Direct-Current Machines

DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES
1.1. Introduction
A direct-current (dc) machine is a versatile machine, that is, the same machine can be used as a
generator to convert mechanical energy to dc electrical energy or as a motor to convert dc
electrical energy into mechanical energy. However, the use of dc machines as dc generators to
produce bulk power has rapidly disappeared due to the economic advantages involved in the use
of alternating-current generation, transmission, and distribution. This is partly due to the high
efficiency and relative simplicity with which transformers convert voltages from one level to
another.
Today, the need for dc power is often met by the use of solid state–controlled rectifiers.
However, dc motors are used extensively in many industrial applications because they provide
constant mechanical power output or constant torque, adjustable motor speed over wide ranges,
precise speed or position control, efficient operation over a wide speed range, rapid acceleration
and deceleration, and responsiveness to feedback signals.
Such machines can vary in size from miniature permanent-magnet motors to machines rated for
continuous operation at several thousand horsepower. Examples of small dc motors include those
used for small control devices, windshield-wiper motors, fan motors, starter motors, and various
servomotors. Application examples for larger dc motors include industrial drive motors in
conveyors, pumps, hoists, overhead cranes, forklifts, fans, steel and aluminum rolling mills,
paper mills, textile mills, various other rolling mills, golf carts, electrical cars, street cars or
trolleys, electric trains, electric elevators, and large earth-moving equipment.
Obviously, dc machine applications are very significant, but the advantages of the dc machine
must be weighed against its greater initial investment cost and the maintenance problems
associated with its brush-commutator system.
1.2. Electromechanical Energy Conversion Principles

According to the energy conversion principle, energy is neither created nor destroyed: it is
simply changed in form. The role of electromagnetic (or electromechanical) machines is to
transmit energy or convert it from one type of energy to another. For example, the transformer
transmits electrical energy, changing only the potential difference and current at which it
exists. However, it also converts a small amount of electrical energy to heat. This is an
unwanted result that is required to be minimized at the design stage.
However, a rotational or translational electromagnetic machine converts energy from
mechanical to electrical form, or vice versa, that is, it operates as a generator or motor. In the
process, it also converts some electrical or mechanical energy to heat, which is also
unwanted. In general, electric generators and motors of all kinds can be defined as
electromechanical energy converters. Their main components are an electrical system, a
mechanical system, and a coupling field, as shown in Figure 2.1.
FIGURE 2.1 A representation of electromechanical energy conversion.
1.2.1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

CONVERSION
In this section, some of the basic concepts involving electrical rotating machines are reviewed.
Such concepts include angular velocity, angular acceleration, mechanical work, power, and
torque. Most electrical machines rotate around an axis known as the shaft of the machine.
As can be seen in Figures 2.1 and 2.2, the input to a generator and the output of the motor
are mechanical in nature. If the shaft rotates in a counterclockwise (CCW) direction rather
than in a clockwise (CW) direction, the resultant rotational angle and direction are, by
definition, considered positive; otherwise, they are considered negative.
FIGURE 2.2 Illustration of some of the fundamental concepts associated with the operation
of an electrical rotating machine: (a) motor action and (b) generator action.
The angular position θ of the shaft is the angle at which it is positioned measured from
some arbitrarily selected reference point. Note that the angular position concept conforms to
the linear distance concept along a line, and that it is measured in radians or degrees. However,
the angular velocity (or speed) represents the rate of change in the angular position with respect
to time. Thus, angular velocity can be expressed as
dθ (2.1)
ω= rad / s
dt
as long as the angular position θ is measured in radians. Usually, the rotational speed n is
given in revolutions per minute (i.e., rpm), so that
n= ( )
60
2π
ω rev / min
(2.2)
The rate of change in angular velocity with respect to time is defined as the angular
acceleration and is expressed as
dω 2 (2.3)
α= rad / s
dt
FIGURE 2.3 Illustration of the relationship between force and torque.

In rotational mechanics, the torque (or twisting action on the cylinder), T , is defined as the
tangential force times the radial distance at which it is applied, measured from the axis of
rotation.
In other words, the torque is a function of the magnitude of the applied force F , and the
distance between the axis of rotation and the line of action of the force. Hence, as illustrated in
Figure 2.3, the rotational torque T can be expressed as
T ¿ ( appl ied force ) ( perpendicular distance )
¿ ¿
¿ FR sinθ (2.4)
In the SI system* of units, force is given in newtons ( N ) and distance is given in meters ( m ).
For linear motion, according to Isaac Newton, mechanical work W is defined as the integral of
force over distance. Therefore,
W =f ∫ dx J (2.5)
The units of work are joules (J) on the SI system and foot pounds in the English system.
However, for rotational motion, work is defined as the integral of torque through an angle.
Thus,
W =T ∫ dθ J (2.6)
If the torque is unchanging,
W =TθJ (2.7)
Power can be defined as the rate of doing work. Hence,
dW dx (2.8)
P= =F W
dt dt
However, for rotational motion having constant torque, power* can be expressed as
dW dθ (2.9)
P= =T W
dt dt
or
P=TωW (2.10)
Also, from Equation 2.10 torque can be found as

P (2.11)
T = N ⋅m
ω
Some of the fundamental concepts associated with the operation of an electrical
rotating machine are illustrated in Figure 2.2. The magnetic field in such a machine
establishes the necessary link between the electrical and mechanical systems, producing
mechanical torque as well as inducing voltages in the coils. The magnetic field itself is
developed by the current flowing through these coils.
Consider the motor action of the machine as illustrated in Figure 2.2a. The instantaneous power
input to the motor is
p=v × i (2.12)
where v and i are the terminal voltage and current, respectively, as shown in Figure 2.2a. The
magnetic field develops the output torque and induces a counter voltage (also called counter-
emf since it opposes the current flow), which makes it possible for the machine to receive
power from the electrical source and convert it into mechanical output. Here, the torque and the
angular velocity are in the same direction.
In the generator action as shown in Figure 2.2b, the magnetic field induces the generated
voltage and develops a counter torque (since it opposes the torque of the mechanical source)
which makes it possible for the rotating machine to receive power from the mechanical source
in order to convert it into electrical output. Note that the counter torque and the angular
velocity are in the opposite direction.
Example 2.1
1800rev
The rotational speed of a motor (i.e., its shaft speed) is . Determine its angular velocity
min
rad
(i.e., its shaft speed) in .
s
Solution
From Equation 2.2,
n=
( 2π )
60
ω rev
min
or
ω ¿ ( 260π ) n
¿ ¿
Example 2.2
Consider Figure 2.3 and assume that the rotational torque is 200 N ⋅m and the radius of the
rotor is 0.25 m. Determine the applied force in N :
(a) If the angle θ is 15∘
(b) If the angle θ is 45 ∘
(c) If the angle θ is 90∘
(d) If the angle θ is 120∘
Solution
(a) From Equation 2.4,
T =Frsin θ
from which
T
F=
rsinθ
Thus, at θ=15∘,
200 N ⋅ m
F= =3091 N
( 0.25 m ) sin 15∘
(b) At θ=45∘ ,
200 N ⋅m
F= =1131.4 N
( 0.25 m ) sin 45∘
(c) At θ=90∘,
200 N ⋅ m
F= =800 N
( 0.25 m ) sin 90 ∘
(d) At θ=120∘,
200 N ⋅ m
F= =923.8 N
( 0.25 m ) sin 120∘
Example 2.3
A coil, having a sectional area of 0.3 m2 with N=20 turns, is rotating around its horizontal
axis with a constant speed of 3600 rpm in a uniform and vertical magnetic field of flux density
B=0.8 T . If the total magnetic flux passing through the coil is given by Φ= ABcos ωt in Wb,
where A is the sectional area of the coil, determine the maximum and effective values of the
induced voltage in the coil.
Solution
Since the total magnetic flux passing through the coil is given as
Φ= ABcos ωt
According to Faraday's law, the induced voltage is
dϕ
v ¿N
dt
¿ ¿−Nω ABsin ωt
Thus, its maximum voltage is
v max =N ×ω × A × B
Where;
ω ¿ ( )
2π
60
(3600 rpm )
¿ ¿
Hence,
v max ¿ ( 20 turns ) ( 377srad )( 0.3 m )( 0.8 T )

2
¿ ¿
and its effective value is
v max
v rms ¿
√2
¿ ¿
1.2.2. Electromechanical Energy Conversion

The energy conservation principle with regard to electromechanical systems can be expressed
in various forms. For example, as shown in Figure 2.1, for a sink of electrical energy such as an
electric motor, it can be expressed as
( )( )( )( )
Electrical Mechanical Increase in Energy loss
(2.13)
energy input = energy output + stored energy + converted
from source to load in coupling field to heat
The last term of Equation 2.13 can be expressed as
( )( )( )(
Energy loss Resistance Friction
converted = loss of
to heat winding
+ and windage + Field
losses
losses ) (2.14)
The resistance loss is the i 2 R loss in the resistance I of the winding. The friction and windage
losses are associated with motion. Since the coupling field is the magnetic field, the field losses*
are due to hysteresis and eddy-current losses, that is, the core losses are due to the changing
magnetic field in the magnetic core.
If the energy losses that are given in Equation 2.14 are substituted into Equation 2.13, the energy
balance equation can be expressed as
( )( )(
Electrical Mechanical
)
Increase in
energy input energy output
stored energy (2.15)
from source = to load plus +
in coupling field
minus friction and
plus core losses
resistance losses windage losses
Assume a differential time interval dt during which an increment of electrical energy d W e

(without including the i 2 R loss) flows to the system. Then the net electrical input W e can be
equated to the increase in energy W m so that, in incremental form,
d W e =d W m + d W f J 2.16
Where;
d W e is the differential electrical energy input
d W m is the differential mechanical energy output
d W f is the differential increase in energy stored in the magnetic field
Equation 2.16 is also known as the incremental (or differential) energy-balance equation. It
provides a basis for the analysis of the operation of electromechanical machines. Since in time
dt,
d W e =v × i× dt (2.17)
where v is the (reaction) voltage induced in the electric terminals by the changing magnetic
stored energy. Therefore,
d W e =v × i× dt=d W m+ d W f (2.18)
According to Faraday's law, the induced voltage v based on the flux linkages can be expressed as
dλ (2.19)
v=
dt
Then the net differential electrical energy input in time dt can be expressed as
d W e ¿ v ×i ×dt (2.20)
¿ ¿i ×dλ
The differential mechanical energy output for a virtual displacement (i.e., linear motion) dx when
the force is F f can be expressed as
d W m=F f × dx (2.21)
Substituting Equations 2.18 and 2.20 into Equation 2.21,
d W f =i× dλ−F f ×dx (2.22)
If the differential mechanical energy output is for a rotary motion, the force F f is replaced by
torque* T f and the linear (differential) displacement dx is replaced by the angular (differential)
displacement dθ so that
d W m=T f × dθ (2.23)
and therefore
d W f =i× dλ−T f ×dθ (2.24)
Field Energy
Suppose that the electromechanical system shown in Figure 2.4 has a movable part (i.e.,
armature) that can be kept in static equilibrium by a spring. If the movable part is kept
stationary at some air gap and the current is increased from zero to a value I, a flux Φ will be
maintained in the electro-magnetic system. Since no mechanical output can be produced,
d W m=0 (2.25)
FIGURE 2.4 A simple electromechanical system.

and substituting Equation 2.25 into Equation 2.16,
d W e =d W f (2.25)
Thus, if core loss is ignored, all the incremental electric energy input must be stored in the
magnetic field. Since, from Equation 2.20,
d W e =i× dλ (2.26)
then
d W f =i ×dλ (2.27)
d W f =d W e =v × i× dt=i× dλ
FIGURE 2.5 λ−i characteristic of (a) a magnetic system and (b) an idealized magnetic system.
Figure 2.5(a) shows the relationship between coil flux linkage λ and current I for a particular air-
gap length. Since core loss is being ignored, the curve will be a single-valued curve passing
through the origin. The incremental field energy d W f is shown as the crosshatched area in
Figure 2.5a. If the applied terminal voltage v is increased, causing a change in current from i 1 to
i 2, there will be a matching change in flux linkage from λ 1 to λ 2. Therefore, the corresponding
increase in stored energy is
λ2
(2.28)
d W f =∫ ❑ idλ
λ1
as shown in Figure 2.5a. When the coil current and flux linkage are zero, the field energy is zero.
Thus, if the flux linkage is increased from zero to l , the total energy stored in the field is
λ
(2.29)
d W f =∫ ❑ idλ
0
Such an integral represents the shaded area W f between the A ordinate and the λ−i
characteristic, as shown in Figure 2.5a. Equation 2.29 can be used for any lossless
electromagnetic system.
Also, if the leakage flux is negligibly small, then all flux Φ in the magnetic circuit links all N
turns of the coil. Therefore,
λ=N Φ (2.30)
so that from Equations 2.27 and 2.30 ,
d W f =i× dλ=N ×i× d Φ=F × d Φ (2.31)
Where;
F=N ×i A ⋅ turns (2.32)
Thus, if the characteristic shown in Figure 2.5a is rescaled to show the relationship between Φ
and F (so that the ordinate represents the Φ rather than the λ and the axis represents the F rather
than the i ), the shaded area again represents the stored energy.
Also, if the reluctance of the air gap makes up a considerably larger portion of the total
reluctance of the magnetic circuit, then that of the magnetic material used may be ignored. The
resultant λ−i characteristic is represented by a straight line through the origin. Figure 2.5b shows
such a characteristic of an idealized magnetic circuit. Hence, for this idealized system,
λ=L× i (2.33)
where the inductance of the coil is given by L. By substituting Equation 2.33 into Equation 2.29,
the total energy stored in the field can be expressed as
λ
λ
W f ¿ ∫ ❑ dλ
0 L
L× i 2
¿ ¿
2
¿ ¿ (2.34)
On the other hand, if the reluctance of the magnetic system (i.e., of the air gap) as viewed from
the coil is R , then
F=R ×Φ A ⋅ turns (2.35)
and from Equation 2.31, the total energy stored in the field can be expressed as
Φ
dΦ
2
F
2 (2.36)
W f =∫ ❑ F × dΦ=R =
0 2 2R
Furthermore, if it is assumed that there is no fringing at the air gaps, and that the total field
energy is distributed uniformly, the total energy stored in the field can be expressed as
i× λ
Wf ¿
2
( N × i)Φ
¿ ¿
2
¿ ¿ (2.37)
or
H×B×l
Wf ¿
2
¿ ¿ (2.38)
where
l=2 g represents the total length of the air gap in a flux path vol ¿ l× A represents the total air
gap volume A represents the cross-sectional area of the core B represents the flux density in the
air gaps
B (2.39)
μ0 ¿
A
−7
¿ ¿ 4 π ×10
Since l × A is the total gap volume, the energy density W f in the air gaps can be expressed as
Wf
wf ¿
l× A
μ0 H 2
¿ ¿
2
¿ ¿ (2.40)
J
The unit of the energy density is .
m3
Magnetic Force
The magnetic flux that crosses an air gap in a magnetic material produces a force F f of attraction
between the faces of the air gap, as shown in Figure 2.4. The core shown in the figure has an air
gap of variable length g as dictated by the position of the movable part (i.e., the armature), which
in turn is determined by the magnetic pulling force F f and the spring. Note that, in Figure 2.4,
the differential displacement can also be expressed as
dx=dg (2.41)
Based on the symmetry involved (considering only one pole of the magnetic circuit), the
differential change in volume can be found from
d ( vol )= Adg (2.42)
Ignoring leakage and fringing of the flux at the gaps
BHd ( vol ) (2.43)

d Wf ¿
2
2
B Adg
¿ ¿
2 μ0
From the definition of work,
d W m=F f dx=F f dg (2.44)
When a magnetic pulling force is applied to the movable part (i.e., the armature), an energy dW
equal to the magnetic energy d W f stored in the magnetic field is expended. Therefore, at the
equilibrium,
d W f =d W m (2.45)
or substituting Equations 2.43 and 2.44 into Equation 2.45
B 2 Adg (2.46)
=F f dg
2 μ0
from which the magnetic pulling force per pole on the movable part can be found as
2
B A (2.47)
Ff = N
2 μ0
Thus, the total magnetic pulling force on the movable part can be expressed as
2
B A B A
2
(2.48)
F f , total =2 = N
2 μ0 μ0
It is important to understand that since the electrical input makes no contribution to the energy in
the air gaps, due to the constant air-gap flux, the mechanical energy must be obtained from the
stored energy in the air-gap fields (i.e., id l=0 ). In other words, the air gaps give off energy by
virtue of their decreased volume.
Example 2.5
Consider the linear electromechanical system shown in Figure 2.6. Assume that only the coil
shown on the left is energized and that the core on the right acts as an armature (i.e., the movable
1.1 Wb
part). The cross-sectional area of each air gap is 25 ×10−6 m2. If the flux density is ,
m2
determine the following:
(a) The magnetic pulling force per pole
(b) The total magnetic pulling force
Solution
(a) The magnetic pulling force per pole can be found from Equation 2.47. as;
Ff =
B2 A
=
( 1.1 Wb 2
m 2 )
( 25 ×10−6 m2 )
=12.04 N
2 μ0 2 ( 4 π ×10 )
−7
FIGURE 2.6 A doubly excited electromechanical (translational) system. (b) The total magnetic
pulling force can be found from Equation 2.48 as
( )
2
1.1 Wb (
25× 10 m )
−6 2
2
2
B A m
F f , total = = =24.08 N
μ0 ( 4 π ×10−7 )
Alternatively,
F f , total =2 F f =2 ( 12.04 N )=24.08 N
Energy and Co-energy

