AC MOTORS

AC motors are much more in application in Industry than the D.C motors because they are cheaper, rugged,
reliable and maintenance free.

Types of AC motors
There are two fundamental types of AC motor depending on the type of rotor used.
1. The induction motor, in which the rotor turns slightly slower than rotating magnetic field, and
typically (though not necessarily always) takes the form of the squirrel cage motor.
2. The synchronous motor, which rotates exactly at the supply frequency or a submultiple of the
supply frequency (rotating magnetic field)

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

In a three-phase induction motor, the magnetic field rotates and this has the advantage that no external
electrical connections to the rotor need be made. Its name is derived from the fact that the current in the
rotor is induced by the magnetic field instead of being supplied through electrical connections to the supply.
The result is a motor which:
(i) is cheap and robust,
(ii) is explosion proof, due to the absence of a commutator or slip-rings and brushes with their
associated sparking,
(iii) requires little or no skilled maintenance, and
(iv) has self-starting properties when switched to a supply with no additional expenditure on
auxiliary equipment.
The principal disadvantage of a three-phase induction motor is that its speed cannot be readily adjusted.

Construction of a three-phase induction motor

A typical AC motor consists of two parts: The stator of a three-phase induction motor is the stationary part
machine. It is wound to give a rotating magnetic field, depending on the rotor speed required. The rotor is
the rotating part corresponding to the armature of a DC Motor. The rotor attached to the output shaft that
is given a torque by the rotating field.

Types of three phase Induction Motor

a) Squirrel-cage rotor.

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The windings are simply conducting (copper or aluminium) bars embedded in the slots of rotor and short-
circuited at each end by conducting end rings. The conductors are placed in slots in the laminated iron rotor
core. If the slots are skewed, better starting and quieter running is achieved.

The advantages of squirrel-cage motors compared with the wound rotor type are that they:
(i) are cheaper and more robust
(ii) have slightly higher efficiency and power factor
(iii) are explosion-proof, since the risk of sparking is eliminated by the absence of slip rings and
brushes.
b) Slip ring (wound) rotor.
In the wound rotor, windings similar to those of the stator are employed with terminals connected to
insulated slip rings mounted on the shaft. The rotor terminals are made available through carbon brushes
bearing on the slip rings.

The advantages of the wound rotor motor compared with the cage type are that they:
(i) have a much higher starting torque
(ii) have a much lower starting current
(iii) have a means of varying speed by use of external rotor resistance.

Principle of operation of a three-phase induction motor

When a three-phase supply is connected to the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field is produced. As
the magnetic flux cuts a bar (conductor) on the rotor, an e.m.f. is induced in it and since the bar is short
circuited, a current flows in the bars. The magnetic field associated with this current flowing in the bars
interacts with the rotating magnetic field and a force is produced, tending to turn the rotor in the same
direction as the rotating magnetic field. Similar forces are applied to all the conductors on the rotor, so that
a torque is produced causing the rotor to rotate. The rotor speed is should slightly lower than the speed of
rotating magnetic field (synchronous speed).

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Slip
The rotor rotated such that the synchronous speed (ns) is greater than the rotor speed (nr) by a speed called
slip speed.(𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 ). Thus;
𝒏𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒑 = 𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒗/𝒔

When there is no load on the rotor, the resistive forces due to windage and bearing friction are small and
the rotor runs very nearly at synchronous speed. As the rotor is loaded, the speed falls and the slip speed
increases.
Slip speed expressed as a fraction of the synchronous speed is called slip, s.
𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛 𝑟
𝑠=
𝑛𝑠

Typical values of slip between no load and full load are about 4 to 5% for small motors and 1.5 to 2% for
large motors.

Examples

1. The stator of a 3-phase, 4-pole induction motor is connected to a 50 Hz supply. The rotor runs at 1455
rev/min at full load. Determine (a) the synchronous speed and (b) the slip at full load.

