
arrangement in inner and outer cage of the rotor is as shown below.
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• At start, the outer cage bars produce more torque than the inner cage bars. If the torque produced
by inner and outer cage bars are added , the total torque produced by double cage motor is much
more than the torque produced by single cage motor.
• With an acceleration of the motor the impedance of the inner cage bars starts decreasing and the
motor current starts shifting from outer cage bars to inner cage bars. The division of the current
in the outer cage and inner cage bars is inversely proportional to their leakage impedance. The
motor almost behaves as a single cage motor when motor attains its full rated speed. The
equivalent circuit of the deep bar double cage induction motor is as given below.

Figure 3.12 (a)Equivalent circuit of double cage rotor (b) torque slip characteristic

4.12.3 Difference between Single cage and double cage rotor

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4.13 Induction Generator

• To run induction motor as induction generator, its slip must be less than zero (negative), which
means rotor is running at the speed above the synchronous speed.
• An induction generator is an alternator that uses an air gap rotating magnetic field between the
stator and the rotor to interact with an induced current in the rotor winding.
• They are commonly known as asynchronous generators. Speed is slightly higher than
synchronous speed. Output power increases or decreases with slip rate. It can be excited by the
powers grid or self-excited with a powers capacitor.

Figure 3.13 Induction generator.

4.13.2 Working of Induction Generator

• Step 1. Consider, an AC supply is connected to the stator terminals of an induction machine. The
rotating magnetic field produced in the stator pulls the rotor to run behind it(in this phase, the
machine is acting as a motor).

• Step 2. Now, if the rotor is accelerated to the synchronous speed using one of the prime movers
we mentioned above, the slip will be zero and hence the net torque will be zero. The rotor current
will become zero when the rotor is running at synchronous speed.

• Step 3. If the rotor is made to rotate at a speed more than the synchronous speed, the slip
becomes negative. A rotor current is generated in the opposite direction, due to the rotor conductors
cutting stator magnetic field.

• Step 4. In the last step, this generated rotor current produces a rotating magnetic field in the rotor
that forces in the opposite way to the stator field. This causes a stator voltage which pushes current
flowing out of the stator winding against the applied voltage. Thus, the machine is now working as
an induction generator or as it is usually known an asynchronous generator.

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4.13.3 Types of Induction Generators:

1)Externally Excited Induction Generator
2)Self Excited Induction generator.
4.13.4 Self Excited Induction Generator: This type of generator is also known as a isolated type
of generator It is because it uses a capacitor bank which is connected across its stator terminals as
shown in the diagram given below.
The function of the capacitor bank is to provide the lagging reactive power to the induction
generator as well as load. So mathematically we can write total reactive power provided by the
capacitor bank is equals to the summation of the reactive power consumed by the induction
generator as well as the load.

Figure 3.14 Self Excited Induction generator

There is generation of small terminal voltage oa (as in figure given below) across the stator terminal
due the residual magnetism when the rotor of the induction machine runs at the required speed. Due
to this voltage ‘oa’ the capacitor current ob is produced. The current ‘bc’ sends current od which
generates the voltage ‘de’.

Figure 3.15 Generation of voltage in Self Excited Induction generator

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4.13.4 Application of Induction Generator

• Externally excited generators are widely used for regenerative breaking of hoists driven by
the three phase induction motors.
• Self-excited generators are used in the wind mills. Thus this type of generator helps in
converting the unconventional sources of energy into electrical energy.
Now let us discuss some disadvantages of externally excited generator:
• The efficiency of the externally excited generator is not so good.
• We cannot use externally excited generator at lagging power factor which major drawback
of this type of generator.
• The amount of reactive power used to run these types of generator required is quite large.

4.13.5 Advantages of Induction Generators

• It has robust construction requiring less maintenance
• Relatively cheaper
• Small size per kW output power (i.e. high energy density)
• It runs in parallel without hunting
• No synchronization to the supply line is required like a synchronous generator

4.13.5 Disadvantages of Induction Generators :It cannot generate reactive voltamperes. It

requires reactive voltamperes from the supply line to furnish its excitation

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