As previously stated, the shaded area in Figure 2.5a represents the total energy stored in a coil
(which magnetizes the field) from zero to i A . Such energy can be determined by using Equation
2.29; that is, from
λ
(2.49)
W f =∫ ❑idλ
0
In Figure 2.5a , the area between the i axis and λ−i characteristic is defined as the coenergy, and
can be determined from
i
(2.50)
W =∫ ❑ λdi
'
f
0
Such a magnetic coenergy has no physical meaning. However, it can be useful in determining
force (or torque) developed in an electromagnetic system. From Figure 2.5a, for a coil current i
and the resultant flux linkage λ
W f +W 'f = λ ×i (2.51)
energy + coenergy =λ × i
Notice that W f is greater than W f , if the λ−i characteristic is nonlinear and that W f is equal to
W f , if the λ−i characteristic is linear,* as shown in Figure 2.5b.
Magnetic Force in a Saturable System

Consider the electromechanical system shown in Figure 2.4 and assume that it is made up of
saturable ferromagnetic material. It shows that when the air gap is large, the resultant, λ−i ,
characteristic is almost a straight line; when the air gap is very small, the characteristic is almost
a straight line for small values of flux linkage. However, as flux linkage is increased, the
curvature of the characteristic starts to appear because of the saturation of the magnetic core.
Assume that λ is a function of x and i and that there is a differential movement of the operating
point corresponding to a differential displacement of dx of the armature (i.e., the movable part)
made at a low speed (i.e., at a constant current), as shown in FIGURE 2.7a.
 In other words, if the magnetic core has a constant permeability, for example, as in the
air, the energy and coenergy are equal.
(a ) (b)
(c) FIGURE 2.7 Energy balance in a saturable system: (a) constant current operation, (b)
constant flux operation, and (c) a general case.
In other words, the armature of Figure 2.4 moves from the operating point a (where x=x 1 ) to a
new operating point b (where x=x 2 ) so that at the end of the movement the air gap decreases. If
the armature has moved slowly, the current i has stayed constant during the motion, causing the
operating point to move upward from point a to b , as shown in FIGURE 2.7a. For this
displacement, * during which the flux linkage changes, neither the emf nor the d W e is zero.
Therefore, from Equation 2.16,
d W m=d W e −d W f =d ( W e −W f ) (2.52)
Hence, for the displacement,
Ff =
∂ ( W e −W f )
∂x |
i= constant
(2.53)
Since the motion has taken place under constant-current conditions, the mechanical work
performed is depicted by the shaded area in FIGURE 2.7a. That area also represents the increase
in the co-energy. Thus,
 Notice the increase in co-energy during the move from position a to b , as shown in
FIGURE 2.7a.
d W m=d W f
'
(2.54)
Substituting Equation 2.21 into Equation 2.54,

F f dx=d W f
'
(2.55)
The force on the armature is then
Ff =
∂ W 'f ( i , x )
∂x |
i = constant
(2.56)
Since for any armature position,

i
(2.57)
W (i , x )=∫ ❑ λdi
'
f
0
and
λ=NΦ (2.58)
F
i=
N
Substituting Equations 2.57 and 2.58 into (2.56) gives the coenergy as a function of the mmf and
displacement as
F
(2.59)
W (i , x )=∫ ❑ Φd F
'
f
0
and the force on the armature is then
Ff =
∂ W 'f ( F , x )
∂x |
F = constant
(2.60)
FIGURE 2.7b illustrates a differential movement of the operating point in the λ−i diagram,
corresponding to a differential displacement dx of the armature made at high speed, that is, at
constant flux linkage. Here,
W f =W f ( λ , x ) (2.62)
The electrical energy input for the movement is zero, since λ does not change and the emf is
zero. The mechanical work done during the motion is represented by the shaded area, which
depicts the decrease in the field energy. Since
d W m=d W f ( λ , x ) (2.62)
and
F f dx=d W m =−d W f (2.63)
Therefore,
Ff =
d Wm ∂Wf ( λ, x)
dx
=
∂x |
λ= constant
(2.64)
It is interesting to see that at high-speed motion the electrical input is zero (i.e., idλ=0 ) because
the flux linkage has stayed constant and the mechanical output energy has been provided totally
by the field energy. In the discussions so far, either i or λ has been kept constant.
In reality, however, neither condition is true. It is more likely that the change from position a to
b follows a path such as the one shown in FIGURE 2.7c.
Also notice that for the linear case (i.e., when flux Φ is proportional to mmf F ), the energy and
coenergy are equal. Thus,
'
W f =W f (2.65)
and
'
∂ W f ( F , x) ∂ W f ( F , x ) (2.66)
Ff = =
∂x ∂x
It is easier to use the inductance L of the excitation coil because L is independent of the current.
Therefore,
Li
2
(2.67)
W f=
2
so that
Ff = ( )
d Li 2 i 2 dL
dx 2
=
2 dx
(2.68)
1.3. DC GENERATORS
1.3.1. Principle of Operation of a D.C. Generator
All the generators work on a principle of dynamically induced e.m.f. This principle nothing but
the Faraday’s law of electromagnetism induction. It states that, ‘whenever the number of magnetic
lines of force i.e. flux linking with a conductor or a coil changes, an electromotive force is set up in that
conductor or coil.’ The change in flux associated with the conductor can exist only when there
exists a relative motion between a conductor and the flux. The relative motion can be achieved by
rotating conductor with respect to flux or by rotating flux with respect to a conductor. So a voltage gets
generated in a conductor, as long as there exists a relative motion between conductor and the flux.
Such an induced e.m.f. which is due to the physical movement of coil or conductor with respect to flux
or movement of flux with respect to coil or conductor is called dynamically induced e.m.f.
Key Point:
So a generating action requires following basic components to exist,
(II) The conductor or a coil
(III) The relative motion between conductor and flux.
In a particular generator, the conductors are rotated to cut the magnetic flux, keeping flux stationary.
To have a large voltage as the output, the number of conductors are connected together in a specific
manner, to form a winding. This winding is called armature winding of a d.c. machine. The part on
which this winding is kept is called armature of a d.c. machine. To have the rotation of conductors,
the conductors placed on the armature are rotated with the help of some external device. Such an
external device is called a prim mover. The commonly used prim movers are diesel engines, steam
engines, steam turbines, water turbines etc. The necessary magnetic flux is produced by current
carrying winding which is called field
winding. The direction of the induced e.m.f. can be obtained by using Fleming’s right hand role.
1.3.2. Constructional Features

BASIC REQUIREMENTS
The construction of any machine should be made in accordance with its basic principle of
operation. A DC machine can be operated either as a generator or as a motor. Therefore,
constructional requirements can be obtained either following the generator action or motor
action.
The operation of DC machine as DC generator is based on Faraday's laws of electromagnetic
induction, which states that "whenever flux linking a coil change, an emf is induced." The
following are the three basic requirements required to satisfy Faraday's law.
(i) Field system,
(ii) System of conductors or coils and
(iii) Relative motion between the above two systems.
The third requirement listed above can in general be satisfied either by
(i) keeping the field system stationary and allowing the system of conductors to rotate, or
(ii) keeping the system of conductors stationary and allowing the field system to rotate.
Apart from getting the emf induced, a DC generator further require the AC emf induced in the
conductors to get converted into DC emf. This conversion from AC to DC is achieved with the
help of commutators and brushes. The brushes act as the connecting leads between the moving
member of the machine and the external stationary circuit and is placed in the stationary part of
the machine. The commutator assembly, however, is placed in the rotating member of machine
along with the system of conductors or coils in which the AC emf is induced.
The above requirement therefore restricts the use of the only option available, namely,
(i) Field system in the stationary part or in stator and
(ii) System of conductors or coils in the rotating part or rotor.
Below are the basic construction parts of the DC machine.
i. Yoke: A DC-machine’s external frame is called a yoke. The material of the yoke is with
iron or steel cast iron. It not only provides the entire assembly with mechanical support, but
also carries the magnetic flux generated by the field winding. The outer frame or yoke
serves two purposes, namely:
(a) It provides the mechanical support for the entire machine and acts as a protecting cover.
Hence, this part is called the frame.
(b) It forms a portion of the magnetic circuit and supports the poles. Hence this part is otherwise
called the yoke.
In small machines, where weight is not a critical factor, in design and construction, the yoke is
normally 1nade of cast iron. In larger machines, the yoke is made of fabricated steel either in one
or more number of sections. Permeability of steel is nearly double that of cast iron. Therefore,
for the same amount of flux to be carried, the area of cross-section and hence the weight of the
yoke can be nearly halved.
Figure 2.8. Structure of the DC machine.
ii. Pole shoes and poles: Poles are connected by bolts or welding to the yokes. They are
winding on the field and have pole shoes tied to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes, i.e.
(a) support field coils and (b) evenly distribute the air gap current.
iii. Winding in the field: The winding of the field is typically made of copper. The field coils
are formerly wound and mounted on each pole in a row. They are wound in such a way that
they form alternating North and South poles when energized.
iv. Armature core: An Armature core is a DC rotor. It is cylindrical with slots to bear the
winding of the armature. The armature is constructed of thin laminated circular steel disks
to reduce the loss. The air ducts can be supplied for axial air flow for cooling purposes.
Armature is connected to the shaft of the rotor.
v. Armature winding: Usually, the armature winding is a wound copper spiral that rests in
armature slots. The armature conductors are insulated both from each other and from the
reinforcement core. Winding of the armature can be done by either of the two methods, i.e.
lap winding or wave winding. Usually, double layer or wave windings are used. Winding a
double layer means that every frame slot has two different spindles.
vi. Commutator and brushes: The physical relation to the winding of the armature is
rendered by a change arrangement. In a DC generator, the function of the commutator is to
collect the current generated in the armature conductors. For the case of a DC motor, the
commutator helps to provide energy to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of
a set of isolated copper segments separated from each other. Each segment is connected to
an armature coil. Brushes are usually made from graphite or carbon. They rest on the
commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator turns and keeps
contact with the current. So, the commutator and brush unit of the DC motor is concerned
with transmitting the power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating
region or the rotor.
Figure 2.9
1.3.3. Armature Windings

https://youtu.be/wex3ZenASl0
Armature winding is defined as an arrangement of conductors to produce EMF by relative

motion in a magnetic field. In a DC machine, the armature is a rotating part. And it provides
housing to the armature winding. There is a number of slots available in the armature core and
these slots in which conductors are housed. As we have seen in the construction of a DC
machine, the armature is placed between the magnetic poles and it is free to rotate. The
conductors are connected in parallel to increase the voltage rating and the conductors are
connected in series to increase the current rating.
Armature Winding Terminology:
Now we are going to discuss about armature winding in details. Before going through this
section, we should understand some basic terms related to armature winding of DC generator.
Pole Pitch:
The pole pitch is defined as peripheral distance between centres of two adjacent poles in DC
machine. This distance is measured in term of armature slots or armature conductor come
between two adjacent pole centres. Pole Pitch is naturally equal to the total number of armature
slots divided by the number of poles in the machine.
If there are 96 slots on the armature periphery and 4 numbers of poles in the machine, the
numbers of armature slots come between two adjacent poles centres would be 96/4 = 24. Hence,
the pole pitch of that DC machine would be 24.
As we have seen that, pole pitch is equal to total numbers of armature slots divided by total
numbers of poles, we alternatively refer it as armature slots per pole.
Coil side:
Coil of dc machine is made up of one turn or multi turns of the conductor. If the coil is made up
of single turn or a single loop of conductor, it is called single turn coil. If the coil is made up of
more than one turn of a conductor, we refer it as a multi-turn coil. A single turn coil will have
one conductor per side of the coil whereas, in multi turns coil, there will be multiple conductors
per side of the coil. Whatever may be the number of conductors per side of the coil, each coil
side is placed inside one armature slot only. That means all conductors of one side of a particular
coil must be placed in one single slot only. Similarly, we place all conductors of opposite side of
the coil in another single armature slot.
Coil Span
Coil span is defined as the peripheral distance between two sides of a coil, measured in term of
the number of armature slots between them. That means, after placing one side of the coil in a
particular slot, after how many conjugative slots, the other side of the same coil is placed on the
armature. This number is known as coil span.
Figure2.10: Armature windings

If the coil span is equal to the pole pitch, then the armature winding is said to be full - pitched. In
this situation, two opposite sides of the coil lie under two opposite poles. Hence emf induced in
one side of the coil will be in 180 o phase shift with emf induced in the other side of the coil.
Thus, the total terminal voltage of the coil will be nothing but the direct arithmetic sum of these
two emfs. If the coil span is less than the pole pitch, then the winding is referred as fractional
pitched. In this coil, there will be a phase difference between induced emf in two sides, less than
180o. Hence resultant terminal voltage of the coil is vector sum of these two emf’s and it is less
than that of full-pitched coil.
Figure 2.11: full pitched and half pitched coils

In practice, coil pitch (or Span) as low as eight tenth of a Pole Pitch, is employed without much
serious reduction in emf. Fractional pitched windings are purposely used to effect substantial
saving in copper of the end connection and for improving commutation.
Pitch of Armature Winding
Figure 2.12: Pitch in Armature Winding

Back Pitch (YB)
A coil advances on the back of the armature. This advancement is measured in terms of armature
conductors and is called back pitch. It is equal to the number difference of the conductor
connected to a given segment of the commutator.
Front Pitch (YF)
The number of armature conductors or elements spanned by a coil on the front is called front
pitch. Alternatively, we define the front-pitch as the distance between the second conductor of
the next coil which connects the front, i.e., commutator end of the armature. In other words, it is
the number difference of the conductors connected together at the back end of the armature. We
are showing both front and back pitches for a lap, and a wave winding in the figure below.
Resultant Pitch (YR)
It is the distance between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it
is connected. As a matter of precautions, we should keep in mind that all these pitches, though
normally stated concerning armature conductors, are also times of armature slots or commutator
bars.
Commutator Pitch (YC)
Commutator pitch is defined as the distance between two commutator segments which two ends
of same armature coil are connected. We measure commutator pitch in term of commutator bars
or segment.
Single Layer Armature Winding
We place armature coil sides in the armature slots differently. In some arrangement, each one
side of an armature coil occupies a single slot. In other words, we place one coil side in each
armature slot. We refer this arrangement as single layer winding.
Two Layer Armature Winding
In other types of armature winding, arrangement two coil sides occupy every armature slot; one
occupies upper half, and another one occupies the lower half of the slot. We so place the coils in
two layers winding that if one side occupies upper half, then another side occupies the lower half
of some other slot at a distance of one coil pitch away.
Armature Winding of A DC Machine
Based on type of winding connections we classified armature winding of a dc machine into two
types. These winding connections are same for DC generator & DC motor.
Types of Windings in DC Machine,
1. Lap winding.
2. Wave winding.
Lap winding of a DC Machine

In this type of winding the completing end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment and
to the start end of adjacent coil located under the same pole and similarly all coils are connected.
This type of winding is known as lap because the sides of successive coils overlap each other.
Lap winding may be simplex (single) or multiplex (duplex or triplex) winding. In simplex lap
winding the connection of the winding is that there are as many parallel paths as there are
number of poles.
Whereas for duplex, the number of parallel paths are equal to twice that of the number of poles
and for triplex it is thrice. For this reason, the lap winding is called multiple or parallel winding.
The sole purposes of such type of windings are,
(a) To increase the number of parallel paths enabling the armature current to increase i.e., for
high current output.
(b) To improve commutation as the current per conductor decreases.
Figure 2.13: Lap winding (a)Simples Lap winding (b)Duplex lap winding
Notes on Lap winding
1 The coil or back pitch Y B must be approximately equal to pole pitch i.e., Y B =Z /P .
2 The back pitch and front pitch are odd and are of opposite sign. They differ from each
other by 2 m , where m=1,2,3 for simplex, duplex, and triplex respectively.
i.e., Y B =Y F ±2 m When Y B > Y F i.e., Y F +2 m then the winding progresses from left to
right and such a winding is known as progressive winding. If Y B < Y F i.e., Y B =Y F−2 m
then the winding progresses from right to left and such a winding is known as
retrogressive winding.
Figure 2.14: Progressive and retrogressive lap winding
3 The average pitch, Y AVE =( Y B+ Y F ) /2.
4 Resultant pitch, Y R is always even as difference between two odd numbers is even and is
equal to 2 m
5 Commutator pitch, Y C =m i.e., 2, 3, 4 etc. for simplex, duplex, triplex, quadruplex etc.
6 Number of parallel paths ¿ mP . Where; m=¿ multiplicity.

