Department of Applied Physics

UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY, MOHALI
Rotating Electrical Machines
 Characteristics of DC Motor
 Motor is machine which convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
 Now the important charcterisatics of dc motor are:
(1) Torque/ Armature current ( T / Ia )
(2) Speed / Armature current ( N / Ia )
(3) Speed / Torque ( N / T )
 These characteristics are determined by keeping the following two
relations in mind.
Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia and N ∝ Eb/ɸ
 Characteristics of DC Series motor

a) Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)

This characteristic is also known as electrical
characteristic.
In series motor
T α ØIa
Ø α Ia
T α Ia2.
After saturation flux is constant
so T α Ia
Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia and Fig: Dc Series Motor
after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes a straight line.
)

b) Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N ∝ Eb/ɸ
For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small and it may be
neglected. 
Eb is constant
Φ α Ia
So, N α 1/ Ia
Therefore, when armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a series motor
C)should
SpeedneverVs. Torque
be started without(N-Ta)
some mechanical load.

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic.

N α Eb/Φ
Eb is constant
T α Φ Ia, so,
N α 1/T
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor

In case of DC shunt motors,

we can assume the field flux ɸ
to be constant.
Though at heavy loads, ɸ
decreases in a small amount
due to increased 
armature reaction.

Fig: DC Shunt Motor

a) Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
T α Φ Ia
where, Φ is constant
so, T α Ia ,
which gives straight line in practically.
Since heavy starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt motor should never be started on a heavy load.

b) Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

N α Eb/Φ
Φ is constant,
But practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. Back emf Eb decreases slightly more than ɸ,
therefore, the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load speed.
Therefore, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor.
C) Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)
N = Eb / Φ
In dc Motor Ta α Ia (Φ constant )
So if ( Ia ↑ ) then the ( Ta ↑ ) hence ( Eb ↓ )
so speed N will slightly decrease
 Characteristics Of DC Compound Motor
 A compound motor has both shunt and series field winding .The shunt field winding always
stronger then series field winding.

Two types of the compound motor

(1) Cumulative compound motor
( current direction is same in series and
shunt)
(2) Differentially compound motor
( current is in opposite direction in
series and shunt winding)
a) Cumulative compound motor
• In this series and shunt both characteristics are required
• The load is likely to be removed completely.
• Series winding takes care of the heavy load.
• The shunt winding prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed.
• These motors have generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads are applied like in rolling mills.

b) Differentially compound motor

•Series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with increase in load. 
•Thus the machine runs at a higher speed with increase in the load.
•This property is dangerous as on full load, the motor may try to run with dangerously high speed.
•So differential compound motor is generally not used in practice. 
 Induction Motors
Introduction

• Most common and frequently encountered machines in industry

• Simple design
• Rugged
• Low-price
• Easy maintenance
• Wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW run
essentially as constant speed from no-load to full load
 Construction

An induction motor has two main parts

a) Stationary stator
- consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow, cylindrical core
- core, constructed from stacked laminations (why?), having a number of evenly spaced slots, providing the
space for winding.

b) Revolving rotor
- composed of punched laminations, stacked to create a series of rotor slots, providing space for the rotor
winding.
- two types of rotor windings
Two basic design types depending on the rotor design

• Squirrel-Cage: Conducting bars laid into slots and shorted at

both ends by shorting rings.
• Wound-Rotor: Complete set of three-phase windings exactly as
the stator. Usually Y-connected, the ends of the three rotor wires
are connected to 3 slip rings on the rotor shaft. In this way, the
rotor circuit is accessible
 Squirrel cage rotor

Wound rotor

Notice the
slip rings
Slip rings

Cutaway in a typical wound-rotor

IM. Notice the brushes and the
slip rings

Brushes
 Principle of Operation
• This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced voltage
in the rotor windings
• Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both squirrel cage and
wound-rotor, and induced current flows in the rotor windings
• The rotor current produces another magnetic field
• A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic fields

 ind  kBR  Bs

Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic flux densities of the
rotor and the stator respectively
 Induction Motor Speed
o At what speed will the IM run?
Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?

