Applied Electricity

1.0 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating currents (ac) are currents that alternate in direction (usually many times per
second), passing first in one direction, then in the other through a circuit. Such currents are
produced by voltage sources whose polarities alternate between positive and negative (rather
than being fixed as with dc sources). By convention, alternating currents are called ac currents
and alternating voltages are called ac voltages.

The variation of an ac voltage or current versus time is called its waveform. Since waveforms
vary with time, they are designated by lowercase letters v(t), i(t), e(t), and so on, rather than
by uppercase letters V, I, and E as for dc. Often we drop the functional notation and simply
use v, i, and e. While many waveforms are important to us, the most fundamental is the sine
wave (also called sinusoidal ac). In fact, the sine wave is of such importance that many people
associate the term ac with sinusoidal, even though ac refers to any quantity that alternates
with time. DC sources have fixed polarities and constant magnitudes and thus produce
currents with constant value and unchanging direction, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1 In contrast,
the voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary in magnitude and thus produce
currents that vary in magnitude and alternate in direction.

Fig. 1.1 dc circuit

Fig. 1.2 Sinusoidal ac waveforms

A sine wave or sinusoidal ac waveform, this voltage has the shape shown in Fig. 1.2. Starting
at zero, the voltage increases to a positive maximum, decreases to zero, changes polarity,
increases to a negative maximum, then returns again to zero. One complete variation is
referred to as a cycle. Since the waveform repeats itself at regular intervals as in (b), it is
called a periodic waveform.

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1.1 GENERATING AC VOLTAGES

One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant angular velocity in a
fixed magnetic field, Fig. 1.3. (Slip rings and brushes connect the coil to the load.) The
magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux lines are cut, and
its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field. Since the rate
of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary with time. For example in
(a), since the coil sides are moving parallel to the field, no flux lines are being cut and the
induced voltage at this instant (and hence the current) is zero. (This is defined as the 0°
position of the coil.) As the coil rotates from the 0° position, coil sides AA and BB cut across
flux lines; hence, voltage builds, reaching a peak when flux is cut at the maximum rate in the
90° position as in (b). Note the polarity of the voltage and the direction of current. As the coil
rotates further, voltage decreases, reaching zero at the 180° position when the coil sides
again move parallel to the field as in (c). At this point, the coil has gone through a half-
revolution.

During the second half-revolution, coil sides cut flux in directions opposite to that which they
did in the first half revolution; hence, the polarity of the induced voltage reverses. As
indicated in (d), voltage reaches a peak at the 270° point, and, since the polarity of the
voltage has changed, so has the direction of current. When the coil reaches the 360° position,
voltage is again zero and the cycle starts over. Fig. 1.4 shows one cycle of the resulting
waveform. Since the coil rotates continuously, the voltage produced will be a repetitive,
periodic waveform as in Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 1.3 Generating ac voltage

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Fig. 1.4 Coil voltage versus angular position

The magnetic flux through the cross-sectional area of a single closed conducting loop has the
unit Tesla.m2, that is:

The area presented to the magnetic induction (and so the flux) will depend on Cos θ.
where θ is the angle between the magnetic induction and the area vector. (The area vector is
perpendicular to the plane of the area).

The magnetic flux through a coil of N turns is:

A coil rotating with constant speed in a uniform magnetic induction will present an area that
depends on the angle θ, but now the angle is increasing linearly with time. The angle θ = ωt
where ω depends on the speed of rotation and so the area (and the flux) will change as
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Cosωt. An initial phase angle can be added which is determined by the starting conditions, i.e.
the flux will change as Cos (ωt + α ).

Faraday's law can now be written:

This e.m.f. alternates sinusoidally in potential difference, with

amplitude Em Volts,frequency Hertz andinitial phase α radians.

EXAMPLE
A coil of diameter 60 mm, having 150 turns, rotates at 500 revolutions per minute in a
uniform magnetic field of 0.7 T. Find the peak e.m.f.

1.2 INSTANTANEOUSVALUE
The value of voltage at any point on the waveform is referred to as its instantaneous value.

Fig. 1.5 Instantaneous value

1.3 FREQUENCY, PERIOD, AMPLITUDE, AND PEAK VALUE

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Waveforms that repeat at regular intervals), regardless of their wave shape, may be described
by a group of attributes such as frequency, period, amplitude, peak value, and so on.

1.3.1 FREQUENCY
The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined as its frequency. In Fig. 6(a), one
cycle occurs in one second; thus its frequency is one cycle per second. Similarly, the frequency
of (b) is two cycles per second and that of (c) is 60 cycles per second. Frequency is denoted by
the lowercase letter f. In the SI system, its unit is the hertz (Hz). By definition,

1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

Fig. 1.6 Frequency measured in hertz

1.3.2 PERIOD
The period, T, of a waveform, (Fig. 1.7) is the duration of one cycle. It is the inverse of
frequency. To illustrate, consider again Fig. 6. In (a), the frequency is 1 cycle per second; thus,
the duration of each cycle is T = 1 s. In (b), the frequency is two cycles per second; thus, the
duration of each cycle is T = 1⁄2 s, and so on. In general,

(1.1)

(1.2)
Note that these definitions are independent of wave shape.

Fig. 1.7 Period T measured in seconds

The period of a waveform can be measured between any two corresponding points (Fig. 1.8).
Often it is measured between zero points because they are easy to establish on an
oscilloscope trace.

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Fig. 1.8 Period may be measured between any two corresponding points

1.3.3 AMPLITUDE AND PEAK-TO-PEAK VALUE

The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance from its average to its peak. Thus, the amplitude
of the voltage in Fig. 1.9(a) and (b) is Em .

Peak-to-peak voltage is also indicated in Fig. 1.9(a). It is measured between minimum and
maximum peaks. Peak-to-peak voltages can be denoted by E p −p or V p− p or E pk− pk . Similarly,
peak-to-peak currents are denoted as I p− p. To illustrate, consider again Fig. 9. The amplitude
of this voltage is Em =40 V , and its peak-to-peak voltage is E p −p =80 V .

Fig. 1.9 Definitions

1.3.4 PEAK VALUE

The peak value of a voltage or current is its maximum value with respect to zero. Consider
Fig. 1.9(b). Here, a sine wave rides on top of a dc value, yielding a peak that is the sum of the
dc voltage and the ac waveform amplitude. For the case indicated, the peak voltage is E+ E m.

1.4 THE BASIC SINE WAVE EQUATION

The voltage produced by a generator is

(1.3)

Where Em is the maximum coil voltage and α is the instantaneous angular position of the coil.
(For a given generator and rotational velocity, Em is constant.) Note that α = 0° represents the
horizontal position of the coil and that one complete cycle corresponds to 360°.

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Fig. 1.10 Voltage waveform

1.5 ANGULAR VELOCITY, ω

The rate at which the generator coil rotates is called its angular velocity. If the coil rotates
through an angle of 30° in one second, for example, its angular velocity is 30° per second.
Angular velocity is denoted by the Greek letter ω (omega). For the case cited, ω=300 /s.
Normally, angular velocity is expressed in radians per second instead of degrees per second.
In general,
(1.4)

1.6 RADIAN MEASURE

In practice, ω is usually expressed in radians per second, where radians and degrees are
related by the identity
(1.5)

To convert, from degrees to radians, multiply by π /180, while to convert from radians to
degrees, multiply by 180/ π .

1.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ω , T, AND f

Earlier you learned that one cycle of sine wave may be represented as either α =2 πrads or t =
T s, Fig. 1.11. Substituting these into α =ωt , you get 2 π =ωT . Transposing yields

(1.6)
Thus,

(1.7)

Recall, f = 1/T Hz. Then

(1.8)

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Fig. 1.11 Comparison of horizontal scales

1.8 VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS WITH PHASE SHIFTS

If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t = 0 s, it has a phase shift. Waveforms may be
shifted to the left or to the right.