Example: For instance, the number of parallel paths for a 6-pole duplex lap winding is
given by 6 x 2=12 paths.
7 The total number of poles are equal to the total number of brushes.
8 If I a is the total armature current, then current per parallel path is Ia ¿ P.
9 Lap winding is used for low voltage and high current machines.
Example
A six-pole DC armature with lap connected winding has 72 slots and 2 coil-sides per slot.
Determine the winding pitches and connections to the 6 equalising rings.
Solution:
Number of poles, P=6
Number of slots ¿ 72
Number of coil sides, Z=72× 2=144
Number of parallel path, A=P=6 (for simplex lap winding)
Z 144
Pole pitch, Y P= = =24
P 6
Back pitch, Y B =Y P+ 1=24+ 1=25
Front pitch, Y F=Y B−2=25−2=23
Distance between the coils having same potential i.e.,
Total number of coils Z /2 144 /2
Y eq = = = =24
Pair of poles P /2 6 /2
Total number of tapings ¿ No. of equaliser rings × pair of poles
P 6
¿ nr × =6 × =18
2 2
Total No. of coils 144 / 2

Distance between adjacent tapings ¿ = =4
Total No. of taps 18
Hence, the equaliser rings are to be arranged as per the following table:
Ring No. I II III IV V VI
Coil No. 1 5 9 13 17 21 53¿ 57 ¿ 61 ¿ 65 ¿ 69¿
25 29 33 37 41 ¿ ¿
Example
Calculate the different pitches for 4 pole, lap wound DC machine having 24 slots each has 2 coils
sides.
Solution:
Here, P=4 ; No. of slots ¿ 24 ; No. of coil sides ¿ slot ¿ 2
Z 48
Z=24 ×2=48 ; Pole pitch, Y = = =12
P 4
Y
Back pitch, B =Y B +1 =12+1=13 ; Front pitch, Y P=Y P−1=12−1=11
Resultant pitch, Y R=Y B−Y F =13−11=2; commutator pitch, Y C =1
Wave winding of a DC Machine

In wave winding the coils which are carrying current in one direction are connected in series
circuit and the carrying current in opposite direction are connected in another series circuit. A
wave winding is shown in figure.
Figure 2.14: Wave winding

If after passing once around the armature the winding falls in a slot to the left of its starting point
then winding is said to be retrogressive. If it fails one slot to the right it is progressive.
Figure 2.16: Progressive and retrogressive wave winding

Notes on Wave winding
The following are the important points to be remembered pertaining to wave winding,
1 Both pitches Y B and Y F are odd and of same sign.
2 Back and front pitches may be equal or differ by 2 and are merely equal to pole pitch.
3 Resultant pitch, Y R=Y F +Y B=(Z ±2)/2
P=¿ Number of poles
Z=¿ Total number of conductors.
4 Commutator pitch, Y C =Y A (Average pitch)

Y C =¿ Number of commutator bars ± 1¿ /(Number of pair of poles).
5 Number of parallel paths are equal to 2 m, where m is the multiplicity.

6 The number of brushes required are two irrespective of the number of poles.
7 If Ia is the total armature current then current carried by each path or conductor is Ia/2.
8 Since a wave winding is a series winding, it is used for high voltage and low current
machine.
1.3.4. Emf Equation of a DC Generator

As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In the case of a generator, the emf of
rotation is called the Generated emf or Armature emf and is denoted as Er = Eg. In the case of a
motor, the emf of rotation is known as Back emf or Counter emf and represented as Er=Eb . The
expression for emf is same for both the operations. I.e., for Generator as well as for Motor
Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine - Generator and Motor
Let,
 P - Number of poles of the machine
 ϕ -Flux per pole in Weber.
 Z - Total number of armature conductors.
 N - Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
 A - Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is given as
Flux cut by one conductor ¿ P φ wb ......(1)
Time taken to complete one revolution is given as
60
t= seconds (2)
N
Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be

Pφ
e= ..(3)
t
Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get
Pφ PφN
e= = volts
60/ N 60
The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path ¿ Z / A .

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature terminals is given
by the equation shown below.
P φ N Z PZ φ N
E= × = volts or
60 A 60 A
PZ φ n
E= … …(5)
A
Where n is the speed in revolution per second (r.p.s) and given as

N
n=
60
For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A)
are constant. Hence, the equation (5) can be written as
E=K φ n
Where, K is a constant and given as

PZ
K=
A
Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as

E ∝ φ n or
E=K 1 φ N
Where K 1 is another constant and hence induced emf equation can be written as
E ∝ φ N or
E ∝φω
Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as

2π N
ω=
60
Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole. The
polarity of induced emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of
rotation. If either of the two is reverse the polarity changes, but if two are reversed the polarity
remains unchanged.
This induced emf is a fundamental phenomenon for all the DC Machines whether they are
working as a generator or motor.
If the machine DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the equation
shown below.
PZ φ N
E g= volts
60 A
Where E g is the Generated Emf
If the machine DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the equation
shown below.
PZ φ N
Eb = volts
60 A
In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf ( Eb ) because it acts opposite to the supply
voltage.
1.3.5. Torque Equation
We know that when a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field a force is
exerted on it which exerts turning moment or torque ( F × r ) (see Fig.2.17). This torque is
produced due to electro-magnetic effect, hence is called electromagnetic torque.
Figure 2.17: Conductor placed on armature of radius ’r’

Let P=¿ No. of poles.
ϕ =¿ Flux per pole in Wb .
r =¿ Average radius of armature in metre.
l=¿ Effective length of each conductor in metre.
Z=¿ Total armature conductors.
I a=¿ Total armature current.
A=¿ No. of parallel paths.
Average force on each conductor, F=¿ Bil newton

on armature of radius ' r '
Torque due to one conductor ¿ F × r newton metre
Total torque developed in the armature,
T =ZFr newton metre
or
T =ZB il lr
Now, current in each conductor, i=I a / A
¿
Average flux density, B=ϕ /a
where ' a ' is the X-sectional area of flux path at radius r .
2 πrl 2 ϕP
Obviously, a= m ∴ B= tesla
P 2 πrl
Substituting these values in equation (i), we get
ϕp I a PZϕ I a
T =Z × × ×l× r or T = Nm
2 πrl A 2π A
Alternately; The power developed in the armature is given as

2 πN
E Ia ¿ ωT or E I a= ×T
60
ϕZNP 2 πN PZϕN
or × Ia ¿ × T or T = Nm (As above)
60 A 60 2 πA
For a particular machine, the number of poles (P), number of conductors per parallel path (Z / A)
are constant.
φ Iα PZ
∴ T =K where K= is a constant
2π A
The constant K for a given machine is the same for the emf equation as well as the torque
equation.
PZ
Also, T =K 2 ϕ I a where K 2= is another constant. Thus, T ∝ ϕ I a
2 πA
Thus, we conclude that torque produced in the armature is directly proportional to flux per pole
and armature current. Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque developed in the
armature depends upon the direction of flux or magnetic field and the direction of flow of current
in armature conductors. The direction of torque produced and hence the direction of rotation is
reversed if either of the two is reversed. But when both are reversed the direction of torque does
not change.
Example
An eight pole lap wound DC generator has 960 conductors, a flux of 40 m Wb per pole and is
driven at 400 rpm . Find O OC emf.
Solution:
ϕZNP
Open circuit emf, E g=
60 A
where, ϕ =40 m Wb=40× 10−3 Wb ; Z=960 ; N=400 rpm; P=8
A ¿ P=8 (lap winding)

−3
40 ×10 × 960 ×400 × 8
Eg ¿ =256 V (Ans.)
60× 8
Example
A 4-pole, DC machine is having 500 wave wound conductors and running at 1000 rpm. The flux
per pole is 30 m Wb. What will be the voltage induced in the armature winding.
Solution:
Here, P=4 ; A=2 (Wave wound); Z=728 ; N =1800 rpm;
−3
ϕ =35 m Wb=35× 10 Wb
ϕ ZNP 35 ×10−3 ×728 ×1800 × 4

Generated voltage, E g= = =1528.8 V (Ans.)
60 A 60× 2
Example
A 4-pole, DC machine has 144 slots in the armature with two coil-sides per slot, each coil has
two turns. The flux per pole is 20 m Wb, the armature is lap wound and if rotates at 720 rpm,
what is the induced emf (i) across the armature (ii) across each parallel path?
Solution:
Here, P=4 ; A=P=4 (Lap wound); ϕ =20 m Wb=20 ×10−13 Wb ; N =720 rpm
No. of slots ¿ 144 with 2 coil sides per slot and each coil has two turns
Z=144 ×2 ×2=576
−3
ϕZNP 20 ×10 ×576 ×720 × 4
Induced emf across armature, E g= = =138.24 V (Ans.)
60 A 60 × 4
Voltage across each parallel path ¿ E g=138.24 V (Ans.)
Example
A six-pole machine has an armature with 90 slots and 8 conductors per slot, the flux per pole is 0.05 Wb
and rms at 1000 rpm. Determine induced emf if winding is (i) lap connected (ii) wave connected.
Solution:
Here, P=6 ; ϕ=0.05 Wb ; N =1000 rpm
No. of slots ¿ 90 each slot with 8 conductors
∴ Z=90× 8=720(i) When lap connected: A=P=6
ϕZNP 0.05 ×720 ×1000 ×6
Induced emf, E g= = =600 V (Ans.)
60 A 60 ×6
(ii) When wave connected: A=2
ϕZNP 0.05 ×720 ×1000 ×6
60 A 60 ×2
Example
A DC generator carries 600 conductors on its armature with lap connections. The generator has 8 poles
with 0.06 Wb useful flux. What will be the induced emf at its terminals if it is rotated at 1000 rpm? Also
determine the speed at which it should be driven to induce the same voltage with wave connections?
Solution:
Here, P=8; Z=600 ; ϕ =0.06 Wb ; N =1000 rpm.
A=P=8 (when lap wound)
ϕZNP 0.06 ×600 ×1000 × 8
60 A 60 ×8
when wave wound, let the speed be N ' rpm but E g=600 V
E × 60 A 600× 60 ×2
Now, N ' = g = =250 rpm (Ans.)
ϕZP 0.06 × 600× 8
Example
A wave wound armature of an eight-pole generator has 51 slots. Each slot contains 16 conductors.
The voltage required to be generated is 300 V . What would be the speed of coupled prime mover if flux
per pole is 0.05 Wb .
If the armature is rewound as lap wound machine and run by same prime mover, what will be the
generated voltage.
Solution:
Here, P=8; ϕ=0.05 Wb ; No. of slots ¿ 51; conductors per slot ¿ 16
∴ Z=51 ×16=816
When the machine is wave wound, A=2 and E g=300 V

ϕZNP 0.05 × 816× N ×8
Now, E g= or 300=
60 A 60 ×2
300 × 60× 2
∴ Speed, N= =110.3 rpm (Ans.)
0.05 × 816× 8
When the machine is rewound as lap winding, A=P=8 and N=110.3 rpm .
0.05 ×816 ×110.3 × 8

E g= =75 V (Ans.)
60 ×8
Example
A six-pole lap wound armature rotating at 350 rpm is required to generate 260 V . The effective flux per
pole is about 0.05 Wb . If the armature has 120 slots, determine the suitable number of conductors per
slot and hence determine the actual value of flux required to generate the same voltage.
Solution:
Here, P=6 ; A=P=6 ; N =350 rpm ; E g =260 V ; ϕ=0.05 Wb
ϕZNP 0.05 × Z × 350 ×6
Now, E g= or 260=
60 A 60× 6
or
260 × 60× 6 260 ×24

Z= =
0.05× 350× 6 7
Z 260 ×24
No. of conductors ¿ slot ¿ = =7.43≡ 8 (an integer)
No. of slots 7 ×120
For 8 conductors/slot, Z=120 ×8=960
E × 60 A 260× 60 ×6
Actual value of flux required, ϕ = g = =0.0464 Wb (Ans.)
ZNP 960 ×350 ×6
Example
The emf generated by a 4 pole DC generation is 400 V , when the armature is driven at 1200 rpm.
Calculate the flux per pole if the wave wound generator has 39 slots having 16 conductors per slot.
Solution:
ϕZNP
Induced emf, E g=
60 A
where, P=4 ; E g=400 V ; N =1200 rpm; Z=39 ×16=624 ; A=2 (wave winding)
E × 60 A 400 × 60× 2
∴ Flux per pole, ϕ = g = =0.016 Wb=16 mWb (Ans.)
ZNP 624 ×1200 × 4
Example
The armature of a four-pole 250 V, lap wound generator has 500 conductors and rms of 400 rpm.
Determine the useful flux per pole. If the number of turns in each field coil is 1000, what is the
average induced emf in each field coil on breaking its connection if the magnetic flux set-up by it
dies away completely in 0.1 second?
Solution:
Here, P=4 ; E g=250 V ; Z=500 ; A=P=4 ; N =400 rpm
E g × 60 A
ϕ=
ZNP
260× 60 × 4
¿ =0.075 Wb (Ans.)
500× 400 × 4
No. of turns of exciting winding, N t =1000
dϕ
e=N t
dt
0.075−0
¿ 1000 × =750 V (Ans.)
0.1
Example
A four-pole generator has an induced emf of 250 V when driven at 500 rpm. The armature is lap wound
and has 600 conductors. The radius of the pole shoe is 20 cm and it subtends an angle of 60∘. Calculate
the flux density in the air-gap if the length of pole shoe is 18 cm .
Solution:
Here, P=4 ; E g=250 V ; N =500rpm ; A=P=4 ; Z=600
E g × 60 A 250 ×60 × 4
Flux per pole, ϕ = = =0.05 Wb
ZNP 600 ×500 × 4
θ 60
Pole shoe arc=2 πr × =2 π × 0.2× =0.21 m
360 360
Pole shoe area ¿ Pole shoe arc × l=0.21 ×0.18=0.0378 m 2
ϕ 0.05
Flux density in air gap ¿ = =1.323 tesla (Ans.)
area 0.0378
Example
A four-pole wave wound DC generator has 51 slots on its armature and each slot has 24 conductors. The
flux per pole is 0.01 weber. At what speed must the armature rotate to give an induced emf of 220 V .
What will be the emf developed if the winding is lap connected and the armature rotates at the same
speed.
Solution:
ϕZNP
Induced emf, E g=
60 A
where, ϕ =0.01 Wb ; Z =51× 24=1224 ; E=220 V ; P=4 ; A=2 (wave winding).
0 ⋅01 ×1224 × N × 4
∴ 220 ¿=
60 ×2
For lap winding, A=P=4;
220 × 60× 2
or N ¿ =539 ⋅21 rpm (Ans.)
0 ⋅ 01 ×1224 × 4
0 ⋅01× 1224 ×539 ⋅21 ×4

E g= =110 V (Ans.)
60 ×4
Example
A DC machine running at 750 rpm has an induced emf of 200 V . Calculate the speed at which
the induced emf will be 250 V (ii) the percentage increase in main field flux for an induced emf
of 250 V at a speed of 700 rpm.
Solution:
Here, E1=200 V ; N 1=750 rpm
(i) E2=250 V ; N 2=¿ ?
(ii) E3 =250 V , N 3 =700 rpm, ϕ 3=?
We know E ∝ Nϕ
(i) ∴
N2 E 2 ϕ1
¿ × as ϕ 2=ϕ1
N1 ϕ2 E 1
250
N2 ¿ ×750=937.5 rpm .
200
N3 E ϕ ϕ E N 250 750
¿ 3 × 1 or 3 = 3 × 1 = × =1.34
N1 ϕ3 E 1 ϕ 1 E1 N 3 200 700
(ii)
∴ % age increase in flux ¿ 1.34 % (Ans.)
Example
A 50 HP , 400 V , 4 pole, 1000 rpm, DC motor has flux per pole equal to 0.027 Wb . The armature
having 1600 conductors is wave connected. Calculate the gross torque when the motor takes 70
amperes.
Solution:
PϕZ I a
Torque developed, T =
2 πA
Where,
P=4 ; ϕ=0.027 Wb ; Z=1600 ; I a=70 A ; A

4 ×0.027 × 1600× 70
T= =963 Nm (Ans.)
2×π×2
1.3.6. Types of DC Generators

The DC generator converts the electrical power into electrical power. The magnetic flux in a DC
machine is produced by the field coils carrying current. The circulating current in the field
windings produces a magnetic flux, and the phenomenon is known as Excitation. DC Generator
is classified according to the methods of their field excitation.
By excitation, the DC Generators are classified as Separately excited DC Generators and Self-
excited DC Generators. There is also Permanent magnet type DC generators. The self-excited
DC Generators are further classified as Shunt wound DC generators; Series wound DC
generators and Compound wound DC generators. The Compound Wound DC generators are
further divided as long shunt wound DC generators, and short shunt wound DC generators.
The field pole of the DC generator is stationary, and the armature conductor rotates. The voltage
generated in the armature conductor is of alternating nature, and this voltage is converted into the
direct voltage at the brushes with the help of the commutator.
The detailed description of the various types of generators is explained below.
Permanent Magnet type DC Generator
In this type of DC generator, there is no field winding is placed around the poles. The field
produced by the poles of these machines remains constant. Although these machines are very
compact but are used only in small sizes like dynamos in motorcycles, etc. The main
disadvantage of these machines is that the flux produced by the magnets deteriorates with the
passage of time which changes the characteristics of the machine.
Figure 2.18: Parmanent magnet DC motor

Separately Excited DC Generator
A DC generator whose field winding or coil is energized by a separate or external DC source is
called a separately excited DC Generator. The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field
current with the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles. i.e. flux is directly
proportional to the field current. But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.
The figure of separately-excited DC Generator is shown below.
Figure 2.19: Separately-excited DC Generator
Separately Excited DC Generator
Here,
I a=I L where I a is the armature current and I L is the line current.
Terminal voltage is given as

V =E g −I a Ra … …(1)
If the contact brush drop is known, then the equation (1) is written as
V =E g −I a Ra −2 v b …(2)
The power developed is given by the equation shown below.

Power developed =E g I a
Power output =VI L=VI a
Power output is given by the equation (4) shown above.

Self-Excited DC Generator
Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by
the generator itself. In self-excited DC generator, the field coils mat be connected in parallel with
the armature in the series, or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with the
armature windings.
The self-excited DC Generator is further classified as
1 Shunt Wound Generator
2 Series Wound Generator
3 Compound Wound Generator
Shunt Wound Generator
In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature winding forming
a parallel or shunt circuit. Therefore, full terminal voltage is applied across it. A very small field
current I sh, , flows through it because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very high
resistance Rshof the order of 100 ohms.
Figure 2.20: Connection diagram shunt wound generator

Shunt Wound DC Generator
Shunt field current is given as
V
I sh=
R sh
Where Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance. The current field I sh is practically constant at all
loads. Therefore, the DC shunt machine is considered to be a constant flux machine.
Armature current is given as
I a=I L + I sh
Terminal voltage is given by the equation shown below.