• If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is the same speed of the rotating
magnetic field, then the rotor will appear stationary to the rotating magnetic field
and the rotating magnetic field will not cut the rotor. So, no induced current will
flow in the rotor and no rotor magnetic flux will be produced so no torque is
generated and the rotor speed will fall below the synchronous speed
• When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will cut the rotor windings and a
torque is produced
 Induction Motor Speed
• So, the IM will always run at a speed lower than the synchronous speed
• The difference between the motor speed and the synchronous speed is
called the Slip
nslip  nsync  nm

Where nslip= slip speed

nsync= speed of the magnetic field
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor
 The Slip

Where s is the slip

Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above eq. by 100, notice that the
slip is a ratio and doesn’t have units
 Frequency
• The frequency of the voltage induced in the rotor is given by
Pn
fr 
120
Where fr = the rotor frequency (Hz)
P = number of stator poles
n = slip speed (rpm)
P  (ns  nm )
fr 
120
P  sns
  sf e
120
 Frequency
• What would be the frequency of the rotor’s induced voltage at any speed
nm?
fr  s fe
• When the rotor is blocked (s=1) , the frequency of the induced voltage is
equal to the supply frequency
• On the other hand, if the rotor runs at synchronous speed (s = 0), the
frequency will be zero
 Torque
• While the input to the induction motor is electrical power, its output is mechanical
power and for that we should know some terms and quantities related to mechanical
power

• Any mechanical load applied to the motor shaft will introduce a Torque on the motor
shaft. This torque is related to the motor output power and the rotor speed

Pout 2 nm
 load  N .m m  rad / s
m and 60
 Brushed DC Motor
Brush DC Motor is to determine your maximum required speed. Brush DC Motor only if
max speeds exceed 1000 RPM.

Basic Motor Components

1. Stator
2. Rotor / Armature
3. Brushes
4. Commutator

Fig: Brushed DC Motor

 Stator

Generates a stationary magnetic field that surrounds the rotor, this field is generated
by either: N S permanent magnets or electromagnetic winding
Electromagnetic Winding
Permanent Magnets

N S
 Rotor
- Rotating device in an electric motor
- The rotor, also known as the armature.
- Armature winding is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. 

Fig: Armature Fig: Armature with winding

 Brushes and Commutator

Brush – Mechanism that

conducts current in between
moving parts and stationary
wires. 

Commutator – Mechanism
which reverses the direction of
current in certain electric motors. 

Fig: Brushes and Commutator

Brushed DC Motor
 Advantages and Disadvantages of a
Brush DC Motor
Advantages - Brush DC Motor
The DC Brush Motor is one of the earliest of all electrical motor designs. It is usually the motor of choice for the
majority of torque control and variable speed applications. The following discusses the advantages and disadvantages
of using a Brush DC Motor in machinery and automated processes.
1. Low overall construction costs;
2. Can often be rebuilt to extend life;
3. Simple and inexpensive controller;
4. Controller not needed for fixed speed;
5. Ideal for extreme operating environments.

Disadvantages - Brush DC Motor

6. A Brush DC Motor is less reliable in control at lowest speeds
7. A Brush DC Motor is physically larger than other motors producing equivalent torque
8. A Brush DC Motor is considered high-maintenance, which is not true of brushless DC motors
9. A Brush DC Motor are vulnerable to dust which decreases performance
 Geared Motor
- A "gear motor" may be an AC or DC
 motor coupled with a gearbox.
- It is designed to produce
- high torque
- maintaining a low horsepower
- low speed 
 Principle of Operation
of Geared Motor

•Most gear motors have an output of between about 1,200 to 3,600 revolutions per minute (RPMs).
•Gear motors are primarily used to reduce speed in a series of gears, which in turn creates more torque. 
•the longer the train of reduction gears, the lower the output of the end, or final, gear will be.

“An excellent example of this principle would be an electric time clock (the type that uses hour, minute
and second hands). The synchronous AC motor that is used to power the time clock will usually spin the rotor at
around 1500 revolutions per minute. However, a series of reduction gears is used to slow the movement of the
hands on the clock.”
 Goal & Applications
First Goal:
To reduce the rotating shaft speed of a motor in the device being driven  
Application: Small electric clock

Second Goal:
To use a small motor to generate a very large force albeit at a low speed. 
Application:  Lifting mechanisms on hospital beds, power recline
 Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)