2. A 3-phase, 60 Hz induction motor has 2 poles. If the slip is 2% at a certain load, determine (a) the
synchronous speed, (b) the speed of the rotor and (c) the frequency of the induced e.m.f.’s in the rotor.

(c) Since the synchronous speed is 60 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠 and that of the rotor is 58.8 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠, the rotating magnetic
field cuts the rotor bars at (60 − 58.8) = 1.2 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠. Thus the frequency of the e.m.f. induced
in the rotor bars is 1.2 𝐻𝑧.
Rotor e.m.f and frequency.

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When an induction motor is stationary, the stator and rotor windings form the equivalent of a transformer.
Thus, rotor e.m.f (E2) is given by;
𝑵𝟐
𝑬𝟐 = ( )𝑬
𝑵𝟏 𝟏
Where 𝑬𝟏 is the supply voltage to the motor.
When an induction motor is running, the induced e.m.f. in the rotor is less since the relative movement
between conductors and the rotating field is less. The induced e.m.f. is proportional to this movement, hence
it must be proportional to the slip, s. Hence, the rotor e.m.f (𝑬𝒓 ) per phase when running is;
𝑵𝟐
𝑬𝒓 = 𝒔𝑬𝟐 = 𝒔 ( )𝑬
𝑵𝟏 𝟏
The frequency of the rotor e.m.f is given by:
(𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 )
𝒇𝒓 = (𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 )𝒑 = 𝒏𝒔 𝒑 = 𝒔𝒇
𝒏𝒔
Activity
The frequency of the supply to the stator of an 8-pole induction motor is 50 Hz and the rotor frequency is
3 Hz. Determine (a) the slip, and (b) the rotor speed. [0.06/6%, 11.75rev/s]
Rotor impedance and current
The rotor resistance R2 is unaffected by frequency or slip, and hence remains constant. However, at stand
still, reactance per phase is given by;
𝑿𝟐 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳
but while running with slip, s, it is given by;
𝑿𝒓 = 𝒔𝑿𝟐

Rotor impedance per phase is given by; 𝒁𝒓 = √[𝑹𝟐𝟐 + (𝒔𝑿𝟐 )𝟐 ] and the rotor current when running is;

Rotor copper loss

Power 𝑷 = 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝑻 where T is the torque in newton metres, hence torque if P2 is the power input to the
rotor from the rotating field, and Pm is the mechanical power output (including friction losses) is given by;
𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝒎
𝑻= =
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒓
𝟐
Hence; slip, 𝒔 =
𝐫𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬
𝐫𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭
= 𝑰𝒓𝑷𝑹𝟐
𝟐

Induction motor losses and efficiency

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑚
Motor efficiency; 𝜂 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
× 100% = 𝑃1
× 100%

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Torque equation of an induction motor

The torque will be a maximum when the denominator is a minimum and this occurs when
𝑹𝟐 = 𝒔𝑿𝟐
Example
A 415 V, three-phase, 50 Hz, 4 pole, star-connected induction motor runs at 24 rev/s on full load. The
rotor resistance and reactance per phase are 0.35 and 3.5 respectively, and the effective rotor-stator turns
ratio is 0.85:1.
(a) Calculate the synchronous speed
(b) Determine the slip.
(c) Calculate the full load torque,
(d) Determine the power output if mechanical losses amount to 770 W,
(e) Find the maximum torque
(f) the speed at which maximum torque occurs,
(g) Calculate the starting torque.
(h) Determine at full load,
(i) the rotor current,
(ii) the rotor copper loss, and
(iii) the starting current.
(i) If the stator losses are 650 W, determine l
(i) the power input at full load,
(ii) the efficiency of the motor at full load and
(iii) the current taken from the supply at full load, if the motor runs at a power factor of 0.87
lagging.