V =E g −I a Ra
If the brush contact drop is included, the equation of the terminal voltage becomes
V =Eg −I a R a−2 v b
Power output =VI L
Series Wound Generator

A series-wound generator the field coils are connected in series with the armature winding. The
series field winding carries the armature current. The series field winding consists of a few turns
of wire of thick wire of larger cross-sectional area and having low resistance usually of the order
of less than 1 ohm because the armature current has a very large value.
Its convectional diagram is shown below.
Figure 2.21: Series Wound DC Generator

Series field current is given as
I se =I L =I a
R se is known as the series field winding resistance.

V =Eg −I a Ra −I se R se
V =E g −I a ( Ra + R se )
If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as
V =E g−I a ( Ra + R se ) −2 V b
Power output =VI L=VI a
The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to the current flowing
through it. But it is only true before magnetic saturation after the saturation flux becomes
constant even if the current flowing through it is increased.
Compound Wound Generator
In a Compound Wound Generator, there are two sets of the field winding on each pole. One of
them is connected in series having few turns of thick wire, and the other is connected in parallel
having many turns of fine wire with the armature windings. In other words, the generator which
has both shunt and series fields is called the compound wound generators.
If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced by the shunt
winding, then the machine is said to be cumulative compounded. If the series field flux opposes
the shunt field flux, then the machine is called the differentially compounded.
It is connected in two ways. One is a long shunt compound generator, and another is a short
shunt compound generator. If the shunt field is connected in parallel with the armature alone then
the machine is called the short compound generator. In long shunt compound generator, the
shunt field is connected in series with the armature. The two types of generators are discussed
below in details.
Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator
In a long shunt wound generator, the shunt field winding is parallel with both armature and series
field winding. The connection diagram of long shunt wound generator is shown below.
Figure 2.22: Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator

V
I sh=
R sh

I se =I a =I L + I sh

V =E g −I a Ra −I se R se =Eg −I a ( R a+ R se )
V =E g−I a ( Ra + R se ) −2 V b
Power output ¿ VI L
Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator

In a Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator, the shunt field winding is connected in parallel
with the armature winding only. The connection diagram of short shunt wound generator is
shown below.
Figure 2.23: Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator

I se =I L

V + I L Rse E g−I a R a
I sh = =
R sh R sh
I a =I L + I sh

V =E g −I a Ra −I L Rse
V =E g−I a Ra−I L R se −2V b
Power output =VI L

In this type of DC generator, the field is produced by the shunt as well as series winding. The
shunt field is stronger than the series field. If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding
assists the flux produced by the shunt field winding, the generator is said to be Cumulatively
Compound Wound generator.
If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is said to be Differentially
Compounded.
Voltage build-up in self-excited Generator or Dc Shunt Generator
A self-excited DC generator supplies its own field excitation. A self-excited generator shown in
figure is known as a shunt generator because its field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature. Thus, the armature voltage supplies the field current.
Figure 2.24: - Equivalent circuit of a shunt dc generator

This generator will build up a desired terminal voltage. Assume that the generator in figure has
no load connected to it and armature is driven at a certain speed by a prime mover. we shall
study the condition under which the voltage build-up takes place. Due to this residual flux, a
small voltage Ear will be generated. It is given by
Ear =K Фres ω
This voltage is of the order of 1 V or 2 V . It causes a current If to flow in the field winding in
the generator. The field current is given by
V
If =
Rf
This field current produces a magneto motive force in the field winding, which increases the
flux. This increase in flux increases the generated voltage Ea. The increased armature voltage Ea
increases the terminal voltage V . with the increase in V , the field current If increases further.
This in turn increases Φ and consequently Ea increases further. The process of the voltage
buildup continues. Figure shows the voltage buildup of a dc shunt generator.
Figure 2.25: OCC Characteristics of DC generator
The effect of magnetic saturation in the pole faces limits the terminal voltage of the generator to
a steady state value.
We have assumed that the generator is no load during the buildup process. The following
equations describe the steady state operation.
l a=I f
V =Ea−l a Ra =Ea−I f R a
Since the field current If in a shunt generator is very small, the voltage drop I f Ra can be
neglected, and V =¿Ea
The Ea versus If curve is the magnetization curve shown in figure
For the field circuit V =¿ If Rf
The straight line given by V =¿ If Rf is called the field-resistance line.
The field resistance line is a plot of the voltage If Rf across the field circuit versus the field If.
The slop this line is equal to the resistance of the field circuit.
The no-load terminal voltage V 0 of thr generator. thus, the intersection point P of the
magnetization curve and the field resistance line gives the no-load terminal voltage V 0(bP) and
the corresponding field current (Ob). Normally, in the shunt generator the voltage buildup to the
value given by the point P . at this point Ea=¿ If Rf =V 0.
If the field current corresponding to point P is increase further, there is no further increase in the
terminal voltage.
The no-load voltage is adjusted by adding resistance in series with shunt field. This increase
slope of this line causing the operating point to shift at lower voltage
The operating point are graphical solution of two simultaneous equation namely, the
magnetization curve and field resistance line . A graphical solution is preferred due to non-linear
nature of magnetization curve.
Self excited generator are designed to obtain no-load voltage from 50 % to 125 % of the rated
value while varying the added resistance in field circuit from maximum to zero value.
Critical Field Resistance:
Figure below shows the voltage buildup in the dc shunt generator for various resistances of the
field circuit.
Figure 2.26: Determination of critical resistance

A decrease in the resistance of the field circuit reduces the slope of the field resistance line result
in higher voltage. If the speed remains constant, an increase in the resistance of field circuit
increases the slop of field resistance line, resulting in a lower voltage. If the field circuit
resistance is increased to Rc which is terminal as the critical resistance of the field, the field
resistance line becomes a tangent to the initial part of the magnetization curve. When the field
resistance is higher than this value, the generator fails to excite.
Critical Speed:
Figure shows the variation of no-load voltage with fixed Rf and variable speed of the armature.
Figure 2.27: Determination of critical speed

The magnetization curve varies with the speed and its ordinate for any field current is
proportional to the speed of the generator. all the points on the magnetization curve are lowered,
and the point of intersection of the magnetization curve and the field resistance line moves
downwards. at a particular speed, called the critical speed, the field resistance line becomes
tangential to the magnetization curve. below the critical speed the voltage will not build up.
In Brief, the following condition must be satisfied for voltage buildup in a self-excited generator.
There must be sufficient residual flux in the field poles.
1 the field terminal should be connected such a way that the field current increases flux in
the direction of residual flux.
2 The field circuit resistance should be less than the critical field circuit resistance.
If there is a no residual flux in the field poles, Disconnected the field from the armature circuit
and apply a dc voltage to the field winding. this process is called Flashing the field. It will induce
some residual flux in the field poles.
Causes for Failure to Self-Excite and Remedial Measures

There may be one or more of the following reasons due which a self-excited generator may fail
to build up voltage.
No residual magnetism
The start of the buildup process needs some residual magnetism in the magnetic circuit of the
generator. If there is little or no residual magnetism. because of inactivity or jarring in shipment,
no voltage will be induced that can produce field current.
Reversal of Field Connections
The voltage induced owing to residual magnetism acts across the field and results in flow or
current in the field coils in such a direction as to produce magnetic flux in the same direction as
the residual flux. Reversal of connections of the field winding destroys the residual magnetism
which causes the generator failure to build up voltage.
In case of dc series wound generators
The resistance in the load circuit may be more than its critical resistance, which may be due to
(i) open-circuit
(ii) high resistance of load circuit
(iii) faulty contact between brushes and commutator and
(iv)commutator surface dirty or greasy.
In case of shunt wound generator
(a) the resistance of the shunt field circuit may be greater than the critical resistance;
(b) the resistance in the load circuit may be lower than the critical resistance;
(c) the speed of rotation may not be equal to rated one.
Remedy
In case the generator is started up for the first time, it may be that no voltage will be built up
either because the poles have no residual magnetism or the poles have retained some residual
magnetism but the field winding connections are reversed so that the magnetism developed by
the field winding on start has destroyed the residual magnetism and the machine can not "build
up". In both the cases, the field coils must be connected to a dc source (a storage battery) for a
short while to magnetise the poles. The application of external source of direct current to the
field is called flashing of the field.
1.3.7. Armature Reaction

When a DC generator is loaded, a current flow through the armature conductor in the same
direction as that of the induced (or generated) emf. The armature conductors carrying current,
produce their own magnetic field called armature field.
The effect of armature field produced by the armature current carrying conductors on the main
magnetic field is known as armature reaction.
Let us see the effect of armature field on the main magnetic field when the generator is loaded.
Consider a bipolar generator. At no-load, no current flows through the armature conductors and
the flux distribution in the armature is shown in Fig. below. The vector O F m represents the mmf
produced by the main field. It is observed that the Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA), which are
perpendicular to the main field passing through the armature, and the Geometrical Neutral Axis
(GNA) coincide with each other. The brushes ( B1 and B 2 ) are always placed at MNA. Here, they
are shown as touching the armature conductors directly, but in reality, they touch the commutator
segments connected to these conductors.
Geometrical Neutral Axis: The line passing through the geometrically central point between the
two adjacent opposite magnetic poles is called geometrical neutral axis (GNA).
Magnetic Neutral Axis: The line passing through the magnetically neutral position between the
two adjacent opposite magnetic poles is called magnetic neutral axis (MNA). When a conductor
(or coil) passes through these axes, no emf is induced in the conductor (or coil).
When load is applied to the generator, current ¿ flows through the armature conductors which
sets up armature field as shown in Fig. 2.29. The vector O F A represents the mmf produced by
the armature field.
Fig. 2.28 Main field produced by main poles Fig. 2.29 Field produced by armature
conductors
This armature flux interacts with the main flux and a resultant flux is set up in the armature as
shown in Fig. 2.30. It can be observed that the resultant flux is no longer uniform. It is
concentrated (becomes stronger) at the trailing pole tips and is rare (becomes weaker) at the
leading pole tips.
The resultant mmf is shown by the vector OF which is the vector sum of O F m and O F A . Thus,
the MNA are shifted to new position displaced from its original position by an angle θ .
The new position of magnetic neutral axis i.e., the shifting of axis by an angle θ depends upon
the magnitude of load applied on the generator. Larger the load, larger will be the shift or larger
will be the value of angle θ . It means the shifting of MNA is not constant, it varies and depends
upon the magnitude of load applied on the machine. Moreover, the shift is in the direction of
rotation. (in generating action).
As per the new position of MNA , the distribution of armature flux is shown in Fig. 2.31. The
vector O F AR represents the new position of mmf producing resultant armature field. This
armature field has two components (i) O F C which is perpendicular to the main mmf O F m and
produces the cross-magnetising effect. (ii) O F D which opposes the main mmf O F m and
produces the demagnetising effect.
 The direction of flow of current in armature conductors is determined by Flemming's

right hand rule. The direction of induced emf and direction of flow of current is the same.
Thus, the armature magnetic field produces.
(i) Cross magnetising effect which creates a magnetic field in between the two adjacent opposite
poles where brushes are placed for commutation.
(ii) Demagnetising effect which weaken the main magnetic field and changes the flux
distribution such that at trailing pole tips the flux is strengthened and at leading pole tips the flux
is weakened.
Fig. 2.31 New position of MNA

Fig. 2.30 Resultant field
III-effects of armature reaction

The above two effects caused by the armature reaction leads to poor commutation (increases
sparking at the brushes or at the commutator surface) and increases iron losses. Let us see how it
happens;
(i) Sparking at brushes: During commutation i.e., when a coil is short circuited by the brushes
through commutator segments should have zero emf induced in it. That is why the brushes are
usually placed along the interpolar axis where the flux cut by the coil is zero and no emf is
induced in it. But due to armature reaction the magnetic neutral axis (MNA) are shifted and the
coil which undergoes commutation induces some emf causing sparking at the brushes. At heavy
loads, the induced emf in the commutating coil may be so high that it may produce a spark that
may spread around the commutator surface forming a ring of fire. By all means, it has to be
avoided otherwise it would damage the commutator surface and brushes.
(ii) Iron losses: The flux density in the leading and trailing pole tips is changing due to change in
load on the generator or due to armature reaction. This change in flux density causes more iron
losses in the pole shoes.
Calculations for Armature Ampere-turns

Armature reaction causes demagnetising and cross-magnetising effect. Due to armature reaction,
let the MNA be shifted ahead by an angle θ . The new position of MNA is represented by line AB.
Draw another line CD making the same angle θ with GNA but in opposite direction as shown in
Fig. 2.32. It may be observed that all the conductors lying between AOC and BOD carry current
in such a direction mmf produced by them in opposite to the main mmf. These conductors cause
demagnetising effect and these turns are known as demagnetising turns.
All other turn lying between angle AOD and COB produce cross magnetising mmf and are
called cross-magnetising turns.
Z ¿ total number of armature conductors

Let A ¿ No. of parallel paths
¿ ¿
Ia
Current per parallel path or current in each conductor, I c =
A
Fig. 2.32 Angle of shift due to armature reaction
Total armature ampere-turns ¿

Ic Z
2
(since turns ¿
Z
2 )
Ic Z
Total ampere-turns per pole ¿
2P
Demagnetising ampere-turns ¿ ampere-turns lying with in the angle ( AOC+ BOD)
( )
I c Z 2 θ+2 θ I c Z 4 θ 2θ
¿ ⋅ = ⋅ =I c Z
2 360 2 360 360
Ic Z 2θ θ
Demagnetising ampere-turns/pole, A T d= ⋅ =I c Z ⋅
2 360 360
( )
I c Z I c Zθ 1 θ
Cross magnetising ampere-turns/pole, A T c = − =I c Z −
2 P 360 2 P 360
Example 4.26
A six-pole generator has 600 wave wound conductors on its armature. It delivers 100 ampere at
full-load. If the brush lead is 6∘ mechanical, calculate the armature demagnetising and
crossmagnetising ampere-turns per pole.
{Solution:}
Here, P=4 ; A=2 (wave-wound) ; Z=600 ; I a =100 A ; θ=6∘
I a 100
Current in each conductor, I c ¿ = =50 A
A 2
Demagnetising ampere-turns/pole, A T d ¿
 In a bipolar machine mechanical angle is 360∘ and the electrical angle is also 360∘,
whereas, in four-pole machine mech. angle is 360∘ but the electrical angle is 720∘ i.e.,
P
electrical angle ¿ 2 × mech. angle or electrical angle ¿ mech. angle. Cross-magnetising
2
ampere-turns/pole, A T c =I c Z ⋅( 1
−
θ
2 P 360 )
¿ 50 ×600 × ( 2×1 6 − 3606 )=2000 (Ans.)
Example 4.27
A 250 kW ,500 V , 4 pole lap wound armature has 720 conductors. It is given a brush lead of 3∘
mechanical from its geometrical neutral axis (GNA). Calculate demagnetising and cross
magnetising ampere-turns per pole. Neglect shunt field current.
Solution:
Here, Load=250 kW ;V =500 V ; P=4 ; Z=720 ;θ=3∘ (mech.)