- A motor that retains the characteristics of a dc motor but eliminates

the commutator and the brushes is called a brushless Dc motor.
- It consists of a multiphase winding wound on a non-salient stator
and magnetized PM rotor.
- A sensor is required for speed control.
- It provides the advantage of a permanent magnet, which means that
all the power applied can be used for torque.
- Available in single-phase, 2-phase, and 3-phase configurations
 Construction of BLDC Motor

The construction of this motor has

many similarities of three motor as
well as conventional DC motor.
•This motor has stator and rotor
parts as like all other motors.
•The rotor of BLDC motor is
permanent magnet and stator is a coil
arrangement
Stator

a multiphase
 Rotor

• The rotor of BLDC motor is permanent

magnet. In order to achieve maximum torque
flux density should be high.
• Rare earth alloy magnets are commonly
used for new designs. Some of these alloys
are Samarium Cobalt (SmCo), Neodymium
(Nd), and Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB). 
 Working Principle and Operation of
BLDC Motor
The stator has a coil arrangement, as illustrated; The internal winding of the rotor is illustrated in the Fig.3 (core of
the rotor is hidden here). The rotor has 3 coils, named A, B and C.

Fig.1 The coil arrangement in a BLDC is shown here, with

different color for different coils
 Working Principle and Operation of
BLDC Motor
Out of these 3 coils, only one coil is illustrated in the Fig.2. for simplicity. By applying DC power to the coil, the
coil will energize and become an electromagnet.

Fig.2 The coil energized by a DC power source becomes an

electromagnet
 Working Principle and Operation of
BLDC Motor

The operation of a BLDC is based on the simple

force interaction between the permanent magnet
and the electromagnet. In this condition, when
the coil A is energized, the opposite poles of the
rotor and stator are attracted to each other (The
attractive force is shown in green arrow). As a
result the rotor poles move near to the energized
stator. Fig.3 The rotor moves towards the energized coil, due to the
attractive force
 Working Principle and Operation of
BLDC Motor
As the rotor nears coil A, coil B is energized. As the rotor nears coil B, coil C is energized. After that, coil A is
energized with the opposite polarity (compare the last part of Fig.6 with Fig.4.

Fig.4 In a BLDC, as the rotor nears the energized coil, the next coils is
energized; this will make the rotor continuously rotate
 Working Principle and Operation of
BLDC Motor

This process is repeated, and the

rotor continues to rotate. The DC
current required in the each coil
is shown in the following graph.

Fig.5 The DC voltage required in each coil is shown in this graph

 Further improving the BLDC
Performance

Even though this motor works, it has one drawback.

You can notice that, at any instant only one coil is
energized. The 2 dead coils greatly reduce the power
output of the motor.

When the rotor is in this position, along with the first

coil, which pulls the rotor, you can energize the coil
behind it such a way that, it will push the rotor.

Fig.6 The BLDC has a constant torque nature as shown.

The combined effect produces more torque and power output from the motor. The combined force also makes sure
that a BLDC has a beautiful, constant torque nature. Such torque nature is difficult to achieve in any other type of
motors.
 Hall Sensors or Use of an ECU
 Now how do I know which stator coils to energize? How do I know when to
energize it, so that I will get a continuous rotation from the rotor? 

In a BLDC we use an electronic controller

unit (ECU) for this purpose. A sensor
determines the position of the rotor, and based
on this information the controller decides,
which coils to energize and that sensor is know
as Hall sensor.

Fig.7 The ECU determines which coil to energize and when to

energize it
 Hall Sensors

The schematic figure above shows, how the ECU

controls task of energizing the coil. This task is
known as commutation. Most often, a Hall-effect
sensor is used for this purpose. The Hall-effect
sensor is fitted on the back of the motor as shown
in the Fig.8.

Fig.8 A Hall effect sensor is used to determine the position of

the rotor
 Advantages of BLDC Motor
•No mechanical commutator and associated problems
•High efficiency due to the use of permanent magnet rotor
•High speed of operation even in loaded and unloaded conditions
•Smaller motor geometry and lighter in weight than both brushed type DC and induction
AC motors
•Long life as no inspection and maintenance is required for commutator system
•Higher dynamic response due to low inertia and carrying windings in the stator
•Less electromagnetic interference
•Quite operation (or low noise) due to absence of brushes
 Disadvantages of BLDC Motor