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.12 Waveforms with phase shifts

For a waveform shifted left as in (a),

(1.9)

while, for a waveform shifted right as in (b),

(1.10)

1.9 PHASORS
A phasor is a rotating line whose projection on a vertical axis can be used to represent
sinusoidally varying quantities. To get at the idea, consider the line of length V mshown in Fig.
1.13(a). It is the phasor. The vertical projection of this line (indicated in dotted line) is
V m =V m sinα .

Fig. 13 Phasor rotation

Now, assume that the phasor rotates at angular velocity of ωrad /s in the counter clockwise
direction. Then, α =ωt , and its vertical projection is V m sin ωt . If we designate this projection
(height) as v , we get v=V m sin ωt , which is the familiar sinusoidal
voltage equation.

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If you plot a graph of v versus α , you get the sine wave of Fig. 1.13(b). We conclude that a
sinusoidal waveform can be created by plotting the vertical projection of a phasor that rotates
in the counter clockwise direction at constant angular velocity, ω . If the phasor has a
length of V m, the waveform represents voltage; if the phasor has a length of I m, it represents
current. Note that Phasors apply only to sinusoidal waveforms.

Phasors may be used to represent shifted waveforms, v=V m sin ⁡(ωt ± θ)or i=I m sin ⁡(ωt ± θ)
as indicated in Fig. 1.14. Angle θ is the position of the phasor at t = 0 s.

Fig. 1.14 Phasors of shifted waveforms

1.10 PHASE DIFFERENCE

Phase differencerefers to the angular displacement between different waveforms of the same
frequency. Consider Fig. 1.15, if the angular displacement is 0° as in (a), the waveforms are
said to be in phase; otherwise, they are out of phase. When describing a phase difference,
select one waveform as reference. Other waveforms then lead, lag, or are in phase with this
reference.

For example, in (b), the current waveform is said to lead the voltage waveform, while in (c)
the current waveform is said to lag.

Fig. 1.15 Phase difference

The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors. If you observe phasors
rotating as in Fig. 1.16(a), the one that you see passing first is leading and the other is lagging.
By definition, the waveform generated by the leading phasor leads the waveform generated
by the lagging phasor and vice versa. In Fig. 1.16, phasor I mleads phasor V m; thus current i (t )
leads voltage v (t).

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Fig. 1.16 defining lead or lag

Sometimes voltages and currents are expressed in terms of cos ωt rather than sin ⁡ωt . For
sines or cosines with an angle, the following formulas apply.

(1.11)

(1.12)

Sometimes you encounter negative waveforms such as i=−I m sin ⁡ωt . To handle these, we
multiply the waveform i=I m sin ⁡ωt by -1 to get the inverted waveform −I m sin ⁡ωt . Note that
the phasor is the same as the original phasor except that it is rotated by 180°. This is always
true—thus, if you multiply a waveform by -1, the phasor for the new waveform is 180°
rotated from the original phasor, regardless of the angle of the original phasor.

Fig. 1.17 Phasor for a negative sine wave

1.11 AC WAVEFORMS AND AVERAGE VALUE
While we can describe ac quantities in terms of frequency, period, instantaneous value, etc.,
we do not yet have any way to give a meaningful value to an ac current or voltage in the same
sense that we can say of a car battery that it has a voltage of 12 volts. This is because ac
quantities constantly change and thus there is no one single numerical value that truly
represents a waveform over its complete cycle. For this reason, ac quantities are generally
described by a group of characteristics, including instantaneous, peak, average, and effective
values.

1.11.1 AVERAGE VALUES

Many quantities are measured by their average. For example, to find the average of a
waveform, you can sum the instantaneous values over a full cycle, and then divide by the
number of points used. The trouble with this approach is that waveforms do not consist of
discrete values. Thus, to find the average value of a waveform, divide the area under the

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waveform by the length of its base. Areas above the axis are counted as positive, while areas
below the axis are counted as negative. This approach is valid regardless of wave shape.

Average values are also called dc values, because dc meters indicate average values rather
than instantaneous values. Thus, if you measure a non dc quantity with a dc meter, the meter
will read the average of the waveform, i.e., the value calculated according to the equation
areaundercurve
average= (1.13)
lengt h ofbase

Because a sine wave is symmetrical, its area below the horizontal axis is the same as its area
above the axis; thus, over a full cycle its net area is zero, independent of frequency and phase
angle. Thus, the average of sin ωt , sin ( wt ± θ ) ,sin 2 ωt , cosωt , cos ( ωt ±θ ) , cos 2ωt , and so on
are each zero. The average of half a sine wave, however, is not zero. Consider Fig. 1.18. The
area under the half-cycle may be found using calculus as

(1.14)

Fig. 1.18 Area under a half-cycle

Similarly, the area under a half-cycle of voltage is 2 V m. Two cases are important; full-wave
average and half-wave average. The full-wave case is illustrated in Fig. 1.19. The area from 0
to 2 π is 2(2 I m)and the base is 2 π . Thus, the average is

(1.15)

Fig. 1.19 Full-wave average

For the half-wave case,

(1.16)

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Fig. 1.20 Half-wave average

The corresponding expressions for voltage are

(1.17)

1.12 EFFECTIVE VALUES

While instantaneous, peak, and average values provide useful information about a wave
form, none of them truly represents the ability of the waveform to do useful work. Here, we
look at a representation that does. It is called the waveform’s effective value. The concept of
effective value is an important one; in practice, most ac voltages and currents are expressed
as effective values. Effective values are also called rms values.

What Is an Effective Value?

An effective value is an equivalent dc value: it tells you how many volts or amps of dc that a
time-varying waveform is equal to in terms of its ability to produce average power. Effective
values depend on the waveform. A familiar example of such a value is the value of the voltage
at the wall outlet in your home. In Nigeria its value is 240 Vac. This means that the sinusoidal
voltage at the wall outlets of your home is capable of producing the same average power as
240 volts of steady dc.

1.12.1 Effective Values for Sine Waves

The effective value of a waveform can be determined using the circuits of Fig. 1.21. Consider a
sinusoidally varying current, i(t). By definition, the effective value of i is that value of dc
current that produces the same average power. Consider (b). Let the dc source be adjusted
until its average power is the same as the average power in (a). The resulting dc current is
then the effective value of the current of (a). To determine this value, first determine the
average power for both cases and equate them.

Fig. 1.21 Effective value of sinusoidal ac

First, consider the dc case. Since current is constant, power is constant, and average power is
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(1.18)
Now consider the ac case. Power to the resistor at any value of time is p ( t ) =i 2 R , where i is
the instantaneous value of current. A sketch of p(t )is shown in Fig. 1.21(a), obtained by
squaring values of current at various points along the axis, then multiplying by R. Average
power is the average of p(t ). Since i=I m sin ωt .

(1.19)

(1.20)

To get the average of p(t )note that the average of cos 2 ωt is zero

(1.21)
equating Pavg

(1,22)

(1.23)
Current I is the value that we are looking for; it is the effective value of current i . To
emphasize that it is an effective value, we will initially use subscripted notation I eff . Thus,

(1.24)
Effective values for voltage are found in the same way:

(1.25)

(1.26)

As you can see theeffective values for sinusoidal waveforms depend only on magnitude. To
obtain peak values from effective values, we rearrange the equations for effective values

(1.27)

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(1.28)

(1.29)

It is important to note that these relationships hold only for sinusoidal waveforms. However,
the concept of effective value applies to all waveforms.

1.12.2 GENERAL EQUATION FOR EFFECTIVE VALUES

The √ 2relationship holds only for sinusoidal waveforms. For other waveforms, you need a
more general formula. Using calculus, it can be shown that for any waveform

(1.30)

With a similar equation for voltage. This equation can be used to compute effective values for
any waveform, including sinusoidal. In addition, it leads to a graphic approach to finding
effective values. The integral of i 2 represents the area under the i 2 waveform. Thus,

(1.31)

To compute effective values using this equation, do the following:

Step 1: Square the current (or voltage) curve.
Step 2: Find the area under the squared curve.
Step 3: Divide the area by the length of the curve.
Step 4: Find the square root of the value from Step 3.