250 ×1000
Load current, I L = =500 A
500
Armature current I a=I L =500 A (shunt field current neglected)
No. of parallel paths, A=P=4 (lap wound)
I a 500
I c= = =125 A
A 4
Demagnetising ampere-turns/pole,
θ 3
A T d=I c Z ⋅ =125 ×720 × =750 (Ans.)
360 360
Cross-magnetising ampere-turns/pole,
A T c =I c Z
( 1
−
θ
2 P 360 ∘ )
=125× 720×
1
− (
3
2 × 4 360 )
=10500 (Ans.)
Example 4.28
A four-pole motor has a wave wound armature with 720 conductors. The brushes are displaced
backward through 4 degree mechanical from GNA. If the total armature current is 80A, calculate
demagnetising and cross-magnetising ampere-turns per pole.
Solution:
Here, P=4 ; A=2; Z=720 ; θ=4 ; I a=80 A
I a 80
Current in each conductor, I c ¿ = =40 A
A 2
θ 4
Demagnetising ampere-turns/pole, A T d ¿Ic Z ⋅ =40× 720 × =320 (Ans.)
360 360
Cross-magnetising ampere-turns/pole, A T c ¿Ic Z (1
−
θ
2 P 360 )
¿ ¿
Example 4.29
A 250 V , 10 kW ,8 pole DC generator has single turn coils. The armature is wave-wound with
90 commutator segments. If the brushes are shifted by 2 commutator segments at full-load,
calculate (i) total armature reaction ampere-turns (ii) demagnetising ampere-turns and (iii) cross-
magnetising ampere-turns.
Solution:
Here, Load ¿ 10 kW ;V =250 V ; P=8 ; A=2 (wave wound)
No. of commutator segments ¿ 90
Brush shift ¿ 2 commutator segments
10× 1000
Load current ; I L = =40 A
250
Armature current, I a=I L =40 A
I a 40
Current per conductor, I c = = =20 A
2 2
Total armature conductors, Z=¿ No. of commutator segment × No. of parallel path ¿ 90 ×2=180
2 ∘
Brush shift, θ= ×360=8 (mech.)
90
I c Z 40 ×180
(i) Total armature-reaction ampere-turns/pole ¿ = =450 (Ans.)
2P 2× 8
θ 8
(ii) Demagnetising ampere-turns/pole ¿ I c Z ⋅ =40 ×180 × =160 (Ans.)
360 360
I c Z I c Z .θ
(iii) Cross-magnetising ampere-turns/pole ¿ − =450−160=290 (Ans.)
2P 360
Example 4.30
A 150 kW ,250 V , 6 pole lap wound generator has 600 conductors on its armature. Due to
armature reaction if the MNA are shifted by 18∘ electrical, determine (i) demagnetising ampere-
turns (ii) cross-magnetising ampere-turns (iii) series turns required to balance the demagnetising
component neglecting magnetic leakage.
Solution:
Here, Load ¿ 150 kW ; V =250 V ; P=6 ; A=P=6 ; Z=600 ; θ=18∘ electrical
150 ×1000
Load current, I L = =600 A
250
I a 600
A 6
electrical angle 18
Brush shift, θ= = =6∘ (mechanical) (i) Demagnetising ampere-turns,
P/2 6/2
θ 6
A T d=I c Z ⋅ =100 ×600 × =1000 (Ans.)
360
∘
360
(ii) Cross-magnetising ampere-turns, A T c =I c Z ⋅ ( 21P − 360θ )

¿ 100 ×600 × ( 2×1 6 − 3606 )=4000 (Ans.)
A T d 1000
(iii) Series turns required to balance the demagnetising component ¿ =
Ia 600
5
¿ =1.67 (Ans.)
3
1.3.8. Commutation
In a DC machine, one of the major functions is the delivery of current from the armature
(rotating part) to the external circuit (stationary part) or vice versa. This operation is conducted
with the help of brushes and commutator.
During this operation one of the armature coil moves from the influence of one pole to the other
and consequently the current in this coil is reversed. While moving from one pole to the other the
coil is short circuited by the brushes through commutator segments for fraction of a second (say
1
about second). This operation is called commutation.
500
Thus, the process in which a coil is short circuited by the brushes through commutator segments
while it passes from the influence of one pole to the other is called commutation. In this process
the current in the coil is reversed.
The duration for which a coil remains short circuited is called commutation period.
Explanation
For better understanding, consider a machine having ring winding, a part of which is shown in
Fig. 2.33. Assume that the width of brush is equal to the width of commutator segment and the
insulation between the segments is very thin (negligibly small). The current per conductor is I c
and the armature is rotating in such a direction, that coils are moving from left to right. Let the
coil ' B ' undergoes commutation. Step-wise explanation in given below:
1 As shown in Fig. 2.33(a), the brush is in contact with commutator segment ' a ' and
collects current 2 I c coming equally from both the sides.
2 As the armature is moving, in the first step as shown in Fig. 2.33 (b), the brush contact
with segment ' b ' starts increasing and contact with segment ' a ' starts decreasing.
Consequently, the current flowing towards the brush via segment ' b ' starts increasing'
and through segment ' a ' starts decreasing.
 It may be noted that at first instant the current in segment ' b ' is zero but at second instant
its value is I c −x and at the next instant it will become I c which will be move than ( I c −x )
. Similarly, at first instant current in segment ' a ' was 2 I c ¿ I c =2 I c ) which is reduced to
I c + x and at the next instant it will be reduced to I c only. It may be noted that current in
coil ' B ' decreases from I c to x .
Fig. 2.33 Commutation during brush shifts from segment 'a' to 'b'
3 At the next instant, as shown in Fig. 2.33(c), the brush is at the centre of both the
segments ' b ' and ' a ' and covers half of the area of both the segments. At this instant
brush is drawing equal current ( I c ) from both the segments ' b ' and ' a ' and its total value
is 2 I c '.
It may be noted that current in the coil ' B ' at this instant reduces to zero.
4 Further at the next instant, as shown in Fig. 2.33 (d ), larger area of segment ' b ' has come
in contact with the brush than segment ' a '. Accordingly, brush draws more current
¿
( I c + y ) from segment ' b ' and draws smaller current ( I c − y ) from segment ' a '.
 It may be noted that at each instant current drawn by the brush is 2 I c . First instant, 2 I c ;
second instant ( I c −x + I c + x=2 I c ) ; third instant ( I c + I c =2 I c ) ; fourth instant
( I c + y+ I c − y =2 I c ). It may be noted that current in the coil ' B ' has reversed and starts
increasing.
5 At the next (final) instant, as shown in Fig. 2.33(e), the brush completely comes in
contact with segment ' b ' and draws equal current I c from both the sides.
It may be noted that current in the coil ' B ' has totally reversed and obtains its rated value I c.
Thus, the commutation process is completed for coil ' B '. The same process continues for the
next coils to come (i.e., coil C , D and so on..........).
The reversal of current through a coil undergoing commutation may occur in any of the
following manners (see Fig. 2.34):
Curve-I. Shows linear commutation, where current changes from + I c to −I c uniformly. It is an

ideal commutation and provides uniform current density at the brush contact surface. In this case,
the power loss at the brush contact is minimum.
Curve-2. Shows sinusoidal commutation. It results in satisfactory commutation.
Curve-3. Shows an accelerated or over-commutation where the current attains its final value with
a zero (quick) rate of change at the end of commutation period. Usually, it provides a satisfactory
commutation.
Curve 4. Shows a retarded or under-commutation where the final rate of change of current is
very high. In such conditions sparking at
Fig. 2.34 Curves for reversal of current the trailing edge of the brush is inevitable.
Curve 5. Shows sharply accelerated commutation where the current may reach to its proper final
value without a spark but it involves very high localised current densities at the brush contact
leading to sparking and heating which further leads to deterioration of brushes.
Curve 6. Shows sharply retarded commutation where current reaches to its final value which
causes excessive current density under brushes resulting in sparking at the brushes.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it is concluded that for satisfactory commutation, the current in the
coil which undergoes commutation must be reversed completely during its commutation period
T c.
Cause of Delay in the Reversal of Current in the Coil going through Commutation and its
Effect
The main cause of delay in the reversal of current in the coil undergoing commutation is its
inductive property. It is apparent that the coils placed in the armature may have large number of
turns embedded in the magnetic core having high permeability, due to which it possesses
appreciable amount of self-inductance.
The inductive property of the coil undergoing commutation gives rise to a voltage called
reactance voltage. This voltage opposes the reversal of current in it. Although, this voltage is
very small, it produces a large current in the coil whose resistance is very small under short
circuit. Due to this, heavy sparking occur at the brushes.
Thus, it is observed that even though the brushes are set at such a position that coils undergoing
short-circuit are in the magnetic neutral axis where they are not cutting any flux and hence no
emf is induced in them due to rotation of armature but there will be an emf induced due to self-
inductance which causes severe sparking at the brushes.
How to Offset this Reactance Voltage?

To offset this reactance voltage, a voltage is produced in each coil as it passes through
commutating period. This voltage is produced in the coil in such a direction that it offsets the
reactance voltage and helps in reversing the current in the coil. Such a voltage is called the
commutating emf.
The necessary commutating emf can be produced either (i) by shifting the brushes in non-
interpolar machines, beyond the position of MNA which is selected to neutralise the armature
reaction. or (ii) by strengthening the inter-poles more than that is necessary to neutralise the
armature reaction flux.
Magnitude of Reactance Voltage
An approximate value for inductance (L) of a coil placed in the armature can be determined by
Hobert's formula. Hobart gave an experimental rule for determining inductance of a coil, i.e.,
L=n2 ( 8 l e +0.8 l f ) ×10−6 henry
where, l e =¿ embedded length of coil in metre
l f = free length (over hang) of coil in metre

n= number of turns of a coil
Induced emf in a coil due to self-inductance, i.e.,
di
Reactance voltage =L
dt
where, di=¿ Change of current during commutation
¿ I c −(−I c )=2 I c
dt=T c (time for which the coil is short circuited)
W −W m
T c= b second
vc
Here,
W b= brush width in metre

W m = width (or thickness) of mica insulation
πDN
v c = linear velocity of commutator
60
2 2 Ic −6
Hence, reactance voltage ¿ n ( 8 l e + 0.8l f ) ⋅ ×10 volt
Tc
The above voltage is developed when only one coil is short circuited by the brush width. If brush
width is such that it is short circuiting m coils, then
2 2 Ic −6
reactance voltage =m n ( 8 l e +0.8 l f ) ⋅ × 10 V
Te
Example 4.31
A four-pole lap-wound DC machine has an armature of 20 cm diameter and runs at 1500 rpm. If
the armature current is 120 A , thickness of the brush is 10 mm and the self-inductance of each
coil is 0.15 mH , determine the average emf induced in each coil during commutation.
Solution:
Here, P=4 ; A=P=4 ; D=20 cm=0.2 m ; I a =120 A ;
L ¿ 0.15 mH =0.15 ×10−3 H ; W b =10 mm=0.01 m

πDN π ×0.2 ×1500 −1
Linear velocity, v c ¿ = =15.71 ms
60 60
W −W m 0.01−0
Commutation time, T c ¿ b = =( W m=0 not given )
Vc 15.71
¿ ¿
I a 120
A 4
2Ic 2 ×30
Average reactance voltage ¿ L⋅ =0.15 ×10−3 ×
Tc 0.636 × 10−3
¿ ¿
Example
Calculate the reactance voltage for a six-pole wave connected generator if its speed is 300 rpm,
diameter of commutator 1.4 metre, number of commutator segments 440 , brush width 3 cm,
length of each conductor 1 m, length of core 40 cm, turns per commutator segment 2 and
armature current is 500 ampere.
Solution:
Here, P=6 ; A=2 ; N=300 rpm ; D=1.4 m;W b =3 cm ; I a=500 A ; n=2
Linear or peripheral velocity,
πDN π ×1.4 × 300 −1

v c= = =22 ms
60 60
W b−W m 0.03−0 0.03

Period of commutation, T c = = = second
vc 22 22
I a 500
Current per conductor, I c =¿ =250 A
A 2
Length of conductor ¿1 m
Embedded length of conductor ¿ 40 cm=0.4 m
Free length of conductor ¿ 1−0.4=0.6 m
Embedded length per turn, l e ¿ 2 ×0.4=0.8 m
Free length per turn, l f ¿ 2 ×0.6=1.2 m
πD π × 1.4
W idth of each segment ¿ = =0.01 m
No. of segments 440
Brush width, W b ¿ 3 cm=0.03 m
0.03
No. of segments short circuited by the brush, m= =3
0.01
No. of turns per coil, n=2

2 −6
Self-inductance, L=mn ( 8 l e +0.8 l f ) ×10 H
2 −6
¿ 3 ×2 ×(8 ×0.8+0.8 × 1.2)×10 H
¿ 88.32 ×10−6 H
2I −6 2× 250
Reactance voltage =L× c =88.32 ×10 × =32.38 V (Ans.)
Tc 0.032/22
4.23 Good Commutation and Poor Commutation
Good Commutation
Good commutation means no sparking at the brushes and the commutator surface remains
unaffected during continuous operation of DC machines. Efforts are made to obtain good
commutation.
Poor Commutation (Causes of sparking at brushes)
A machine is said to have poor commutation if there is sparking at the brushes and the
commutator surface gets damaged during its operation. Sparking at the brushes results in
overheating at the commutator brush contact and pitting of commutator. These effects are
cumulative, since any sparking impairs the contact which increases heating and further
aggravates the situation.
Poor commutation may be caused by mechanical or electrical conditions. The mechanical

conditions for poor commutation may be due to uneven surface of the commutator, non-uniform
brush pressure or vibrations of brushes in the brush holder etc. By making proper mechanical
arrangements, the sparking due to mechanical conditions can be avoided (or eliminated).
The electrical conditions for poor commutation is development of emf in the coils undergoing
commutation which may be due to armature reaction or inductance effect of the coil. The
production of emf due to armature reaction in the coil undergoing commutation can be
eliminated by providing interpoles or compensating winding on the machine. The production of
emf due to inductance can be counter balanced either (i) by strengthening the interpoles more
than that is necessary to neutralise the armature reaction flux or (ii) by shifting the brushes
beyond the position of MNA which is selected to neutralise the armature reaction.
Interpoles and their Necessity
The narrow poles placed in between the main poles of a DC machine are called interpoles or
commutating poles.
Necessity
Interpoles are provided in between the main poles of DC machine and are energised to such an
extent that they must neutralise the armature field produced by the armature winding when
machine is loaded. At the same time, they must neutralise the emf induced due to inductance in
the coil undergoing commutation.
For illustration,
Consider a coil ab placed on the armature, rotating in a uniform magnetic field. At this instant,
when the induced emf in the coil ab which undergoes short circuit must be zero as shown in
Figs. 2.35( a) and (b). Then no current flows and there is no sparking at the brushes which are
slipping from one commutator segment to the next.
(a) Instant when induced emf in coil ab is (b) Bushes short circuiting the segments
zero
Fig. 2.35 Armature rotating in uniform magnetic field
When load is applied, the armature conductors also carry current and produce their own
magnetic field ϕ A in the direction shown in Fig. 2.36(a). Thus coil ab undergoing commutation,
this coil is short circuited for a small period. Although it is moving parallel to main field ϕ m but
at the same time it is cutting the armature field ϕ A at right angles. Hence, an emf is induced in the
short circuited coil ab as shown in Fig. 2.36(a). This produces lot of current in the coil and hence
causes sparking at the brushes.
(b) Position of interpoles
(a) EMF induced in coil ab due to armature
field.
Fig. 2.36 Interpoles neutralising the armature field
The sparking at the brushes can be avoided by neutralising the armature field. For this, interpoles
are provided in the DC machines which are placed in between the main poles as shown in Fig.
2.36(b). The flux produced by the interpoles, i.e., ϕ i must be equal to that of armature field ϕ A .
As ϕ A is proportional to I a, therefore, the winding of the interpoles is connected in series with the
armature as shown in Fig. 2.37(a) and 2.37(b). Usually, the interpoles are tapered in order to
ensure that there may not be saturation at the root of the pole at heavy overloads. At the same
time the airgap under the interpoles is kept larger (1.5 to 1.7 times) than that under the main
poles in order to avoid saturation in the interpoles.
(b) In DC shunt machine

(a) In DC series machines
Fig. 2.37 Connections of interpole winding
Compensating Winding and its Necessity
An armature reaction produces a demagnetising and cross-magnetising effect. The

demagnetising effect is compensated by incorporating a few extra turns to the main-field
winding, whereas, to neutralise the cross-magnetising effect a compensating winding is used. In
this case, a number of conductors or coils are embedded in the slots of the pole shoes and are
connected in series with the armature winding in such a way that current flowing through these
conductors or coils sets up a magnetic field which neutralises the cross-magnetising effect of
armature field. This winding is known as compensating winding, as shown in Fig. 2.38.
When current flows through this winding, it sets up magnetic field which is equal and opposing
to the cross-magnetising effect of armature field and neutralises it. Thus, no emf is induced in the
coil passing through MNA and hence sparking at the brushes is eliminated. Thus, a sparkless or
good commutation is obtained.
Fig. 2.38 Compensating winding
Example 4.33
Estimate the number of turns needed on each commutating pole of six-pole generator delivering
200 kW at 200 V , given that the number of armature conductors is 540 and the winding is lap
connected interpole air-gap is 1.0 cm and the flux density in the interpole air-gap is 0.3 Wb /m2.
Neglect the effect of iron parts of the circuit and of leakage.
Solution:
Here, Load ¿ 200 kW ;V =200 V ;Z =540 ; A=P=6

2
l ig =1.0 cm=0.01 m; Big =0.3 Wb /m
kW ×1000 200 ×1000

Load current, I L = = =1000 A
V 200
I a 1000
Current per conductor, I c = = =166.7 A
A 6
I c Z 166.7× 540
Armature reaction ampere turns per pole ¿ = =7500
2P 2× 6
l ig Big 0.01× 0.3

Ampere-turns for air gap flux per pole, A T ig = = =2386
μ0 4 π ×10−7
Total ampere-turns required for each interpole, A T ip =7500+ 2386=9886
A T ip 9886
No. of turns for each interpole ¿ = =9.886 (Ans.)
Ia 1000
Example 4.34
A four-pole, 20 kW , 400 V DC generator has a wave wound armature with 600 conductors. The
mean flux density in the air gap of interpole is 0.5 tesla on full-load. If the air gap under interpole
is 4 mm , calculate the number of turns required on each interpole.
Solution:
Here P=4 ; A=2 (wave-wound); load

−3
¿ 20 kW ;V =400 V ; Z=600 ; Big=0.5 T ;l ig =4 mm=4 ×10 m
kW ×1000 20 ×1000
Load current, I L = = =50 A
V 400
I a 50
Current in each conductor, I c = = =25 A
A 2
I c Z 25× 600
Armature reaction ampere-turns per pole ¿ = =1875
2P 2×4
Big l ig 0.5 × 4 ×10−3

Ampere-turns for air-gap, A T ig = = =1591
μ0 4 π × 10−7
Total interpole ampere-turns, A T ip =1875+ 1591=3466
A T ip 3466
Number of turns on each interpole ¿ = =69.32 (Ans.)
Ia 50
Example 4.35
A four-pole, lap wound DC generator carries 360 armature conductors and delivers a full-load
current of 400 A . Determine the number of turns of each Interpole if the air-gap flux of the
interpole is 0.5 tesla and the effective air-gap length is 3 mm . Assuming that the number of
ampere-turns required for the remaining magnetic circuit is only one-tenth of the air-gap.
Solution:
Here, P=4 ; A=P=4 (lap winding); Z=360 ; I a =400 A

I a 400
A 4
I c Z 100 × 360
Armature reaction ampere-turns per pole, AT = = =4500
2P 2×4
Inter-pole air gap, l ig =3 mm=3 ×10−3 m
Flux density in the inter-pole air gap, Big =0.5 T
Big l ig 0.5 ×3 ×10−3