•These motors are costly

•Electronic controller required control this motor is expensive
•Not much availability of many integrated electronic control solutions, especially for tiny
BLDC motors
•Requires complex drive circuitry
•Need of additional sensors
Applications of BLDC Motors
 Servomotor
 Not a special motor it may be DC or
AC or brushless DC motor
 Also called control motors as they are
involved in controlling a mechanical
system.
 Servomotors provide accurate speed,
torque, and have ability of direction
control.
 Widely used variable speed drives in
industrial production and process
automation and building technology
worldwide.
Fig: Servomotor
 Servomotor working and principle
A servo (servomechanism) is an electromagnetic device that converts electricity into precise controlled
motion by use of negative feedback mechanisms.
Servo motors work on servo mechanism that uses position feedback to control the speed and final position
of the motor shown in fig 2..
The servomotors are used in a closed-loop servo system as shown in . A reference input is sent to the
servo amplifier, which controls the speed of the servomotor.
A feedback device is mounted on the machine, which is either an encoder or resolver. This device changes
mechanical motion into electrical signals and is used as a feedback.
This feedback is sent to the error detector , which compares the actual operation with that of the reference
input. If there is an error, that error is fed directly to the amplifier, which will be used to make necessary
corrections in control action.
In many servo systems, both velocity and position are monitored. Servomotors provide accurate speed,
torque, and have ability of direction control.
Servo Mechanism

Fig. 2 Servo system block diagram

Classification of Servo Motor
 Difference between the DC
and AC Servo Motors
DC SERVO MOTOR AC SERVO MOTOR
It delivers high power output Delivers low output of about 0.5 W to 100 W

It has more stability problems It has less stable problems

It requires frequent maintenance due to the presence of It requires less maintenance due to the absence of
commutator commutator

It provides high efficiency The efficiency of AC servo motor is less and is about 5 to
20%

The life of DC servo motor depends on the life on brush life The life of AC servo motor depends on bearing life

It includes permanent magnet in its construction The synchronous type AC servo motor uses permanent
magnet while induction type doesn’t require it.

These motors are used for high power applications These motors are used for low power applications
Advantages of servo motors
Provides high intermittent torque, high torque to inertia ratio, and high speeds
Work well for velocity control
Available in all sizes
Quiet in operation
Smoother rotation at lower speeds

Disadvantages of servo motors

More expensive than stepper motors
Require tuning of control loop parameters
Not suitable for hazardous environments or in vacuum
Excessive current can result in partial demagnetization of DC type servo motor
 Stepper Motor
 These motors are also called stepping motors or step motors. because this motor rotates
through a fixed angular step in response to each input current pulse received by its
controller.
 A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in
steps. Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in low cost, open loop
position control systems.
  The stepper motor can be controlled with or without feedback.
 The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts
rotation.
 The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input
pulses.
 The length of rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied
 Rotor Internal components of a
Stepper Motor
Stator
Outside Casing

Coils Stator

Rotor
1

2 2

1
 Stepper Motor – Types
There are three main types of stepper motors, they are:

Permanent magnet stepper Hybrid synchronous stepper

Stepper Motor

Variable reluctance stepper

 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

Permanent magnet motors

use a permanent magnet
(PM) in the rotor.

It operate on the attraction or

repulsion between the rotor
PM and the stator Fig: Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
electromagnets.
 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

 Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a

plain iron rotor and operate based on the
principle that minimum reluctance occurs
with minimum gap, hence the rotor
points are attracted toward the stator
magnet poles.
Fig. Variable reluctance stepper motor
 Hybrid Synchronous Stepper Motor

 Hybrid stepper motors are named

because they use a combination
of permanent magnet (PM) and
variable reluctance (VR)
techniques to achieve maximum
power in a small package size.
Fig. Hybrid stepper
 Practical Stepper Motor Operation

The top electromagnet (1) is turned on,
attracting the nearest teeth of a gear-
shaped iron rotor. With the teeth
aligned to electromagnet 1, they will be
slightly offset from electromagnet 2
The top electromagnet (1) is turned off,
and the right electromagnet (2) is
energized, pulling the nearest teeth
slightly to the right. This results in a
rotation of 3.6° in this example.
 Practical Stepper Motor Operation

The left electromagnet (4) is enabled, rotating

The bottom electromagnet again by 3.6°. When the top electromagnet (1)
(3) is energized; another is again enabled, the teeth in the sprocket will
3.6° rotation occurs. have rotated by one tooth position; since there
are 25 teeth, it will take 100 steps to make a full
rotation in this example.
 Stepper motor applications