1.12.3 RMS VALUES

Consider Equation 1.31. To use this equation, we compute the root of the mean square to
obtain the effective value. For this reason, effective values are called root mean square or
rms values and the terms effective and rms are synonymous. Since, in practice, ac quantities
are almost always expressed as rms values, we shall assume from here on that, unless
otherwise noted, all ac voltages and currents are rms values.

EXAMPLE
The 240 V, 50 Hz mains electricity supply is connected in series with a 1 kW heater. Find the
rms and instantaneous values of
(a) the p.d. across the heater, and
(b) the current in the circuit, and
(c) the power dissipated in the heater.
SOLUTION

In the following, upper case letters denote r.m.s. or steady D.C. values and lower case letters
denote instantaneous values.

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2.0 COMPLEXNUMBERS
A complex number is a number of the form C=a+ jb, where a and b are real numbers and
j=√−1. The number a is called the real part of C and b is called its imaginary part. (In circuit
theory, j is used to denote the imaginary component rather than i to avoid confusion with
current i.)

2.1 GeometricalRepresentation
Complex numbers may be represented geometrically, either in rectangular form or in polar
form as points on a two-dimensional plane called the complex plane (Fig 2.1). The complex
number C=6+ j 8, for example, represents a point whose coordinate on the real axis is 6 and
whose coordinate on the imaginary axis is 8. This form of representation is called the
rectangular form.

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Fig 2.1 Complex number in rectangular form

Complex numbers may also be represented in polar form by magnitude and angle. Thus, C
= 10∠53.13° (Fig 2.2) is a complex number with magnitude 10 and angle 53.13°. This
magnitude and angle representation is just an alternate way of specifying the location of the
point represented by C=a+ jb.

Fig 2.2 Complex number in polar form

2.2 CONVERSION BETWEEN RECTANGULAR AND POLAR FORMS

To convert between forms, note from Fig 2.3 that

Fig 2.3 Rectangular and polar equivalence

(2.1)
(2.2)

where C is the magnitude of C. From the geometry of the triangle,

(2.3a)

(2.3b)

Where

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(2.4a)

and

(2.4b)

Equations 2.3 and 2.4 permit conversion between forms. When using Equation 2.4b,
however, be careful when the number to be converted is in the second or third quadrant, as
the angle obtained is the supplementary angle rather than the actual angle in these two
quadrants.

2.2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers can be performed analytically or graphically.
Analytic addition and subtraction is most easily illustrated in rectangular form, while graphical
addition and subtraction is best illustrated in polar form. For analytic addition or subtraction,
add real and imaginary parts separately. For graphical addition, add vectorially as in Fig 2.4(a);
for subtraction, change the sign of the subtrahend, then add, as in Fig 2.4(b).

Fig 2.4 (a) Vector addition (b) Vector subtraction

2.2.2 Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers

These operations are usually performed in polar form. For multiplication, multiply magnitudes
and add angles algebraically. For division, divide the magnitude of the denominator into the
magnitude of the numerator, then subtract algebraically the angle of the denominator from
that of the numerator. Thus, given A=A <θ A and B=B<θ B,

(2.5)

(2.6)

Reciprocals
The reciprocal of a complex number C=C< θ is

(2.7)

ComplexConjugates
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The conjugate of a complex number (denoted by an asterisk *) is a complex number with the
same real part but the opposite imaginary part. Thus, the conjugate of C=C< θ=a+ jb is
¿
C =C <θ=a− jb . For example, if C=3+ j 4=5<53.13∘ then C ¿=3− j 4=5<−53.13∘.

2.3 COMPLEX NUMBERS IN AC ANALYSIS

2.3.1 Representing AC Voltages and Currents by Complex Numbers
Ac voltages and currents can be represented as phasors. Since phasors have magnitude and
angle, they can be viewed as complex numbers. To get at the idea, consider the voltage
source of Fig 2.5. Its phasor equivalent (b) has magnitude Em and angle θ . It therefore can be
viewed as the complex number.

(2.8)

Fig 2.5 Sinusoidal source voltage as a complex number

From this point of view, the sinusoidal voltage e ( t )=200 sin ⁡(ωt + 40° ) of Fig 2.6(a) and (b) can
be represented by its phasor equivalent, E = 200 V∠40°, as in (c).

Fig 2.6 Sinusoidal voltage transformation to phasor equivalent

We can take advantage of this equivalence. Rather than show a source as a time-varying
voltage e(t) that we subsequently convert to a phasor, we can represent the source by its
phasor equivalent right from the start. By replacing the time function e(t)with its phasor
equivalent E, we have transformed the source from the time domain to the phasor domain.

2.3.2 Summing AC Voltages and Currents

Sinusoidal quantities must sometimes be added or subtracted as in Fig 2.7. Here, we want the
sum of e 1 and e 2 , where e 1=10 sin ωt and e 2=15 sin( ωt ¿ + 60° )¿ . The sum of e 1 and e 2 can be
found by adding waveforms point by point as in (b). For example, at ωt=0°, e 1=10 sin 0° =0
and e 2=15 sin ( 0° + 60° )=13V , and their sum is 13 V. Similarly, at ωt=90°, e 1=10 sin 9 0° =10V
and e 2=15 sin ( 90° + 60° ) =7.5V , and their sum is 17.5 V. Continuing in this manner, the sum of
e 1+ e 2 is obtained.

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Fig 2.7 Summing waveforms point by point

As you can see, the process is tedious and provides no analytic expression for the resulting
voltage. A better way is to transform the sources and use complex numbers to perform the
addition. This is shown in Fig 2.8. Here, we have replaced voltages e 1 and e 2 with their phasor
equivalents, E1 and E2 , and v with its phasor equivalent, V. Since v=e 1+ e2, replacing v , e 1,
and e 2 with their phasor equivalents yields V =E 1+ E2. Now V can be found by adding E1 and
E2 as complex numbers. Once V is known, its corresponding time equation and companion
waveform can be determined.

Fig 2.8 Transformed circuit

EXAMPLE
Two e.m.f.s are connected in series with each other. They have the same frequency (60 Hz)
and the same maximum potential difference (150V), but the second one is 60 0 ahead in
phase. Find
(a) the resultant e.m.f., and
(b) the phase angle between the resultant and each of the two e.m.f.s, and
(c) The values of each of the two e.m.f.s when the resultant is zero.
SOLUTION

The first step below is to put the initial phase of the second e.m.f into Cartesian form ( cosθ +
j·sinθ ).
After addition, the Cartesian result is transformed into Polar form ( E·exp[jωt + α] ) to get the
initial phase of the result.

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The resultant is 300 ahead of the first e.m.f. and 300 behind the second.
When eR = 0:

Any value of n will do, because each represents the same part of the cycle.

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3.0 R, L, AND C CIRCUITS WITH SINUSOIDAL EXCITATION

R, L, and C circuit elements each have quite different electrical properties. Resistance, for
example, opposes current, while inductance opposes changes in current, and capacitance
opposes changes in voltage. These differences result in quite different voltage-current
relationships as you saw earlier. We now investigate these relationships for the case of
sinusoidal ac. Sine waves have several important characteristics that you will discover from
this investigation:
1. When a circuit consisting of linear circuit elements R, L, and C is connected to a sinusoidal
source, all currents and voltages in the circuit will be sinusoidal.
2. These sine waves have the same frequency as the source and differ from it only in terms of
their magnitudes and phase angles.

3.1 Resistance and Sinusoidal AC

For a purely resistive circuit, Ohm’s law applies and thus, current is directly proportional to
voltage. Current variations therefore follow voltage variations, reaching their peak when
voltage reaches its peak, changing direction when voltage changes polarity, and so on (Fig

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2.9). From this, we conclude that for a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage are in
phase. Since voltage and current waveforms coincide, their phasors also coincide (Fig 2.10).

Fig. 2.9 Current and Voltage are in phase

Fig 2.10 Current and voltage phasors are in phase

The relationship illustrated in Fig 2.9 may be stated mathematically as

(2.9)
Where
(2.10)
Transposing,
(2.11)
The in-phase relationship is true regardless of reference. Thus, if v R=V m sin ⁡(ωt +θ), then
i R =I m sin ⁡(ωt +θ).