Ampere-turns required for inter-pole air gap ¿ = −7
=1193.2
μ0 4 π ×10
10
Ampere-turns required for remaining magnetic circuit ¿ 10 % of 1193.2= × 1193.2=119.3
100
Total ampere-turns required for the interpole ¿ 4500+1312.5=5812.5
5812.5
Number of turn on each interpole ¿ =14.53 (Ans.)
400
Example 4.36
A four-pole, 25 kW , 250 V wave-wound generator has 42 slots with 10 conductors per slot. The
brushes are given a lead of 8∘ mechanical when the generator delivers full-load current. Calculate
the number of turns on the compensating winding if the ratio of pole arc to pole pitch is 0.8 .
Solution:
Here, P=4 ; A=2 (wave-winding); Load ¿ 25 kW ;V =250 V ; Z=42 ×10=420 ; θ=8∘ (mech.)
kW ×1000 25 ×1000
Load current, I L ¿ = =100 A
V 250
Armature current, I a ¿ I L =100 A
I 100
Current per conductor, I c ¿ a= =50 A
A 2
I c Z 50× 420
Total armature reaction ampere-turns ¿ = =2625
2P 2×4
Ampere-turns per pole for compensating winding
I c Z Pole arc
¿ × =2625 ×0.8=2100
2 P Pole pitch
ATs for each pole face 2100
Turns per pole for compensating winding ¿ = =21 ¿ Ans. ¿
Ia 100
Methods of Improving Commutation
Commutation may be improved by employing following methods.
1 By use of high resistance brushes. High resistance carbon brushes help the current to be
reversed in the coil undergoing commutation and reduces sparking at the brushes.
2 By shifting of brushes. In this method, brushes are shifted to the new position of MNA
so that no emf be induced in the coil undergoing commutation. Thus, the sparking at the
brushes is eliminated. But in this case, the position of MNA changes with the change in
load on the machine and simultaneously the position of brushes cannot be changed.
Hence, this method is employed in the machine which we do not have interpoles and the
load on the machine remain almost constant.
3 By use of interpoles or commutating poles. In this method, narrow poles are placed in
between the main poles of a DC machine which re-energised to such an extent that they
neutralise the field produced by the armature under load. Hence, no emf is induced in the
coil which undergoes commutation.
4 By use of compensating winding. In this method, a number of conductors or coils are

embedded in the slots provided at the pole shoes faces and carry current of such a
magnitude and direction that field produced by them neutralises the armature field and
improve commutation.
1.3.9. Characteristics of DC Generators

Generally, following three characteristics of DC generators are taken into considerations: (i)
Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.), (ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and (iii) External
Characteristic. These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.
1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) ( E0 / I f )

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation
characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between generated emf at no load (E0) and
the field current (If) at a given fixed speed. The O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and
it is practically similar for all type of generators. The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by
operating the generator at no load and keeping a constant speed. Field current is gradually
increased and the corresponding terminal voltage is recorded. The connection arrangement to
obtain O.C.C. curve is as shown in the figure below. For shunt or series excited generators, the
field winding is disconnected from the machine and connected across an external supply.
Fig2.39: Circuit for OCC
Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that Eg = kɸ. Hence, the generated emf
should be directly proportional to field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field
current). However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of emf is generated
(represented by OA in the figure below). This initially induced emf is due to the fact that there
exists some residual magnetism in the field poles. Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial
emf is induced in the armature. This initially induced emf aids the existing residual flux, and
hence, increasing the overall field flux. This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus,
O.C.C. follows a straight line. However, as the flux density increases, the poles get saturated and
the ɸ becomes practically constant. Thus, even we increase the If further, ɸ remains constant and
hence, Eg also remains constant. Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic.
Fig. 2.40: Open Circuit Characteristics

The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit characteristics for all
types of DC generators.
2. Internal or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)
An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and
the armature current (Ia). The on-load generated emf Eg is always less than E0 due to the
armature reaction. Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction from no- load voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies below
the O.C.C. curve.
3. External Characteristic (V/IL)
An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal voltage (V) and the load
current (IL). Terminal voltage V is less than the generated emf Eg due to voltage drop in the
armature circuit. Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic
curve. External characteristics are very important to determine the suitability of a generator for a
given purpose. Therefore, this type of characteristic is sometimes also called as performance
characteristic or load characteristic.
Internal and external characteristic curves are shown below for each type of generator.
Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator:
Fig. 2.41
If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain constant for
any load current. Thus, the straight-line AB in above figure represents the no-load voltage vs.
load current IL. Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-load generated emf
is less than the no-load voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf Eg vs. load
current IL i.e. Internal characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately excited dc generator). Also, the
terminal voltage is lesser due to ohmic drop occurring in the armature and brushes. The curve
AD represents the terminal voltage vs. load current i.e. external characteristic.
Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
To determine the internal and external load characteristics of a DC shunt generator the machine
is allowed to build up its voltage before applying any external load. To build up voltage of a
shunt generator, the generator is driven at the rated speed by a prime mover. Initial voltage is
induced due to residual magnetism in the field poles. The generator builds up its voltage as
explained by the O.C.C. curve. When the generator has built up the voltage, it is gradually
loaded with resistive load and readings are taken at suitable intervals. Connection arrangement is
as shown in the figure below.
Fig. 2.42: Circuit for External characteristics of shunt generator

Unlike, separately excited DC generator, here, IL≠Ia. For a shunt generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence, the
internal characteristic can be easily transmitted to Eg vs. IL by subtracting the correct value of If
from Ia.
Fig. 2.43
During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load current increases.
But, as we go on decreasing the load resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So, load resistance
can be decreased up to a certain limit, after which the terminal voltage drastically decreases due
to excessive armature reaction at very high armature current and increased I 2R losses. Hence,
beyond this limit any further decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load current.
Consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back as shown by dotted line in the above
figure.
Characteristics of DC Series Generator
Fig. 2.44
The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is
because in DC series generators field winding is connected in series with armature and load.
Hence, here load current is similar to field current (i.e., IL=If). The curve OC and OD represent
internal and external characteristic respectively. In a DC series generator, terminal voltage
increases with the load current. This is because, as the load current increases, field current also
increases. However, beyond a certain limit, terminal voltage starts decreasing with increase in
load. This is due to excessive demagnetizing effects of the armature reaction.
Characteristics Of DC Compound Generator
Fig. 2.45
The above figure shows the external characteristics of DC compound generators. If series
winding amp- turns are adjusted so that, increase in load current causes increase in terminal
voltage then the generator is called to be over compounded. The external characteristic for over
compounded generator is shown by the curve AB in above figure.
If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, the terminal voltage remains constant even the
load current is increased, then the generator is called to be flat compounded. The external
characteristic for a flat compounded generator is shown by the curve AC.
If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required to be flat
compounded, then the generator is called to be under compounded. The external characteristics
for an under compounded generator are shown by the curve AD.
1.3.10.Applications of DC Generators
Depending upon the characteristics of various types of DC generators, their important
applications are given below:
1. Separately excited DC generators. Although, these generators are more costly than self-
excited generators as they require a separate source for their field excitation. But their response
to the change in field resistance is quicker and more precise. Therefore, these are employed
where quick and definite response to control is important such as Ward–Leonard System of
speed control.
2. Shunt-wound DC generators. As they provide constant terminal voltage, they are best suited
for battery charging. Along with field regulators, they are also used for light and power supply
purposes.
3. Series-wound DC generators. These generators have very few applications. Their best
application is in the DC locomotives, where they supply field current for regenerative braking.
They are also employed in series arc lighting. Another application of these generators is as series
boosters for increasing DC voltage across the feeders.
4. Compound-wound DC generators
(i) Over-compounded type. These are more suited for lighting and power services, as they
compensate for the voltage drop in the lines and voltage at the terminals of the load remains
constant.
(ii) Differential-compounded type. They are usefully employed as are welding sets. In such cases,
generator is practically short-circuited every time the electrode touches the metal plates to be
welded.
1.3.11.Losses in a DC Generator
While conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy, a part of energy dissipated in the
form of heat in surrounding air is called losses in the generator.
These losses affect the efficiency of the generator. A reduction in these losses leads to higher
efficiency. Thus, the major objective in the design of a DC machine is the reduction of these
losses.
The various losses occurring in a DC machine can be sub-divided as:
1. Copper losses.
2. Iron losses
3. Mechanical losses.
1. Copper losses. The various windings of the DC machine, made of copper, have some
resistance. When current flows through them, there is power loss proportional to the square of
their respective currents. These power losses are called copper losses.
Iron losses. The losses which occur in the iron parts of a DC generator are known as iron losses
or core losses or magnetic loss. These losses consist of the following:
(i) Hysteresis loss. Whenever a magnetic material is subjected to reversal of magnetic flux, this
loss occurs. It is due to retentivity property of the material. It is expressed with reasonable
accuracy by the following expression: Ph=K h Vf B1.6
m
where, K h=¿ hysteresis constant in J /m3 i.e., energy loss per unit volume of magnetic material
during one magnetic reversal, its value depends upon nature of material;
V =¿ Volume of magnetic material in m3;
f =¿ frequency of magnetic reversal in cycle/second and
Bm=¿ maximum flux density in the magnetic material in tesla.
It occurs in the rotating armature. To minimise this loss, the armature core is made of silicon
steel which has low hysteresis constant.
(ii) Eddy current loss. When flux linking with the magnetic material changes (or flux is cut by
the magnetic material) an emf is induced in it which circulates eddy currents through it. These
eddy currents produce eddy current loss in the form of heat. It is expressed with reasonable
accuracy by the expression:
2 2 2
Pe =K e V f t Bm
Where;
K e =¿ constant called co-efficient of eddy current; its value depends upon the nature of magnetic
material;
t=¿ thickness of lamination in m;
V , f and Bm are the same as above.

The major part of this loss occurs in the armature core. To minimise this loss, the armature core
is laminated into thin sheets ¿ to 0.5 mm ) since this loss is directly proportional to the square of
thickness of the laminations.
Mechanical losses. As the armature of a DC machine is a rotating part, some power is required
to overcome:
(i) Air friction of rotating armature (windage loss)

(ii) Friction at the bearing and friction between brushes and commutator (friction loss).
These losses are known as mechanical losses. To reduce these losses proper lubrication is done at
the bearings.
1.4. DC Motor
https://youtu.be/LAtPHANEfQo
An electro-mechanical energy conversion device (electrical machine) that converts DC electrical

energy or power (EI) into mechanical energy or power (ωT ) is called a DC motor.
Electric motors are used for driving industrial machines, e.g., hammers, presses, drilling
machines, lathes, rollers in paper and steel industry, blowers for furnaces, etc., and domestic
appliances, e.g., refrigerators, fans, water pumps, toys, mixers, etc. The block diagram of energy
conversion, when the electro-mechanical device works as a motor, is shown in Fig. 2.46.
Fig. 2.46 Block diagram of electromagnetic energy conversion (motor action)
1.4.1. Working Principle of DC Motors

The operation of a DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is experienced by it. The direction of this force is
determined by Fleming's Left-Hand Rule and its magnitude is given by the relation:
F=Bil newton
For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the magnetic field produced by a
bipolar machine [see Fig. 2.47(a)]. When DC supply is connected to the coil, current flows
through it which sets up its own field as shown in Fig. 2.47(b). By the interaction of the two
fields (i.e., field produced by the main poles and the coil), a resultant field is set up as shown in
Fig. 2.47(c). The tendency of this is to come to its original position i.e., in straight line due to
which force is exerted on the two coil sides and torque develops which rotates the coil.
(a) Main field (b) Field due to current carrying coil
(c) Resultant field

Fig. 2.47 Working principle of a motor
Alternately, it can be said that the main poles produce a field F m. Its direction is marked in Fig.
2.48. When current is supplied to the coil (armature conductors), it produces its own field
marked as F r. This field tries to come in line with the main field and an electromagnetic torque
develops in clockwise direction as marked in Fig. 2.48. In actual machine, a large number of
conductors are placed on the armature. All the conductors, placed under the influence of one pole
(say, North pole) carry the current in one direction (outward). Whereas, the other conductors
placed under the influence of other pole i.e., south pole, carry the current in opposite direction as
shown in Fig. 2.49. A resultant rotor field is produced. Its direction is marked by the arrow-head
F r. This rotor field F r tries to come in line with the main field F m and torque ( T e ) develops.
Thus, rotor rotates.
Fig. 2.48 Position of main field F m and rotor

field F r
Fig. 2.49 Motor action
It can be seen that to obtain a continuous torque, the direction of flow of current in each
conductor or coil side must be reversed when it passes through the magnetic neutral axis (MNA).
This is achieved with the help of a commutator.
Function of a Commutator
The function of a commutator in DC motors is to reverse the direction of flow of current in each
armature conductor when it passes through the M .N.A. to obtain continuous torque.
Back emf
It has been seen that when current is supplied to the armature conductors, as shown in Fig.
2.50(a), placed in the main magnetic field, torque develops and armature rotates. Simultaneously,
the armature conductors cut across the magnetic field and an emf is induced in these conductors.
The direction of this induced emf in the armature conductors is determined by Fleming's Right-
Hand Rule and is marked in Fig. 2.50(b).
(a) Torque development due to alignment

(b) Production of Eb
Fig. 2.50 Back emf

It can be seen that the direction of this induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage. That is
why this induced emf is called back emf ( E b ). The magnitude of this induced emf is given by the
relation;
or
PZϕN
E b=
60 A
ZP ZP
Eb = ϕN or Eb ∝ ϕN (since are constant)
60 A 60 A
Eb
Also, N ∝ shows that speed of motor is inversely proportional to magnetic field or flux.
ϕ
A simple conventional circuit diagram of the machine working as motor, is shown in Fig. 2.51.
In this case, the supply voltage is always greater than the induced or back emf (i.e., V > E b ).
Therefore, current is always supplied to the motor from the mains and the relation among the
various quantities will be; Eb =V −I a R a.
Significance of Back emf

The current flowing through the armature is given by the relation:
V −E b
I a=
Ra
Fig. 2.51 Circuit diagram ( E b< V )
When mechanical load applied on the motor increases, its speed decreases which reduces the
value of Eb . As a result the value ( V −Eb ) increases which consequently increases I a. Hence,
motor draws extra current from the mains.
Thus, the back emf regulates the input power as per the extra load.
1.4.2. Electro-magnetic Torque Developed in DC Motor

The electrical power which is supplied to a DC motor is converted into mechanical power. The
conversion of power takes place in the armature as stated below:
The power developed in the armature is given as
ϕZNP 2 πN
or × I a= ×T e
60 A 60
E I a=ω T e
or
2 πN
E I a= × Te
60
or
PZϕN
T e= Nm
2 πA
For a particular machine, the number of poles (P), number of conductors per parallel path (Z / A)
are constant.
ϕ Iα PZ
∴ T =K where K= is a constant
2π A
The constant K for a given machine is the same for the emf equation as well as the torque
equation.
PZ
As well as, T =K 2 ϕ I a where K 2= is another constant or T ∝ ϕ I a Thus, it is concluded that
2 πA
torque produced in the armature of a DC machine is directly proportional to flux per pole and
armature current. Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque developed in the armature
depends upon the direction of flux or magnetic field and the direction of flow of current in the
armature conductors. If either of the two is reversed the direction of torque produced is reversed
and hence the direction of rotation. But when both are reversed the direction of torque (or
rotation) does not change.
Shaft Torque
In DC motors whole of the electromagnetic torque ( T e ) developed in the armature is not available
at the shaft. A part of it is lost to overcome the iron and mechanical (friction and windage)
losses. Therefore, shaft torque ( T sh ) is somewhat less than the torque developed in the armature.
Thus, in case of DC motors, the actual torque available at the shaft for doing useful mechanical
work is known as shaft torque.
Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.)
In case of motors, the mechanical power (H.P.) available at the shaft is known as brake horse
power (B.H.P.). If T sh is the shaft torque in Nm and N is speed in rpm then,
Useful output power ¿ ω T sh=2 πN T sh /60 watt

2 πN T sh
Output in B.H.P. =
60 ×735.5
Example
A 50 HP , 400 V , 4 pole, 1000 rpm, DC motor has flux per pole equal to 0.027 Wb . The
armature having 1600 conductors is wave connected. Calculate the gross torque when the motor
takes 70 amperes.
Solution:
Pφ ZI a
Torque developed, T =
2 πA
Where, P=4 ; ϕ=0.027 Wb ; Z=1600 ; I a=70 A ; A=2 (wave connected)

4 × 0 ⋅027 ×1600 ×70
T= =963 Nm ¿
2 × π ×2
Example
The induced emf in a DC machine is 200 V at a speed of 1200 rpm. Calculate the
electromagnetic torque developed at an armature current of 15 A .
Solution:
Here, Eb =200 V ; N=1200 rpm ; I a =15 A
Now power developed in the armature,

or
ωTe ¿ Eb I a
Te ¿
E b I a Eb I a
ω
=
2 πN (
×60 ∵ ω=
2 πN
60 )
¿ ¿
Example
A four-pole DC motor has a wave-wound armature with 594 conductors. The armature current is
40 A and flux per pole is 7.5 mW . Calculate H.P. of the motor when running at 1440 rpm
Solution:
PZϕ I a 4 × 594 ×7.5 ×10−3 × 40
Torque developed, T = = =56.72 Nm (Ans.)
2 πA 2 π×2
2 πN
Power developed ¿ ωT watt; where ω=
60
or
power developed ωT 2 π NT
H.P. = ; H . P .= =
735.5 735.5 60× 735.5
2 ×1440 ×56.72
H.P. = =11.63( Ans )
60 ×735.5
Example
A DC motor has 6-poles with lap wound armature. What will be its brake horse power when it
draws a current of 340 A and rotates at 400 rpm . The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb and the armature
carries 864 turns, Neglect mechanical losses.
Solution:
Here, P=6 ; A=P=6 (lap wound); I L =340 A ; N=400 rpm,