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Solution

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h(i)

(ii)

(iii)

I (i)

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 (ii)

(iii)

Starting methods for induction motors

(i) Direct-on-line starting; With this method, starting current is high and may cause interference
with supplies to other consumers.
(ii) Auto transformer starting. With this method, an auto transformer is used to reduce the stator
voltage, E1, and thus the starting current. However, the starting torque is seriously reduced, so
the voltage is reduced only sufficiently to give the required reduction of the starting current.
(iii) Star-delta starting
With this method, for starting, the connections to the stator phase winding are star-connected,
so that the voltage across each phase winding is 1⁄√3 of the line voltage. For running, the
windings are switched to delta-connection. This method of starting is less expensive than by
auto transformer.

Uses of three-phase induction motors

Three-phase induction motors are widely used in industry and constitute almost all industrial drives where
a nearly constant speed is required, from small workshops to the largest industrial enterprises.
Typical applications are with machine tools, pumps and mill motors. The squirrel cage rotor type is the
most widely used of all AC motors.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor in which, at steady state, the rotation of the shaft is
synchronized with the frequency of the supply current; the rotation period is exactly equal to an integral
number of AC cycles.

Construction
It has the stator which is a field winding where the 3-phase power is supplied. It has a wound rotor. The
rotor is connected to a DC power source.

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Main Features of Synchronous Motors
(i) Synchronous motors are inherently not self-starting. They require some external means to bring
their speed close to synchronous speed to before they are synchronized.
(ii) The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply frequency.
(iii) This motor operates under any electrical power factor. This makes it being used in electrical
power factor improvement.

Principle of operation of a Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motors are a doubly excited machine, i.e., two electrical inputs are provided to it. Three-phase
supply to three-phase stator winding, and DC to the rotor winding. The 3-phase stator winding produces 3
phase rotating magnetic flux. The rotor carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux.
Mechanical means are initially used to rotate the rotor in the same direction as the magnetic field to speed
very close to synchronous speed. On achieving synchronous speed, magnetic locking occurs, and the
synchronous motor continues to rotate even after removal of external mechanical means.
Speed of the synchronous motor is controlled by the frequency of the applied current.

Methods of Starting a Synchronous Motor

(i) External prime Mover:
Synchronous motors are mechanically coupled with another motor. It could be either 3 phase
induction motor or DC shunt motor. Here, the prime mover rotates the rotor at speed very close

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 to its synchronous speed, and then a DC excitation is given to the rotor. After some time when
magnetic locking takes place supply to the external motor is cut off.
(ii) DC Machine
It is similar to above method with a slight difference between the two. A DC machine is coupled
to the synchronous motor. The DC machine works like a DC motor initially and brings the
synchronous motor to synchronous speed. Once it achieves the synchronous speed, the DC
machine works like a DC generator and supplies DC to the rotor of the synchronous motor.
This method offers easy starting and better efficiency than the earlier method.
(iii) Damper winding;
In this case, additional winding is placed in rotor pole face. Initially, when the rotor is not
rotating, the relative speed between damper winding and rotating air gap flux is large and an
e.m.f is induced in it which produces the required starting torque. As speed approaches
synchronous speed, e.m.f and torque are reduced and finally when magnetic locking takes
place; torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case synchronous motor first runs as three
phase induction motor using additional winding and finally it is synchronized with the
frequency.

Application of Synchronous Motors

Three-phase synchronous motors find their major application in industrial situations where there
is a large, reasonably steady mechanical load, usually in excess of 300 kilowatts, and where the
ability to operate at leading power factor is of value.

(i) Power factor improvement; Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used
for power factor improvement. Owing to its characteristics to behave at any electrical power
factor, it is used in power system in situations where static capacitors are expensive.
(ii) Synchronous motor finds application where operating speed is less (around 500 rpm) and high
power is required. For power requirement from 35 kW to 2500 KW, the size, weight and cost
of the corresponding three phase induction motor is very high. Hence these motors are
preferably used. Ex- Reciprocating pump, compressor, rolling mills etc.

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