3.2 Inductance and Sinusoidal AC

Phase Lag in an Inductive Circuit
For an ideal inductor, voltage v Lis proportional to the rate of change of current. Because of
this, voltage and current are not in phase as they are for a resistive circuit. This can be shown
with a bit of calculus. From Fig 2.11,

Fig 2.11 Voltage vs current in an inductor

v L =L d i L /dt . For a sine wave of current, you get when you differentiate

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Utilizing the trigonometric identity cos ωt=sin ⁡(ωt +90° ), you can write this as

(2.12)
Where
(2.13)
Voltage and current waveforms and their phasors are shown in Fig 2.12. As you can see, for a
purely inductive circuit, current lags voltage by 90° (i.e., 1⁄4 cycle). Alternatively you can say
that voltage leads current by 90°.

Fig 2.12 For inductance current lags voltage by 900

Although we have shown that current lags voltage by 90° for the case of Fig 2.12, this
relationship is true in general, that is, current always lags voltage by 90° regardless of the
choice of reference. Since current always lags voltage by 90° for a pure inductance, you can, if
you know the phase of the voltage, determine the phase of the current, and vice versa. Thus,
if v Lis known, i L must lag it by 90°, while if i L is known, v Lmust lead it by 90°.

3.2.1 Inductive Reactance

From Equation 2.13, we see that the ratio V mto I mis

(2.14)
This ratio is defined as inductive reactance and is given the symbol X L. Since the ratio of volts
to amps is ohms, reactance has units of ohms. Thus,

(2.15)
Combining Equations 2.14 and 2.15 yields
(2.16)
where ω is in radians per second and L is in henries. Reactance X L represents the opposition
that inductance presents to current for the sinusoidal ac case. We now have everything that
we need to solve simple inductive circuits with sinusoidal excitation, that is, we know that
current lags voltage by 90° and that their amplitudes are related by

(2.17)
and
(2.18)

3.2.2 Variation of Inductive Reactance with Frequency

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Since X L =ωL=2 πfL, inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency. Thus, if

frequency is doubled, reactance doubles, while if frequency is halved, reactance halves, and
so on. In addition, X Lis directly proportional to inductance. Thus, if inductance is doubled, X L
is doubled, and so on. Note also that at f =0 , X L =0 Ω. This means that inductance looks like a
short circuit to dc.

EXAMPLE
The 240 V, 50 Hz mains electricity supply is connected in series with a 200mH inductor. Find
the rms and instantaneous values of
(a) the current in the circuit, and
(b) the p.d. across the inductor.
SOLUTION

3.3 Capacitance and Sinusoidal AC

3.3.1 Phase Lead in a Capacitive Circuit
For capacitance, current is proportional to the rate of change of voltage, i.e., i C =C d v C /dt [Fig
2.13(a)]. Thus if v Cis a sine wave, you get upon substitution

(2.19)

Fig 2.13 For capacitance current always leads voltage by 90 0

Using the appropriate trigonometric identity, this can be written as

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Applied Electricity

(2.20)
Where
(2.21)

Waveforms are shown in Fig 2.13(b) and phasors in (c). As indicated, for a purely capacitive
circuit, current leads voltage by 90°, or alternatively, voltage lags current by 90°. This
relationship is true regardless of reference. Thus, if the voltage is known, the current must
lead by 90° while if the current is known, the voltage must lag by 90°. For example, if I Cis at
60° as in (d), V C must be at -30°.

3.3.2 Capacitive Reactance

Now consider the relationship between maximum capacitor voltage and current magnitudes.
As we saw in Equation 16–21, they are related by I m=ωC V m. Rearranging, we get
V m / I m=1/ωC . The ratio of V m / I mis defined as capacitive reactance and is given the symbol
X C . That is,

(2.22)
Since V m / I m=1/ωC , we also get

(2.23)
where ω is in radians per second and C is in farads. Reactance X C represents the opposition
that capacitance presents to current for the sinusoidal ac case.
We now have everything that we need to solve simple capacitive circuits with sinusoidal
excitation, i.e., we know that current leads voltage by 90° and that

(2.24)
and
(2.25)

3.3.3 Variation of Capacitive Reactance with Frequency

Since X C =1/ωC=1/2 πfC . , the opposition that capacitance presents, varies inversely with
frequency. This means that the higher the frequency, the lower the reactance, and vice versa.
At f = 0 (i.e., dc), capacitive reactance is infinite. This means that a capacitance looks like an
open circuit to dc. Note that X C is also inversely proportional to capacitance. Thus, if
capacitance is doubled, X C is halved, and so on.

EXAMPLE
The 240 V, 50 Hz mains electricity supply is connected in series with a 5μF capacitor. Find the
rms and instantaneous values of
(a) the current in the circuit, and
(b) the potential difference across the capacitor.

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Applied Electricity

SOLUTION

3.4 RC, RL AND R, L, C AC CIRCUITS

3.4.1 RC series A.C. circuits
The e.m.f. that is supplied to the circuit is distributed between the resistor and the capacitor.
Since the same current must flow in each element, the resistor and capacitor are in series. The
common current can often be taken to have the reference phase.

In a series circuit, the potential differences are added up around the circuit.
(In a parallel circuit where the emf is the same across all elements, the currents are added).

Fig: RC series circuit and phase diagram

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Applied Electricity

The physical current and potentials are:

The applied emf is φ rad behind the current in the circuit.

EXAMPLE
A 255V, 500/π Hz supply is connected in series with a 100Ω resistor and a 2μF capacitor.
Taking the phase of the emf as a reference, find the complex and rms values of
(a) the current in the circuit, and
(b) the potential difference across each element.
SOLUTION

First write the complex e.m.f and how it is distributed around the circuit.

27
Applied Electricity

1.37 radians is about 780. The total impedance of the circuit is seen in the relationship
between emf and current. The complex and rms currents are now calculated.

The current leads the applied emf phase

reference by 1.37 radians or 780.

The potential differences across the resistor and capacitor are now calculated.

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Applied Electricity

The resistor potential difference is in phase with the current and the capacitor potential
difference lags the current phase by π/2 (or 900).
3.4.2 RL series A.C. circuits
The e.m.f. that is supplied to the circuit is distributed between the resistor and the
capacitor. Since the resistor and capacitor are in series the common current is taken to have
the reference phase.

Fig: RL series circuit and phase diagram

Adding the potentials around the circuit:

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Applied Electricity

The physical current and potentials are:

The applied emf is φ rad ahead of the current in the circuit.

EXAMPLE
A 100V, 1000/π Hz supply is connected in series with a 30Ω resistor and a 20mH inductor.
Take the emf as the reference phase and find:
(a) the complex impedance of the circuit
(b) the complex, real (i.e. physical) and rms currents, and
(c) the complex, real (i.e. physical) and rms potential differences across each element.
SOLUTION

The complex impedance for the circuit is 50 Ω, and the phase angle between current and
applied e.m.f is 0.93 radians (or about 530).
The e.m.f is the reference phase.

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Applied Electricity

The real (i.e. physical) current is the imaginary part of the complex current and lags
behind the applied e.m.f with -0.93 radians (-530).
The r.m.s current is an equivalent dc current of 2 A and has no phase.

The complex potential difference across the resistor is in phase with the current.
The r.m.s potential difference is 60 V.

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Applied Electricity

The complex potential difference across the inductor leads the emf by 0.64 radians (37 0).
The rms potential difference is 80 V.

3.4.3 R, L, C SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS

The e.m.f. that is supplied to the circuit is distributed between the resistor, the inductor,
and the capacitor. Since the elements are in series the common current is taken to have
the reference phase.