Stepping Motor to move read-write head

 Advantages / Disadvantages
Advantages:-
Low cost for control achieved
Ruggedness
Simplicity of construction
Can operate in an open loop control system
Low maintenance
Less likely to stall or slip
Will work in any environment
Disadvantages:-
Require a dedicated control circuit
Use more current than D.C. motors
High torque output achieved at low speeds
 Linear Induction Motor
 Linear induction motor a special purpose
motor that produce linear motion rather
than rotational motion .
 In a linear motor, the stator is unwrapped
and laid out flat and the "rotor" moves
past it in a straight line
 Linear motor often use superconductor
use magnets, which are cooled to low
temperatures to reduce power
consumption.
 Components of Linear Motors

 In an AC induction motor, electromagnets

positioned around the edge of the motor
are used to generate a rotating magnetic
field in the central space between them.
This "induces" (produces) electric currents
in a rotor, causing it to spin. 

Fig: The polyphase rotator induction motor

How linear motors work
The "stator" is laid out in the form of a track of
flat coils made from aluminum or copper and is
known as the "primary" of a linear motor. The
"rotor" takes the form of a moving platform
known as the "secondary." When the current is
switched on, the secondary glides past the
primary supported and propelled by a magnetic Fig: Double sided linear induction motor
field.
 Performance of the Linear
Induction Motor
When supply is given, the synchronous speed of the field is given by the
equation :

Where, fs is supply frequency in Hz,

and p = number of poles,
ns is the synchronous speed of the rotation of magnetic field in revolutions
per second.
 Performance of the Linear
Induction Motor
In the rotary induction motor, the speed of the secondary in the linear
induction motor is less than the synchronous speed vs and is given as

Where s is the slip of the linear induction motor and is given as

The linear force is given by the equation shown below.

 Thrust velocity curve

The thrust velocity curve of the

linear induction motor is similar to
that of the
speed torque curve of the rotary ind
uction motor. It is shown in the fig
ure below.
Advantages of linear induction motors
• No magnetic attraction forces during assembly. 
• Long travel lengths possible. 
• high force can use for these kind of applications so it’s better for heavy duty applications.
• Direct electromagnetic force (no mechanical elements, no limitations for speed).
• Economical and cheap maintenance.

Disadvantages of liner induction machines

• Construction of this liner induction machines is some what complex . 
• complex controlling methods need to use to control this motor.
• This motor do not produce any force at standstill.
• Linear induction motors are physically larger compared with permanent magnet
motors.
• It got low efficiency and it consume high power.
 
 Application of linear Induction motor
Liner induction machines are now use for so many different kind of applications
which involves linear motions. Following are some of the common applications of
this motors in modern day.

• Automatic sliding doors

• Mechanical conveyor belt
• liquid metal pumping
• crane material handling
• Electrical traction industries
• High voltage circuit breakers
• Electrical cranes
• use as superconducting magnets
• This principle of linear motors are widely use in rocket launching.  
• High speed moving magnetic trains
 FAQs
• Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?
• What would be the frequency of the rotor’s induced voltage at any speed nm?
• A 208-V, 10hp, four pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected induction motor has a full-load slip of 5 percent
1. What is the synchronous speed of this motor?
2. What is the rotor speed of this motor at rated load?
3. What is the rotor frequency of this motor at rated load?
4. What is the shaft torque of this motor at rated load?
• What is the primary difference between a Brush DC Motor and a Brushless DC Motor?
• What is the most critical component of a Brush DC Motor?
• What is Servo Motor?
 REFERENCES

http://www.learnengineering.org/2014/10/Brushless-DC-motor.html
http://www.electricaltechnology.org/2016/05/bldc-brushless-dc-motor-construction-worki
ng-principle.html
https://www.engineersgarage.com/insight/how-geared-dc-motor-works
https://www.tsukasa-d.co.jp/en/data_download/english_catalogue.pdf
http://circuitglobe.com/linear-induction-motor.html
http://www.explainthatstuff.com/linearmotor.html
http://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/motion_controls/motors/ac_servo_motors
http://www.engineerlive.com/content/21559
http://www.electricaleasy.com/2014/07/characteristics-of-dc-motors.html