ϕ =0.05 Wb ; No. of turns =864
Z=864 × 2=1728
ϕZNP 0.05× 1728× 400 ×6
Back emf, Eb = = =576 V
60 A 60 ×6
Power developed ¿ Eb × I a=576 × 340=195840 W

E b I a 195840
Neglecting losses, brake HP= = =266.27 (Ans.)
735.5 735.5
1.4.3. Types of DC Motor

Based on the placement of the field winding, the DC motors can be categorized as
Separately Excited DC Motor
As the name suggests, the DC power supply is given separately for field and armature windings
in the case of a separately excited DC motor. The main distinguishing fact in these types of DC
motors is that, as the field winding is energized from a separate external source of DC current,
the armature current does not flow through the field windings as shown in Figure 2.52.
Fig. 2.52: Separately excited DC motor.
Fig. 2.53 Separately excited DC motor with field resistance for speed control.
From the DC motor torque equation, we know T e =k Φ I a. So, in this case the torque can be
varied by varying field flux ϕ , independent of the armature current I a. Considering the brush
voltage drop, the terminal equation for the separately excited DC motor is given as shown in Fig.
2.53 below
V a =Eb + I a R a+ V b
If the brush voltage drop is neglected, the terminal equation modifies as

V a =Eb + I a R a
I t=I a ; terminal current is the same as the armature current
V f =I f Rf
¿ Rfw : resistance of field winding
¿ Rfc : resistance of control rheostat used in field circuit

¿ Rf =R fw + R fc : total field resistance
¿ Ra : resistance of armature circuit
Eb =k Φ ω m
T e =k Φ I a
Self-Excited DC Motor
Shunt DC Motor
In the shunt motor, the field is connected in parallel (shunt) to the armature windings. The shunt-
connected motor provides good regulation of speed. The field winding may be excited or
connected separately to the same source as the armature. An advantage of a separately excited
shunt field is the ability of a variable speed drive to provide independent armature
Fig. 2.54 Shunt DC motor with its equivalent circuit.

and field control. The shunt-connected motor provides for simplified reversal control. This is
particularly advantageous for regenerative drives. Fig. 2.54 shows the schematic and its
equivalent circuit of the DC shunt motor. The terminal equations of the DC shunt motor are the
same as that of the separately excited DC motor and are given above.
The different equations for the shunt DC motor are summarized as.
V f ¿ R f I f =V a
E b ¿ V a −I a Ra
E b ¿ K a Φ ωm
T e ¿ K aΦ I a
I ¿ I t −I f
Series DC Motor
In a series of DC motors, the field is connected in series to the armature. The field is wound with
a few turns of large wire because it must carry the full armature current. A characteristic of series
motor is that the motor develops a large amount of starting torque. However, the speed varies
greatly between no load and full load. Series motors cannot be used where constant speed is
required under varying loads. A series motor should never be started at no load. With no
mechanical load on the series motor, the current is low, the counter-emf produced by the field
winding is weak, and so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient counter-emf to
balance the supply voltage. The speed of the DC motor is given in as.
Eb
N∝
Φ∝Ia
At the beginning, the value of ϕ is almost zero, which leads to the value of speed being very
high. The motor can be damaged by over-speed. This is called a runaway condition. Some load
must always be connected to a series-connected motor. Series-connected motors are generally
not suitable for use in most variable speed drive applications.
The terminal equation for the DC series motor from Fig. 2.55 is given as
V a =Eb + I a ( R a + Rs ) +V b
If the brush voltage drop is neglected, the terminal equation modifies as

V a =Eb + I a ( R a + Rs )
Fig. 2.55 Series DC motor with its equivalent circuit.
Fig. 2.56 Compound DC motor.

The different equations for the shunt DC motor are summarized as.
V a ¿ E b + I a ( R a+ R s )
I ¿ I a=I f
Eb ¿ K a Φ s ωm
Te ¿ K a Φs I
Compound DC motor
Compound DC motors, like shunt DC motors, have a shunt field which is excited separately as
shown in Fig. 2.56. Compound DC motors have a good starting torque but may experience
control problems in variable speed drive applications.
1.4.4. Characteristics of DC Motors

Every motor has its characteristics to determine its performance. By this, one can conclude
where it can be applied, and one can also take the necessary precautions to avoid any damage.
For example, a series motor should not be started directly by applying a very light or no load, as
heavy currents flow to the windings that damage the winding mechanism. So, it is possible to
avoid this type of damage by knowing its performance characteristics so that any necessary
precautionary methods can be taken to avoid such instances.
The three characteristic curves generally considered important for the DC motors are
(i) torque vs. armature current
(ii) speed vs. armature current, and
(iii) speed vs. torque.
Torque and speed play a crucial role in motor operation. Torque is generally produced by main
flux produced by field winding, which interacts with the flux of the armature produced by
armature current. The interaction of these two fluxes develops a unidirectional torque which
allows rotation of the motor, t m. The speed with which the rotor should rotate is another main
concern. The rotor speed is generally dependent on the back emf and flux produced inside the
motor. The torque-to-speed relationship explains how we can draw a characteristic curve
between them. These different types have been classified, based on the arrangement of the
winding, and consequently the characteristics also differ.
Separately Excited and DC Shunt Motor
Basically, the field winding in a shunt motor is connected to the winding of the armature. When
a current is supplied via a DC source, flux is generated which interacts with the flux of the
armature to produce a unidirectional torque. The torque-to-speed relationship of a shunt motor is
determined by
T ∝Φ×Ia
The flux Φ is constant in the case of separately excited DC motor and DC shunt motor. The
torque is therefore directly proportional to the current of the armature. The speed vs. armature
current (torque) characteristics of the separately excited DC motor and shunt motor can be drawn
by determining the relation between the speed and armature current.
V a=E b+ I a Ra
E b=k Φ ωm
Eb V a−I a Ra
ω m= =
kΦ kΦ
V a Ra
ω m= − I
kΦ kΦ a
For no-load condition, I a=0 , the no-load speed is obtained as

Va
ω mo=
kΦ
−Ra
As the armature current increases, the speed drops from its no-load value with a slope of as
kΦ
shown in Fig. 2.57.
A similar relationship is obtained between speed and torque as
T e =k Φ I a
T
I a= e
kΦ
Current is substituted in Eqs. above to obtain the relationship between speed and torque
V a Ra T e
ω m= −
k Φ k Φ kΦ
¿
Fig. 2.57 Characteristics of the DC shunt motor.
Under no-load condition, Te=0, the no-load speed is seen as
Va
ω mo=
kΦ
−Ra
As the load torque increases, the speed drops from its no-load value with a slope of as
¿¿
shown in Fig. 2.57. where; Eb is constant. A slight drop in the characteristic can be found due to
the voltage drop in the armature resistance. A similar curve to the speed vs. armature current can
be found for speed vs. torque as the torque is directly proportional to the armature current. Fig.
2.57 shows the characteristics curve for the separately excited and shunt motor.
Series Motor
The torque is directly proportional to the product of the armature current and the field flux. In
DC series motors, field winding is connected to the armature in series. As the field current and
eventually the flux is directly proportional to the armature current, i.e.
2
T ∝ Φ × Ia∝ Ia
The terminal equation V a =Eb + I a ( R a + Rs ) +V b and V a =Eb + I a ( R a + Rs ) are valid up to the

saturation point. Thus, before the magnetic saturation of the field, the torque-armature current
curve is a parabola for smaller values of I a. After the magnetic saturation of the field, the flux is
independent of the armature current I a. Thus, the torque varies proportionally to I a only.
Therefore, after magnetic saturation, the torque-armature current curve becomes a straight line.
The speed vs. armature current (torque) characteristics of a series DC motor can be drawn by
determining the relationship between the speed and armature current.
V a=E b+ I a ( Ra + R s )
Eb =k Φ ω m
Φ=K I a
E b=kK ω m I a =K 1 ω m I a
E V a−I a ( Ra + Rs ) V ( Ra + R s )
ω m= b = = a −
K1 Ia K 1 Ia K 1 Ia K1
For no-load condition, Ia ¿ 0, the speed becomes infinite. Hence, a DC series motor is never
allowed to start no-load condition. For a loaded condition, the curve is shown in Fig. 2.58.
Fig. 2.58 Characteristics of the DC shunt motor.

Similarly, the speed-torque curve is reached by obtaining the relationship between the speed and
torque. Considering the speed-current relationship of the above eqn, replacing the current with
torque.
T e ¿ k Φ I a=kK ( I a )2=K 1 ( I a )2
Ia ¿
√ Te
K1
Substitute the current into ω mEqn
Va ( R a + Rs ) V a 1 ( R a + Rs )
ω m= − = −
K1 Ia K1 √ K 1 √T e K1
The variation of the speed with respect to the armature current can be given as
Eb
N∝
Φ∝Ia
As the speed of the DC series motor is inversely proportional to the armature current, the
increase in the load current decreases the speed of the motor, however, for low value of load
current, the speed becomes very high which must be avoided. Therefore, the series motor must
be started with a mechanical load connected to it. A similar curve is obtained for the speed vs.
torque relationship.
Compound Motor
Compound motor characteristics basically depend on whether the motor is cumulatively
compound or differential compound. Cumulative compound motor can produce large quantities
of torque at low speeds much like series motor. However, even at light or no load, it does not
have series motor disadvantages. The shunt field winding produces the definite flux, and the
series flux helps to increase the overall flux level by the shunt field flux. As a result, cumulative
compound motor can run at acceptable speed and does not operate at extremely high speeds such
as series motor, on light or without load conditions. Since two fluxes oppose each other in
differential compound motor, the resulting flux decreases as the load or armature current rises,
thus the system runs at a higher speed with load rise. This property is dangerous as the motor can
attempt to run at extremely high speed on full load. Nevertheless, differential compound motor is
rarely used. The
Fig. 2.59 Characteristics of the DC compound motor.

specific characteristics of both the combined compound motor forms and the differential are
shown in the Fig. 2.59.
1.4.5. Starting of a DC Motor

The basic operating equation of a DC motor are given as
V a =Eb + I a R a
V a−E b
I a=
Ra
When the motor is at rest, the back emf is zero, i.e.

N Φ PZ
Eb =
60 A
Eb∝ N
Thus, at the time of starting, armature current can be given as
I a ,st =V a / Ra .
The resistance of the armature in practical DC machines is very low, usually about 0.5 Ω .
Therefore, during initialization/start, a large current flow through the armature. The current is
large enough to damage the circuit of the armature. Because of this excessive starting current, the
fuses will blow out and the winding armature and/or switching brush system may get harmed. A
very high starting torque will be produced (as the torque is directly proportional to the current of
the armature), and this high starting torque will cause enormous centrifugal force which will
throw off the winding armature. Many loads connected to the same source/feeder can experience
a voltage drop in the terminal. Because of their high rotor inertia, the DC motor can pick up
speed very slowly. Therefore, building up the back emf gradually causing the high starting
current level sustained for quite a while. That can result in severe damage. A suitable DC motor
starter needs to be used to avoid this. Nevertheless, very small DC motors can be started directly
by connecting them to the supply using a switch or a contactor. It does no damage as they gain
speed easily due to low inertia of the rotor. In this scenario, because of the rapid rise in the back
emf, the broad starting current will die down quickly.
Fig. 2.60 Design of a starter.

Design of a Starter for a DC Motor
Fig. 2.60 shows a four-step starter system which is designed to reduce the starting armature
current to a low value and gradually reduces the resistance to the final resistance of the armature.
The motor then reaches its rated current and works normally.
Initially, now starting armature current I a=V a /R 4; which comes out to be very less. Let the
values of each resistance from the armature side be X 1 , X 2 , X 3, and X 4, ohms. Therefore
R1=R a+ X 1
R2=R a+ X 1 + X 2
R3=R a+ X 1+ X 2 + X 3
R4 =Ra + X 1+ X 2 + X 3 + X 4
Normally, motors are designed with 50 % overload to start, advancing the starter one step when
armature current has fallen to a definite lower value. Either this lower current limit can be fixed,
or the number of steps can be fixed. In the former case, the number of steps is chosen to match
the upper and lower current limits, whereas in the latter case, the lower current limit depends on
the number of steps specified. It can be shown that the resistances in circuits from geometric
progression on successive studs, having a common ratio equal to lower current limit by upper
current limit i.e. I 2 /I 1
Lower Current Limit ( I 1 ) R4 R 3 R2 R 1

= = = = =k
Upper Current Limit ( I 2 ) R3 R 2 R1 R a
For example, let the upper current limit be set to 2 times the lower current limit, i.e. k =2 and the
value of armature resistance Ra is 0.5 Ω .
Therefore
R1
=k=2
Ra
⇒ R1 =2× 0.5=1.0 Ω
Similarly
R 2=2.0 Ω
R3 =4.0 Ω
R4 =8.0 Ω
From the above values, the actual values of the step resistance will be
X 1=0.5 Ω
X 2=1.0 Ω
X 3=2.0 Ω
X 4=4.0 Ω
Example
A 110 V , a 1000 rpm DC motor has a full load armature current of 20 A . It is proposed to
design a starter which restricts the maximum armature current during the start to 40 A . For
design purposes, the minimum current during the starting is to be restricted to 20 A , the series
resistance in the armature circuit is being cut out in steps when the current falls to 20 A .
Calculate the maximum series resistance used in the starter and the amount of resistance cut out
during each of the first two steps. The armature resistance of DC motor is 0.25 Ω .
Solution
As the maximum armature current needs to be restricted at 40 A , the armature resistance R1 can
be calculated as
110
R1= =2.75 Ω
40
The value of external resistance to be used at the start ¿ 2.75 Ω−0.25 Ω=2.50 Ω.
Upper current limit 40
Now, k= = =2
Lower current limit 20
R 2.75
R 2= 1 = =1.375 Ω
k 2
R 1.375
R3 = 2 = =0.6875 Ω
k 2
The resistance cut out in first step ¿ R1−R 2=2.75 Ω−1.375 Ω=1.375 Ω.
The resistance cut out in second step ¿ R2−R 3=1.375 Ω−0.6875 Ω=0.6875 Ω.
Types of Starters
To prevent the dangers mentioned above when starting a DC motor, the starting current must be
reduced. Therefore, a starter is used to start a DC motor. There are different types of DC motor
starters, such as a three-point starter, four-point starter, no-load release coil starter, thyristor
controller starter, etc. The basic principle behind each DC motor starter is to add external
resistance to the armature winding during start-up.
Three-Point Starter
One way to restrict the inrush current is to reduce the voltage applied to the motor, and then
gradually bring it up to the rated voltage. It obviously requires a variable-voltage DC supply.
While these supplies are also available in the laboratory, they are usually not available at work.
We must therefore restrict the current by other means. One method is to reduce the voltage by
connecting an external series resistance. The motor can be started easily without unnecessary
armature current by putting a large resistance in the circuit at start-up and increasing it in steps as
the speed rises. This is achieved using both manual and automatic starters. Fig. 2.61 displays a
circuit diagram for the manual starter. The arm is powered by the spring and is rotated in the
direction of the clockwise direction, slowly reducing the resistance of the armature as the motor
accelerates. This starter is a three-point starter. The electromagnet holding the starter in the place
of run is in the circuit of ground. This form of starter can be used for shunt and compound
motors and the starter drops out if the field is lost, preventing the motor from runaway. The
downside of this type of starter is that if field resistance control is used to weaken the field for
increased motor speed it can drop out the electromagnet. Therefore, this type of starter cannot be
used for the DC series motor.
Fig. 2.61 Three-point starter.
Fig. 2.62 Four-point starter.

Four-Point Starter
Fig. 2.62 displays a circuit diagram for four-point starters. Here, the electromagnet is directly
connected to the voltage line. It does not drop out on the shunt machine at low field current
values, and thus does not protect against runaway. The fuses in the motor circuit, however,
would possibly blow before the motor reached a dangerous speed. Also, it can be used to start
series motors.
1.4.6. Speed Control of a DC Motor

We frequently want to control the speed of a DC motor. Speed control is frequently needed in
numerous applications. This requires change in drive speed known as a DC motor speed control.
Speed control of a DC motor is done either by the operator manually, or by an automatic control
unit. The speed of a DC motor ( N ) is equal to
V a −I a Ra
N=
k aΦ
The speed of the three types of DC motors-, series- and compound-regulated by changing the
quantities on the right side of the above equation.
Separately Excited and DC Shunt Motor
For controlling the speed of the shunt motor, there are essentially two methods, namely:
(i) Varying armature resistance: This is the most widely employed method. Here, the controlling
resistance is directly connected to the motor supply in series, as shown in the Fig. 2.63. A
variable resistance is added to the armature circuit in armature resistance control. Field is
connected directly across the supply so the flux is not changed due to series resistance variations.
The power loss in the control resistance of the DC series motor can be neglected as this control
method is used to reduce the speed under light-load condition for a long portion of time. This
speed control method is most cost effective for constant torque. This speed control method is
used for motor-driving cranes, hoists, trains etc. of the DC series.
(ii) Flux control method: The speed of the DC motor is inversely proportional to the flux. Thus,
speed can be increased by decreasing the flux, and vice versa. To control the flux, a resistance is
added as shown in the circuit diagram of Fig. 2.64, in series with field winding. Adding more
resistance with field winding in series will increase the speed as flux decreases. As field current
is relatively small in shunt motors, the loss of the external resistance is small. So, this method is
quite effective. Although speed can be increased above the rated value by reducing flux with this
method, it places a limit on maximum speed as weakening field flux beyond a limit will
adversely affect the switching process. Reducing the field flux also reduces the electromagnetic
torque produced by motor.
Fig. 2.63 Varying armature resistance method of speed control.
Fig. 2.64 Flux control method of speed control.