Fig: R, L, C series circuit and phase diagram

Adding the potentials around the circuit:

The physical current and potentials are:

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Applied Electricity

EXAMPLE
A 240V, 250/π Hz supply is connected in series with 60Ω, 180mH and 50μF. Take the emf as
the reference phase and find:
(a) the complex impedance of the circuit
(b) the complex, real (i.e. physical) and rms currents, and
(c) the complex, real (i.e. physical) and rms potential differences across each element.
SOLUTION

The complex impedance for the circuit is 78.1 Ω, and the phase angle between current and
applied e.m.f is 0.69 radians (or 39.80).
The e.m.f is the reference phase.

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Applied Electricity

The real (i.e. physical) current is the imaginary part of the complex current and lags behind
the applied emf with -0.69 radians (-39.80).
The rms current is an equivalent dc current of 3 A and has no phase.

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Applied Electricity

3.5 IMPURE OR PRACTICAL INDUCTORS IN A.C. SERIES CIRCUITS

In general, an inductor will have resistance because it is made of normally resistive wire. The
potential difference across the inductor includes both elements because they cannot be
physically separated.

Fig: R, L, C series circuit and phase diagram

Adding the potentials around the circuit:

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Applied Electricity

The physical current and potentials are:

EXAMPLE
A source of alternating current provides an r.m.s. potential difference of 195V at 1000 rad.s -1.
A resistor (30Ω), a real inductor (20Ω, 200m), and a capacitor (12μ5) are connected in series
with the supply. Find
Take the emf as the reference phase and find:
(a) the complex impedances of the circuit elements and the total circuit,
(b) the complex, real (i.e. physical) and rms currents, and
(c) the complex, real (i.e. physical) and rms potential differences across each element.

SOLUTION

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Applied Electricity

The complex impedance for the circuit is 130 Ω, and the phase angle between current and
applied e.m.f is 1.18 radians (or 67.40).
The complex potential difference across the resistor is in phase with the current.
The r.m.s potential difference is 45 V.

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Applied Electricity

3.5 AVERAGE POWER DISSIPATED IN R, L, C SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS

Power is not dissipated in inductance and capacitance; it is only dissipated in resistance.
Average Power is calculated with r.m.s values.
In general for a A.C. circuit with an applied e.m.f., E, and any series combination of the three
circuit elements, Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance, there will be a total resistance, R,
and a resultant reactance, X.

This will produce

a Real (Resistive) Power, P,
a Reactive Power, jQ, and
a Complex Power, , which is the sum of them.

For a resultant Inductive Reactance, there will be the kind of diagram shown on the right
and the following relationships (in r.m.s. terms) can be derived it.

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Applied Electricity

TheApparent Power is the size of , (i.e. EI ), but the Real Power (P) dissipated is less than
this when the current and applied potential are not in phase. The factor cosφ is called the
power factor.
Only the Real Power is given the Unit of Watt.
Apparent and Complex power are given the Unit VA.
Reactive Power (Q) is given the unit VAR(Volt Amp Reactive).
P, Q and S are related by a Pythagorean relationship.
When the applied potential is designated as the phase reference, then the diagram will be
rotated clockwise by φ and φ will be negative for a resultant Inductive Reactance.

EXAMPLE
A 45 V rms, 1000 rad.s-1 supply is connected in series with a 50.6Ω resistor and a practical
inductor which has 40m inductance and 30Ω resistance combined. Take the applied potential
as the reference phase and angles in radian. Find
(a) the complex impedances of the inductor and the total circuit
(b) the complex current in the circuit,
(c) the potential differences across the resistor and the inductor
(d) the apparent and real total power dissipated, and
(e) the real power dissipated by the resistor and inductor.
SOLUTION

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Applied Electricity

3.6 THE IMPEDANCE CONCEPT

In practice circuit elements are represented by their impedance, and determine magnitude
and phase relationships in one step. Before we do this, however, we need to learn how to
represent circuit elements as impedances.
3.4.1 Impedance
The opposition that a circuit element presents to current in the phasor domain is defined as
its impedance.

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Applied Electricity

Fig 2.14 Impedance concept

The impedance of the element of Fig 2.14, for example, is the ratio of its voltage phasor to its
current phasor. Impedance is denoted by the boldface, uppercase letter Z. Thus,

(2.26)
(This equation is sometimes referred to as Ohm’s law for ac circuits.) Since phasor voltages
and currents are complex, Z is also complex. That is,

(2.27)
where V and I are the rms magnitudes of V and I respectively, and θ is the angle between
them. From Equation 2.27,
(2.28)
where Z=V / I . Since V =0.707 V mand I =0.707 I m Z can also be expressed as V m / I m. Once the
impedance of a circuit is known, the current and voltage can be determined using

(2.29)
and
(2.30)

3.6.1.1 Determination of impedance for the basic circuit elements R, L, and C.

Resistance

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Applied Electricity

Fig 2.15 Impedance of a pure resistance

For a pure resistance (Fig 2.15), voltage and current are in phase. Thus, if voltage has an angle
θ, current will have the same angle. For example, if V R=V R <θ , then I =I <θ. Substituting into
Equation 16–25 yields:

(2.31)
Thus the impedance of a resistor is just its resistance. That is,

(2.32)
This agrees with what we know about resistive circuits, i.e., that the ratio of voltage to
current is R, and that the angle between them is 0°.

3.6.2 Inductance
For a pure inductance, current lags voltage by 90°. Assuming a 0° angle for voltage (we can
assume any reference we want because we are interested only in the angle between V Land
I), we can write V L=V L < 0°and I =I <−90

Fig 2.16 Impedance of a pure inductance

The impedance of a pure inductance (Fig 2.16) is therefore

(2.33)

where we have used the fact that V L / I L =ωL. Thus,

(2.34)
since ωL is equal to X L.

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Applied Electricity

3.6.3 Capacitance
For a pure capacitance, current leads voltage by 90° (Fig 2.17) .

Fig 2.17 Impedance of a pure capacitance

Its impedance is therefore

(2.35)
Thus

(2.36)

since 1/ωC is equal to X C .

4.0 SERIES AND PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS

4.1 Resistors
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Applied Electricity

When a resistor is subjected to a sinusoidal voltage the resulting current is also sinusoidal and
in phase with the voltage.

Fig. 4.1 Sinusoidal voltage and current for a resistor

The sinusoidal voltage v=V m sin ⁡(ωt+ θ) may be written in phasor form as V =V < θ. Whereas
the sinusoidal expression gives the instantaneous value of voltage for a waveform having an
amplitude of V m(volts peak), the phasor form has a magnitude which is the effective (or rms)
value. The relationship between the magnitude of the phasor and the peak of the sinusoidal
voltage is given as

Because the resistance vector may be expressed as Z R=R <0° , we evaluate the current
phasor as follows:

If we wish to convert the current from phasor form to its sinusoidal equivalent in the time
domain, we would have i=I m sin ⁡(ωt+θ). Again, the relationship between the magnitude of
the phasor and the peak value of the sinusoidal equivalent is given as

The voltage and current phasors may be shown on a phasor diagram as in Fig 3.2.

Fig. 4.2 voltage and current phasors for a resistor

Because one phasor is a current and the other is a voltage, the relative lengths of these
phasors are purely arbitrary. Regardless of the angle θ , we see that the voltage across and the
current through a resistor will always be in phase.

4.2 Inductors

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When an inductor is subjected to a sinusoidal current, a sinusoidal voltage is induced across

the inductor such that the voltage across the inductor leads the current waveform by exactly
90°. If we know the reactance of an inductor, then from Ohm’s law the current in the inductor
may be expressed in phasor form as

In vector form, the reactance of the inductor is given as

where
X L =ωL=2 πfL.

4.3 Capacitors
When a capacitor is subjected to a sinusoidal voltage, a sinusoidal current flows through the
capacitor such that he current through the capacitor leads the voltage by exactly 90°. If we
know the reactance of a capacitor, then from Ohm’s law the current in the capacitor
expressed in phasor form is

In vector form, the reactance of the capacitor is given a

where

The relationships between voltage and current, as illustrated above, will always hold for
resistors, inductors, and capacitors.

4.4 Series AC Circuits

For dc circuits the current everywhere in a series circuit is always constant. This same applies
when we have series elements with an ac source. We know also that the total resistance of a
dc series circuit consisting of n resistors is the sum of the individual resistors.

(3.1)
When working with ac circuits we no longer work with only resistance but also with capacitive
and inductive reactance. Impedance is a term used to collectively determine how the
resistance, capacitance, and inductance “impede” the current in a circuit. The symbol for
impedance is the letter Z and the unit is the ohm(Ω) . Because impedance may be made up of
any combination of resistances and reactances, it is written as a vector quantity Z, where

Each impedance may be represented as a vector on the complex plane, such that the length
of the vector is representative of the magnitude of the impedance. The diagram showing one
or more impedances is referred to as an impedance diagram.
Resistive impedance Z Ris a vector having a magnitude of R along the positive real axis.
Inductive reactance Z Lis a vector having a magnitude ofXL along the positive imaginary axis,
while the capacitive reactance ZC is a vector having a magnitude of X C along the negative
imaginary axis. Mathematically, each of the vector impedances is written as follows:
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An impedance diagram showing each of the above impedances is shown in Fig. 4.3.

Fig 4.3 Impedance diagram

All impedance vectors will appear in either the first or the fourth quadrants, since the resistive
impedance vector is always positive. For a series ac circuit consisting of n impedances, as
shown in Fig. 4.4, the total impedance of the circuit is found as the vector sum Consider the
branch of Fig. 4.5.

By applying Equation 3.1, we may determine the total impedance of the circuit as

From Fig. 4.6, we see that the total impedance of the series elements consists of a real
component and an imaginary component.

Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6

The corresponding total impedance vector may be written in either polar or rectangular form.
The rectangular form of impedance is written as
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If we are given the polar form of the impedance, then we may determine the equivalent
rectangular expression from
R=Z cos θ (3.2)
and
X =Z sin θ (3.3)

In the rectangular representation for impedance, the resistance term, R, is the total of all
resistance looking into the network. The reactance term, X, is the difference between the
total capacitive and inductive reactances. The sign for the imaginary term will be positive if
the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive reactance. In such a case, the
impedance vector will appear in the first quadrant of the impedance diagram and is referred
to as inductiveimpedance. If the capacitive reactance is larger, then the sign for the imaginary
term will be negative. In such a case, the impedance vector will appear in the fourth quadrant
of the impedance diagram and the impedance is said to be capacitive.
The polar form of any impedance will be written in the form

The value Z is the magnitude (in ohms) of the impedance vector Z and is determined as
follows:
Z=√ R 2+ X 2 (Ω) (3.4)

The corresponding angle of the impedance vector is determined as

θ=± tan ( )
−1 X
R
(3.5)

Whenever a capacitor and an inductor having equal reactances are placed in series, as shown
in Fig. 4.7, the equivalent circuit of the two components is a short circuit since the inductive
reactance will be exactly balanced by the capacitive reactance. Any ac circuit having a total
impedance with only a real component, is referred to as a resistive circuit. In such a case, the
impedance vector ZT will be located along the positive real axis of the impedance diagram
and the angle of the vector will be 0°. The condition under which series reactances are equal
is referred to as “series resonance”.

Fig. 4.7

If the impedance Z is written in polar form, then the angle θ will be positive for an inductive
impedance and negative for a capacitive impedance. In the event that the circuit is purely
47
Applied Electricity

reactive, the resulting angle θ will be either +90 ° (inductive) or−90 °(capacitive). If we
reexamine the impedance diagram of Fig. 4.6, we conclude that the original circuit is
inductive. The phase angle θ for the impedance vector Z=Z <θ provides the phase angle
between the voltage V across Z and the current I through the impedance. For an inductive
impedance the voltage will lead the current by θ . If the impedance is capacitive, then the
voltage will lag the current by an amount equal to the magnitude of θ. The phase angle θis
also useful for determining the average power dissipated by the circuit. In the simple series
circuit shown in Fig. 4.8, we know that only the resistor will dissipate power.

Fig. 4.8

The average power dissipated by the resistor may be determined as follows:

(3.6)
Notice that Equation 3.6 uses only the magnitudes of the voltage, current, and impedance
vectors. Power is never determined by using phasor products.

Ohm’s law provides the magnitude of the current phasor as

Substituting this expression into Equation 3.6, we obtain the expression for power as

(3.7)
From the impedance diagram of Figure 4.9, we see that

Fig. 4.9

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Power factor, p . f , can be defined as p . f =cos θ, where θ is the angle between the voltage
and current phasors. We now see that for a series circuit, the power factor of the circuit can
be determined from the magnitudes of resistance and total impedance.
R
p . f =cos θ= (3.8)
Z
The power factor, p.f, is said to be leading if the current leads the voltage (capacitive circuit)
and lagging if the current lags the voltage (inductive circuit). Now substituting the expression
for the power factor into Equation 3.7, we express power delivered to the circuit as

Since V =IZ , power may be expressed as

(3.9)

4.5 Parallel AC circuits

The admittance Y of any impedance is defined as a vector quantity which is the reciprocal of
the impedance Z. Mathematically, admittance is expressed as

(3.10)

where the unit of admittance is the siemens (S).

In particular, we have seen that the admittance of a resistor R is called conductance and is
given the symbol YR. If we consider resistance as a vector quantity, then the corresponding
vector form of the conductance is

(3.11)

If we determine the admittance of a purely reactive component X, the resultant admittance is

called the susceptance of the component and is assigned the symbol B. The unit for
susceptance is siemens (S). In order to distinguish between inductive susceptance and
capacitive susceptance, we use the subscripts L and C respectively. The vector forms of
reactive admittance are given as follows:

(3.12)

(3.13)
In a manner similar to impedances, admittances may be represented on the complex plane in
an admittance diagram as shown in Figure 3.10. The lengths of the various vectors are
proportional to the magnitudes of the corresponding admittances. The resistive admittance
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vector G is shown on the positive real axis, whereas the inductive and capacitive admittance
vectors YLand YCare shown on the negative and positive imaginary axes respectively.

Fig. 4.10 Admittance diagram

For any network of n admittances as shown in Figure 4.11, the total admittance is the vector
sum of the admittances of the network. Mathematically, the total admittance of a network is
given as

(3.14)

Fig. 4.11

The resultant impedance of a parallel network of n impedances is determined to be

(3.15)

4.5.1 Two Impedances in Parallel

By applying Equation 3.13 for two impedances, we determine the equivalent impedance of
two impedances as
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Applied Electricity

(3.16)

From the above expression, we see that for two impedances in parallel, the equivalent
impedance is determined as the product of the impedances over the sum. Although the
expression for two impedances is very similar to the expression for two resistors in parallel,
the difference is that the calculation of impedance involves the use of complex algebra. The
previous example illustrates that unlike total parallel resistance, the total impedance of a
combination of parallel reactances may be much larger that either of the individual
impedances. Indeed, if we are given a parallel combination of equal inductive and capacitive
reactances, the total impedance of the combination is equal to infinity (namely an open
circuit). Consider the network of Figure 4.12.

Fig. 4.12

The total impedance ZT is found as

Because the denominator of the above expression is equal to zero, the magnitude of the total
impedance will be undefined ( Z=∞ ) .The magnitude is undefined and the algebra yields a
phase angle θ=0° , which indicates that the vector lies on the positive real axis of the
impedance diagram. Whenever a capacitor and an inductor having equal reactances are
placed in parallel, the equivalent circuit of the two components is an open circuit.

4.5.2 Three Impedances in Parallel

Equation 4.15 may be solved for three impedances to give the equivalent impedance as

(3.17)

Although this is less useful than the general equation.

4.6 Series-Parallel Circuits

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We may now apply the analysis techniques of series and parallel circuits in solving more
complicated circuits. As in dc circuits, the analysis of such circuits is simplified by starting with
easily recognized combinations. If necessary, the original circuit may be redrawn to make
further simplification more apparent. Regardless of the complexity of the circuits, we find that
the fundamental rules and laws of circuit analysis must apply in all cases.
Consider the network of Figure 4.13. We see that the impedances Z 2 and Z3 are in series. The
branch containing this combination is then seen to be in parallel with the impedance Z1 .