Series Motor
Speed adjustment by field control of a DC series motor may be done by
(i). Field diverter method: In this method, an external resistance is connected in parallel to the
series field which works as a diverter for the armature current as shown in Fig. 2.65. Here, the
field flux is produced by a portion of the motor current around the series field by diverting some
portion of the armature current through the diverter. Reducing the resistance to the diverter
means less field current, therefore less flux is more speed. This method gives above-normal
speed, and the method is used in electrical drives where speed should rise sharply as soon as load
is lowered.
(ii). Tapped field control: This is another way to increase the speed by reducing the flux, and is
done by reducing the number of field winding turns through which current flows as shown in
Fig. 2.66. In this method, a number of field winding tapings are brought out. This method is used
in the electric traction.
Fig. 2.65 Field diverter method of speed control.
Fig. 2.66 Field diverter method of speed control.

Example
A 25-KW, 125 V separately excited DC machine is operated at a constant speed of 3000 rpm
with a constant field current such that the open-circuit armature voltage is 125 V . Design a DC
motor starter to restrict the starting current to twice rated current of DC motor.
Solution
I a ∣ rated =P/V rated =25 k /125=200 A
I a|starting =Vt /Ra=125/ Ra Assume Ra=0.1 Ω →1250.1=1250 A
(This value is very high and undesired)

Given 200 % of rated value
I =Vt /(Rae+ Rae 1)=2(200)=1250/( 0.1+ Rae 1); Rae ⁡1=0.2125 Ω
At t =t 2−¿¿
Ia=200 A
Ea 2=Vt −Ia( Ra+ Rae 1)=125−200(0.1+ 0.2125)=62.5 V
At t=t 2+¿
Ia=400 A
400=(Vt−Ea)/(Ra+ Raext )=(125−62.5)/(0.1+ Rae 2); Rae ⁡2=0.05625 Ω
At t=3−¿¿
Ia=200 A
Ea 3=Vt −Ia( Ra+ Rae 1)=125−200 (0.1+0.05625)=93.75 V
At t=3+¿ ¿
400=(Vt−Ea)/( Ra+ Raext )=(125−93.75)/(0.1+ Rae3 ) ; Rae3 =−0.021875 Ω
Negative value means it is not appropriate

R1=R ae 1−R ae 2=0.2125−0.056251=0.15625 Ω
R2=R ae 2−Rae 3=0.05625−0=0.05625 Ω
Simulink Model of starter shown in Fig. 2.67.
Fig. 2.67 Simulink model of starter.
Solved Examples
Example
A 1 kW ,200 V DC shunt motor has armature resistance of 0.2 Ω and shunt field resistance of
200 Ω . At no load, the motor draws 3 A from 200 V supply and runs at 1000 rpm. Calculate the
total loss of the machine at full load.
Solution
V in 200
Current in the shunt branch I sh = = =1 A
R sh 200
Cu-loss in the shunt branch I 2sh R sh =12 × 200=200 W
No load input to motor Pnl =200 ×3=600 W
No load current in the armature branch I ao=3−1=2 A
No load Cu-loss in the armature resistance I 2a 0 R a=22 × 0.2=0.8 W
Constant or standing losses of the motor ¿ 600−0.8=599.2 W

1000
Full load current I fl = =5 A
200
Full load cu-loss in the armature ¿ I 2a R a=52 ×0.2=5 W
Therefore, total losses at full load ¿ 200+599.2+5=804.2 W

Example
A two-pole series motor with a lap wave winding with 500 conductors. Total resistance is 1 Ω.
When supplied from a 200 V , motor supplies a load of 6.4 kW and takes 40 A with a flux of
5 mWb. Compute the developed torque.
Solution
Total resistance which is sum of armature resistance and series field resistance
R=Ra+ Rse=1 Ω
Applied voltage V a =200 V
Ia ¿ 40 A ; P=10 kW (load)
Φ=5 mWb
E=Va−IaRa=200−40 X 1=160 V
N Φ PZ
E=
60 A
60 AE 60 X 2 X 160
N= = =3840 rpm
Φ PZ 5 X 10−3 X 2 X 500
Speed in rad / sec
2 πN 2 π (3850)
ω m= = =403.17 rad /sec
60 60
Torque Developed
P 6.4 X 1000
T= = =15.87 Nm
ωm 403.17
Example
A commutatively compound generator is supplying power to a DC machine. Suddenly, if the
prime mover of the generator fails and the speed drops how the generator will behave?
Solution
Due to failure of the prime mover, the speed drops. When the speed drops, the back emf will
reduce. The generator now behaves as a motor since ( E b< V ).
When the machine becomes a motor, it will start drawing current from the load. Now the
direction of series field will reverse. The overall flux will be subtractive. The machine becomes a
differential compound motor.
Example
A DC motor takes an armature current of 50 A at 400 V . The armature circuit resistance is
0.1 Ω . The machine has four poles and the armature is lap-connected with 264 conductors. The
flux per pole is 0.08 Wb . Calculate
(i) the speed and
(ii) the gross torque developed by the armature
Solution
(i)
Eb =V a−I a Ra=400−50 × 0.1=395 V
ϕ=0.08 Wb
Z=264
ϕZNP
Eb=
60 A
0.08× 264 × N × 4
395=
60 × 4
⇒ N=1122.2 rpm
(ii)
0.159 ×ϕZP I a
Ta ¿
A
¿ ¿
Example
Determine the developed torque and shaft torque of 220-V, four-pole series motor with 800
wave-connected conductors supplying a load of 8.2 kW by taking 45 A from the mains. The flux
per pole is 25 mWb and its armature circuit resistance is 0.6 Ω.
Solution
Developed torque or gross torque is the same thing as armature torque
0.159× ϕZAP ϕZNP 25× 10−3 ×800 × Nπ ×4
Ta ¿ =V −I R =220−45 ×0.6=193 V ¿ E ¿= ¿ 193¿= ¿ N ¿=4
A a a a b
60 A 2
¿ ¿
Also
2 πN T sh =Po
2 π × 4.825 ×T sh=8200
⇒ T sh =270.5 N −m
Example
A 125-V shunt motor has an armature whose resistance is 0.2 Ω . Assuming a voltage across the
brush contacts of 5 V , what armature current will flow
(a) when the back emf is 110 V ?
(b) if the motor load is increased so that the back emf drops to 96 V ?
Solution
V a−E b
I a=
Ra
where
I a = armature current
V a= applied voltage
E b= back emf
Ra = armature resistance
V a−E b 125−5−110
(a) I a= = =20 A
Ra 0.5
V a−E b 125−5−96
(b) I a= = =48 A
Ra 0.5
Example
A 250 VDC shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.04 Ω and the field resistance is 100 Ω .
Calculate;
(a) The value of resistance to be added to the field circuit to increase speed from 1000 rpm to
1400 rpm when supply current is 150 A .
(b) With this field resistance, calculate the speed when the supply current is reduced to 100 A .
Solution
V a ¿ 250 V , I a=150 A , Ra=0.04 Ω , R sh1 =100 Ω; N 1=1000rpm , Rsh 2=? ,
(a)
N2 ¿ 1400rpm
Field current
V a 250
I sh 1= = =2.5 A
R sh 1 100
I a 1=I t 1−I sh 1=150−2.5=147.5 A
Eb 1 =V a−I a R a=250−147.5× 0.04=244.1 V
N Φ PZ
Eb= =K n Φ N
60 A
Φ ∞ I sh =K I sh ( Linear Magnetization )
E b=K n K I sh N
Eb 244.1
Kn K = = =0.09764 V / Arpm
I sh N 2.5 (1000)
When the field resistance is added

Assuming the line current and armature current are the same
It ≈ Ia
Eb 2 =V a−I a R a=250−150 ×0.04=244 V
Eb=K n K I sh N
Eb2 246
I sh 2= = =1.8 A
K n KN 0.09764(1400)
V V 250
I sh2= a ; R sh2= a = =138.88 Ω
R sh2 I sh2 1.8
R ext =Rsh2 −Rsh1 =138.88−100=38.88 Ω
(b)
Va=250 V , Ish=1.8 A , Rsh =38.88 Ω , N =?
I a=I t −I sh =100−1.8=98.2 A
Eb =V a−I a Ra=250−98.2 ×0.04=246.07 V
Eb=K n K I sh N
Eb 246.07
N= = =1400.1rpm
K n K I sh 0.09764 (1.8)
Example
The armature of a 200 V shunt motor has a resistance of 0.5 Ω . If the armature current is not to
exceed 60 amp , calculate: (a) the resistance that must be inserted in series with the armature at
the instant of starting; (b) the value to which this resistance can be reduced when the armature
accelerates until Eb is 160 V ; (c) the armature current at the instant of starting if no resistance is
inserted in the armature circuit. (Assume a 2-V drop at the brushes.)
Solution
V a−E b
I a=
Ra
(a)
' V a−E b 220−2−0
⇒ R a= = =3.63 Ω
Ia 60
External resistance R=3.63−Ra =3.63−0.5=3.13 Ω
' V a−Eb 220−2−160

(b) ⇒ R a= = =0.966 Ω
Ia 60
R=0.966−Ra =0.966−0.5=0.466 Ω
220−2
(c) I A= =436 A
0.5
Example
Find the condition for maximum power developed in a DC machine. Calculate the power and
efficiency under this condition.
Solution
Power Developed by a DC machine is given as
P=E b I a= ( V a−I a R a ) I a=V a I a −I 2a Ra
For maximum power

dP
=0 ⇒ V a−2 I a Ra=0
d Ia
Va
I a=
2 Ra
Substituting the current equation to the back emf equation, the condition for maximum power
Eb =V a−I a Ra=V a−
( )Va
2 Ra
V
Ra = a
2
Thus, the back emf is half of the applied armature voltage and is the condition of maximum
power.
Maximum Power
Pmax =Eb I a= ( )( )
Va
2
Va
=
V 2a
2 Ra 4 R a
Input power under maximum output power condition
P¿ =V a I a =V a
( )
Va
=
V 2a
2 Ra 2 Ra
Efficiency
( )
2
Va
P 4 Ra
η= ×100 %= × 100 %=50 %
( )
P¿ Va
2
2 Ra
Example
A 220 V DC Series Motor takes 50 A when running at 1500 rpm and delivering rated output
power. What resistance should be added in armature to reduce the speed to 1000 rpm at the rated
output power? Total resistance is given as 0.5 Ω
Solution
Total resistance
R total =Ra + R se=0.5 Ω
V a=220 V , I a=50 A , N=1500rpm
Eb=V a−I a R total =220−50 × 0.5=195 V
N Φ PZ
E b= =K n Φ se N
60 A
Φse ∞ I se =K se I se ( Linear Magnetization )
Eb =K n K se I se N
E 195
K n K se = b = =0.0026 V / Arpm
I se N 50 ×1500
Torque
T =K a Φ se I a
T =¿ rated constant
I a=¿ rated Constant
Va=220 V , Ia ¿ 50 A , N =1000 rpm
After adding external resistance, total resistance is
R 'total =Ra + Rext

'
Eb =K n K se I se N =0.0026 ×50 ×1000=130 V
'
130=220−50 R total
'
Rtotal =1.8 Ω
R ext =1.8−0.5=1.3 Ω
Example
A DC shunt motor runs at 1500 rpm when rated voltage is applied. If the voltage is reduced to
half of its rated value, find the new speed of the machine. Neglect the armature resistance.
Solution
E b=V a−I a R a
K n Φ N=V a−I a R a
V a−I a R a
N=
Kn Φ
V −I R V
N= a a a = a
KnΦ Kn Φ
' V V
V a= a ; I f= a
2 Rf
'
If= =
V
'
a
Va
2 ( ) V
= a= f
I
Rf Rf 2 Rf 2
' ' Φ
Φ ∞ I f ;Φ =
2
'
N=
Va
'
=
( )
Va
2 V
= a =N =1500 rpm
Kn Φ K Φ K nΦ
'
n
2
Example
A 120 V DC shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 Ω and a brush volt drop of 2 V . The
rated full-load armature current is 75 A . Calculate
(i) the current at the instant of starting, and the % of full load.
(ii) Calculate the various values (taps) of starting resistance to limit the current in the motor of
Part (i) to
(a) 150 % rated load at the instant of starting.
(b) 150 % rated load, when the counter emf is 25 % of the armature voltage, V .
(c) 150 % rated load, when the counter emf is 50 % of the armature voltage, V a .
(iii) Find the counter emf at full load, without starting resistance.
Solution
V 2−BD 120−2
(i) I st = = =590 A (when back emf is zero)
R1 0.2
590
Percent full load ¿ ×100=786 %
76
V a−( E b +BD )
(ii) I a=
Ra + R s
Solving for R s,
V a−( E b+ BD )
R s= −R a
Ia
(a) At starting, Eb is zero

V a−BD
Rs ¿ −R a
Ia
¿ ¿
V a−( Eb + BD ) 120−30−2
(b) Re =
Ia
−R a=
1.5 ×75
[ ]
−0.2=0.582 Ω Re = {V a −( Ec +BD ) }/ I a −¿
V a−( E h+ BD ) 120−60−2
(c) R s= −Ra = −0.2=0.316 Ω
Ia 1.5 ×75
(iii) Eb =V a−( I a Ra + BD )=120−(75 × 0.2)+2=103 V
Example
Consider a DC series motor used in traction application (constant power load). It is running at
rated load and rated voltage. For speed control, armature voltage control is used. If the reduced is
dropped to 25 % of the rated value, calculate the applied voltage to be applied.
Solution
E b=V a−I a Ra
K n Φ N=V a −I a Ra
V −I R
N= a a a
KnΦ
V a −I a ( R a+ R se ) Va
N= = ;( R →0)
Kn Φ Kn Φ
Φ ∞ Ia
Va
N=
K n K se I a
Mechanical Power Developed

P=Eb I a
Eb ≈ V a ;(R → 0)
P=V a I a
P
I a=
Va
2
Va (V a)
N= =
K n K se I a K n K se P
At reduced voltage
2
Va ( V a )1
N 1= =
K n K se I a K n K se P
¿
Example
A 250 VDC shunt motor has armature circuit resistance of 0.6 Ω and shunt field resistance of
120 Ω . The machine is connected to a supply of 250 V . The motor is operating as a generator
and then as a motor separately. The line current of the machine in both cases is 50 A . Calculate
the ration of speed as a generator to the speed as a motor.
Solution
Shunt field current
250
If = =2 A
125
As a generator
The armature current at no load is I a=50+2=52 A

E=V a + I a R a=250+52 ×0.6=281.2 V
The induced emf for generator is given as E g=k a × ϕ × N g =281.2 V
As a motor
The armature current at no load is I a=50−2=48 A

E=V a−I a R a=250−48 × 0.6=221.2 V
The back emf for motor is given as Em =k a × ϕ × N m=221.2 V

N g Eg 281.2
∴ = = =1.27
N m Em 221.2

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DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES

1.2. Electromechanical Energy Conversion Principles

FIGURE 2.1 A representation of electromechanical energy conversion.

1.2.1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

FIGURE 2.3 Illustration of the relationship between force and torque.

If the torque is unchanging,

Also, from Equation 2.10 torque can be found as

v max ¿ ( 20 turns ) ( 377srad )( 0.3 m )( 0.8 T )

and its effective value is

1.2.2. Electromechanical Energy Conversion

The last term of Equation 2.13 can be expressed as

Assume a differential time interval dt during which an increment of electrical energy d W e

Substituting Equations 2.18 and 2.20 into Equation 2.21,

d W f =i× dλ−F f ×dx (2.22)

d W f =i× dλ−T f ×dθ (2.24)

FIGURE 2.4 A simple electromechanical system.

so that from Equations 2.27 and 2.30 ,

d W f =i× dλ=N ×i× d Φ=F × d Φ (2.31)

F=N ×i A ⋅ turns (2.32)

d ( vol )= Adg (2.42)

Ignoring leakage and fringing of the flux at the gaps

BHd ( vol ) (2.43)

From the definition of work,

d W m=F f dx=F f dg (2.44)

or substituting Equations 2.43 and 2.44 into Equation 2.45

(a) The magnetic pulling force per pole

(b) The total magnetic pulling force

F f , total =2 F f =2 ( 12.04 N )=24.08 N

Energy and Co-energy

Magnetic Force in a Saturable System

Hence, for the displacement,

Substituting Equation 2.21 into Equation 2.54,

The force on the armature is then

Since for any armature position,

and the force on the armature is then

1.3.2. Constructional Features

1.3.3. Armature Windings

Armature winding is defined as an arrangement of conductors to produce EMF by relative

Figure2.10: Armature windings

Figure 2.11: full pitched and half pitched coils

Figure 2.12: Pitch in Armature Winding

Lap winding of a DC Machine

3 The average pitch, Y AVE =( Y B+ Y F ) /2.

6 Number of parallel paths ¿ mP . Where; m=¿ multiplicity.

8 If I a is the total armature current, then current per parallel path is Ia ¿ P.

Total number of tapings ¿ No. of equaliser rings × pair of poles

Total No. of coils 144 / 2

Wave winding of a DC Machine

Figure 2.14: Wave winding

Figure 2.16: Progressive and retrogressive wave winding

1 Both pitches Y B and Y F are odd and of same sign.

3 Resultant pitch, Y R=Y F +Y B=(Z ±2)/2

P=¿ Number of poles

Z=¿ Total number of conductors.

4 Commutator pitch, Y C =Y A (Average pitch)

5 Number of parallel paths are equal to 2 m, where m is the multiplicity.

1.3.4. Emf Equation of a DC Generator

 P - Number of poles of the machine

 ϕ -Flux per pole in Weber.

 Z - Total number of armature conductors.

 N - Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).

 A - Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be