Fig. 4.13

The total impedance of the network is expressed as

Solving for ZT gives the following:

5.0 RESONANCE
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When a pulse sets a system vibrating, it will do so at the system's natural frequency. This
frequency depends on the system's construction.
When a periodic vibration sets a system vibrating then the system is forced to vibrate at that
frequency. When the frequency of the forcing vibration is the same as the natural frequency
there is a big increase in the amplitude of the vibrations. This big increase in amplitude is
called resonance.
Resonance can thus be defined as a condition in an R, L, C circuit in which the capacitive and
inductive reactances are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a purely resistive impedance.

Fig 5.1: Response curve of a resonant circuit

5.1 A.C. Series Resonance
In A.C. a series circuit resonates when there is a big increase in output potential or current at a
particular frequency.

Fig 5.2: AC series R, L, C resonant circuit

Series resonance to occur when:

1. Net reactance of the complex impedance is zero (XL – XC = 0)

2. The circuit impedance is minimum, Z =R
3. Power factor of the circuit is unity
4. Current and power dissipated are maximum

The impedance of the above R, L, C series resonant circuit is

Z=R+ jX (3.18)
−1
θ=tan ( X / R) (3.19)

Where X = XL – XC

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XL – XC = 0 XL = ωL , XC = 1/ωC

ωL = 1/ωC

ω2o= 1/LC

ωo= 1/√ LC (3.20)

the average power dissipated by the R, L, C circuit is Po and is given as

1 2
Po = I R (3.21)
2

Vm
The maximum power dissipated occurs at resonance, when I = so that
Z
2
1 Vm (3.22)
Po =
2 R

5.1.1 Half-power Frequencies

Vm
The power at any frequency is given as P=I 2 R , I=
Z

Hence

( )
2
Vm
P= R
Z2

( )
2
2 2 1
Z =R + ωL−
ωC

At Po= P,

( ) ( )
2 2
1 V m Vm V 2m
= 2 R= R
( )
2 R Z 2 1
2
R + ωL−
ωC

2
ω LC−1
=R
ωC

2
ω LC+ ωRC−1=0

Hence,

√( )
2
R R 1
ω 1 ,2=± ± 2
+ (3.23)
2L 4L LC

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Applied Electricity

2
R 1
Since only positive values of ωo are considered and 2
≪ , then
4L LC
R
Bandwidth=
L
5.1.2 Quality Factor of a resonant R, L, C circuit

The sharpness of a resonance in a resonant R, L, C circuit is measured quantitatively by the quality

factor, Q.

The quality factor of a resonant circuit can be defined as the ratio of the maximum energy stored to
the energy dissipated per cycle in a circuit. In relations to bandwidth of a band pass, quality factor is
defined as being inversely proportional to the bandwidth of the band pass.

maximum energy stored

Q = 2π
energy dissipated per cycle

1 2
The peak energy stored in a R, L, C circuit is given as LI
2

1 2 1
The energy dissipated in one period is ( I R)
2 fo

1 2
LI
2
Q=2 π
1 2 1
I R
2 fo

√
2 π f o L ωo L 1 1 L
Q= = = = (3.24 )
R R ω0 C R R C

Example

A 10 Ω resistor is connected in series with a 10 mH inductor and a 1 μF, with a supply voltage of 10v.

Calculate:

i. Maximum power dissipated by the circuit.

ii. Total impedance at resonance.
iii. Quality Factor of the circuit at resonance.
iv. Bandwidth of the circuit.

SOLUTION
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Applied Electricity

2 2
V 10
P= = =10 W
R 10

( )
2
2 2 1
ii) Z =R + ωL−
ωC

1 1
ω o= = =10 , 000 rad / s
√ LC √10 × 10 × 1× 10−6
−3

( )
2
2 2 −3 1
Z =10 + 10000 ×10 × 10 − −6
=100
10000 ×1 ×10

Z = 10 Ω

Iii)
V 10
I= = =1 Α
Z 10

iv)

2 π f o L ω o L 10000 ×10 ×10−3

Q= = = =10
R R 10

v)

√( ) √( )
2 2
−R R 1 −10 10 1
ω 1= + 2
+ = −3
+ −3 2
+ −3 −6
2L 4L LC 2× 10× 10 4 ×(10 ×10 ) 10 ×10 ×1 ×10

= 9, 512.49 rad/s

√( ) √( )
2 2
R R 1 10 10 1
ω 2= + + = + +
2L 4L
2
LC 2 ×10 ×10−3 −3 2 −3
4 ×(10× 10 ) 10 ×10 × 1× 10
−6

= 10, 512.49 rad/s

Bandwidth = ω2 – ω1 = 10 512.49 – 9 512.49 = 1000 rad/s

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Applied Electricity

5.2 PARALLEL RESONANCE

There are many combinations of elements that will produce parallel resonance. A useful one is shown
on the Fig 5.3 below; it will attenuate a band of frequencies and pass the other frequencies
unchanged. The circuit is in resonance when the complex impedance is real.

Fig 5.3: Parallel R, L, C circuit

The total impedance of the circuit in Fig 5.3, is given as

XL = ωL, XC = 1/ωC

R+ jωL
Z=
( 1−ω 2 LC ) + jωCR
Rationalising the denominator and solving,

Z=
R ( 1−ω2 LC ) + ω2 LCR
+j
[ ωL ( 1−ω2 LC ) +ωC R2 ] (3.25)
2 2
( 1−ω2 LC ) + ( ωCR )2 ( 1−ω2 LC ) + ( ωCR )2
For resonance to occur, the imaginary part of the complex impedance must be zero, hence

[ ωL ( 1−ω2 LC ) + ωC R 2 ]=0

√( )
2
1 R
ω= − 2 (3.26)
LC L

The quality factor for parallel resonance is defined to be the same as in series circuits:

√
2 π f o L ωo L 1 1 L
Q= = = = (3.27)
R R ω0 C R R C

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Applied Electricity

EXERCISES

1. A 240V ac supply has a 100 ohm resistor connected in series with a 200 mH inductor and a 200
nF capacitor, find:
(a) the resonant frequency (Hz),
(b) The r.m.s current at resonance,
(c) The Q factor, and
(d) The band width (Hz)

2. For the circuit shown below, find the:

(a) inductance for a 500 Hz resonant frequency,
(b) resistance for a Q of 15.

3. Find the indicated quantities for the circuit shown in the Figure below

(a) Resonant frequency expressed as ω (rad/s) and f(Hz).

(b) Total impedance at resonance.
(c) Current at resonance.
(d) VLand VC.
(e) Reactive powers, QC and QL.
(f) Quality factor of the circuit, Qs

4. A series R, L, C circuit consist of R = 1 kΩ, L = 100 mH, C = 10 pF. The applied voltage across
the circuit is 240V, find:
(a) The resonant frequency of the circuit in rad/s and Hz.
(b) Find the Quality Factor of the circuit at resonance .
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Applied Electricity

(c) Bandwidth of the circuit.

5. A coil of inductance 80 mH and negligible resistance is connected in series with a capacitance

of 0.25 μF and a resistor of resistance 12.5 Ω across a 100 V, variable frequency supply. Find:
(a) The resonant frequency.
(b) The current at resonance
(c) The Q-Factor

6. A pure inductor of 150 mH is connected in parallel with a 40 μF capacitor across a 50 V,

variable frequency supply. Find the resonant frequency of the circuit.

7. A coil with resistance RL and inductance L in series are connected in parallel to a capacitor, C
and resistor RC in series across a variable frequency supply of E (V). Obtain the resonant
frequency of the circuit.

8. L = 100 mH, R = 800 Ω in series but connected in parallel to a variable capacitor across a 12 V,
5 kHz supply. Determine for the condition when the supply current is a minimum:
(a) The Capacitance of the capacitor.
(b) The Q-Factor of the circuit.

9.

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6.0 POWER IN A.C CIRCUITS

The value of power at any instant is given by the product of the voltage and current at that
instant.This means that if current and voltage vary with time, so will power, and this varying power
with time is referred to as instantaneous power, P(t) = v(t) i(t).

Now consider the case of sinusoidal ac. Since voltage and current arepositive at various times during
their cycle and negative at others, instantaneouspower may also be positive at some times and
negative at others.This is illustrated in Figure 6.0 where we have multiplied voltage and current point
by point to get the power waveform.
For example, from t = 0 s to t=t1, v and i are both positive; therefore, power is positive. At t = t1, v =0 V
and thus p =0 W. From t1 to t2, i is positive and v is negative; therefore, p is negative. From t2 to t3, both
v and i are negative;therefore power is positive, and so on. A positivevalue for p means that power
transfer is in the direction of the referencearrow, while a negative value means that it is in the
opposite direction.
Thus, during positive parts of the power cycle, power flows from thesource to the load, while during
negative parts, it flows out of the loadback into the circuit.The waveform of Figure 6.0 is the actual
power waveform.

Fig. 6.0: Instantaneous power in an a.c circuit ( Positive p reps power to the load,
negative p reps power returned from the load)

6.1 Active Power

Since p represents the power flowing to the load, its average will be the averagepower to the load.
Denote this average by the letter P. If P is positive,then, on average, more power flows to the load
than is returned from it. (If Pis zero, all power sent to the load is returned.) Thus, if P has a positive
value,it represents the power that is really dissipated by the load. For this reason, Pis called real
power. In modern terminology, real power is also called activepower. Thus, active power is the
average value of the instantaneous power.

6.1.1 POWER TO A RESISTIVE LOAD

In a purely resistive load, current is in phase with voltage, thus i =Imsin ωt and v =Vmsin ωt.
Thus,
p =vi = (Vmsin ωt)(Imsin ωt) =VmImsin2ωt

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Applied Electricity

(a) (b)
Fig 6.1: Power to a resistive load

Hence,
V m Im
p= ( 1−cos 2ωt )
2

Note that power,p is always positive. This means that power flows onlyfrom the source to the load.
Since none is ever returned, all power deliveredby the source is absorbed by the load. We
thereforeconclude that power to apure resistance consists of active power only.

6.1.2 Average Power

Inspection of the power waveform of Figure 6.1 shows that its averagevalue lies half way between
zero and its peak value of VmIm. That is,
V m Im
p=
2
Vm
Since V (the magnitude of the r.m.s value of voltage) is
√2
Im
and I (the magnitude of the r.m.s value of current) is
√2
Thus, average power to a purely resistive load is
p=VI (Watts) (3.28)

Thus the active power relationships for resistive circuits are the same for acas for dc.

6.2 Reactive Power

Consider again Figure 6.0(b). During the intervals that p is negative, power isbeing returned from the
load. (This can only happen if the load containsreactive elements: L or C.) The portion of power that
flows into the load then back out is called reactive power.
It should be noted that real power and reactive power do not exist as separate entities. Rather, they
are components of the power waveform shown in Figure6.0. However, as you will see, we are able to
conceptually separate them for purposes of analysis.
Reactive power can either be inductive or capacitive. For both purely inductive and capacitive a.c
circuits, the average power is zero

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Applied Electricity

6.2.1 Power to an Inductive Load

For a purely inductive load as in Figure 6.2 (a), current lags voltage by 90°. Ifwe select current as
reference, i =Imsin ωt and v =Vmsin(ωt +90°).A sketchof p versus time (obtained by multiplying v times
i) then looks as shown in (b).

(a) Let i=I m sin ωt (b)

v=V m sin ( ωt +90 )
°

Fig 6.2: Power to a purely inductive load. Energy stored during each quarter cycleis returned
during the next quarter-cycle.

Note that during the first quarter-cycle, p is positive and hence power flows tothe inductance, while
during the second quarter-cycle, p is negative and allpower transferred to the inductance during the
first quarter-cycle flows backout. Similarly for the third and fourth quarter-cycles. Thus, the average
powerto an inductance over a full cycle is zero, i.e., there are no power losses associatedwith a pure
inductance.Generally, thepower that flows into and out of a pure inductance is reactive power only.

P L=vi=I m sin ωt × V m sin ( ωt +90° )

After some trigonometric manipulation, this reduces to

P L=VI sin 2ωt (3.29)

Where V and I are the magnitudes of the r.m.s values of the voltage and current respectively.
the product of V and I is called the reactive power.

Q=VI (VAR) (3.30)

Substituting V = IXL or V = IXC

2
2 V
Q L=I X L = (3.31)
XL

2
2 V
QC =I X C = (3.32)
XC

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Applied Electricity

6.3 ACTIVE, REACTIVE AND APPARENT POWER

Let a series R-L circuit draw a current of I when an alternating voltage of r.m.s value V is applied to it.
Assuming that the current lags behind the voltage by Ø.

The respective powers drawn by the load in the circuit are:

(a) APPARENT POWER (S)

Given by the r.m.s values of current and voltage applied in the said circuit, i.e:
2
S=IV =I Z [Voltage-ampere, VA] (3.33)

(b) ACTIVE (TRUE) POWER (P)

The power dissipated by a load in a R, L, C circuit is called True or Active Power and is given as:

2
P=I R=VI cos ∅ [Watts ,W ] (3.34)
(c) REACTIVE POWER (Q)
This is the power developed in the inductive or capacitive reactance of the circuit and is given
as:
2 2
Q=I X L ( ¿ X C )=I Z sin ∅ =VI sin ∅ ¿volt-amperes-reactive, VAR] (3.35)
A negative sign is used to indicate capacitive reactive power.

6.4 RELATIONSHIP BTW S, P AND Q (POWER TRIANGLE)

Consider the series circuit of Figure 6.4(a). Let the current through the circuitbe I =I ∠ 0 . The
voltages across the resistorand inductance are VRand VLrespectively. VRisin phase with I, while VLleads
it by 90°. Kirchhoff’s voltage law applies fora.c voltages in phasor form. Thus, V=VR+VLas indicated in
(b).
The voltage triangle of (b) may be redrawn as in Figure 6.5 with magnitudesof VRand VLreplaced by IR
and IXLrespectively.Nowmultiply all quantitiesby I. This yields sides of I2R, I2XL, and hypotenuse VI as
indicated in (b).
Note that these represent P, Q, and S respectively as indicated in (c). This iscalled the power triangle.

(a) (b)

Fig 6.4: R-L circuit and its phase diagram

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Applied Electricity

(a) Magnitudes (b) Multiplied by I (c) Resultant Power Triangle

Fig 6.5: Steps in the development of power triangle

From the geometry of this triangle, you can see that

S= √ P2 +Q 2 or kVA=√ kW 2+ kVAR 2 (3.36)

where kW = kVA cosØ, kVAR = kVA sinØ

This can be written in complex form as

S=P+ jQ (3.37)

If the component is capacitive instead of inductive, then:

S=P− j QC (3.38)

6.5 Power Factor

Power factor can be defined as the cosine of the angle between apparent and activepower in the
power triangle.
Active power Resistance
p . f =cos θ= = (3.39)
Apparent power Impedance
Power factor is expressed as a number or as a percent. it is apparent that power factor cannot exceed
1.0 (or 100% if expressed inpercent).
The power factor angle θis of interest and it can be found as:

θ=cos−1 ( Apparent power )

Active power
(3.40)

6.5.1 Unity, Lagging, and Leading Power Factor

A load’s power factor shows how much ofits apparent power is actually real power. For example, for a
purely resistivecircuit, V ∠ 0 °and p.f = cos 0° = 1.0. Therefore, P =VI (watts) and all theload’s apparent
power is real power. This case (p.f =1) is referred to as unitypower factor.
For a load containing only resistance and inductance, the load currentlags voltage. The power factor in
this case is described as lagging. On theother hand, for a load containing only resistance and
capacitance, currentleads voltage and the power factor is described as leading. Thus, an
inductivecircuit has a lagging power factor, while a capacitive circuit has a leadingpower factor.
A load with a very poor power factor can draw excessive current.

6.5.2 Power Factor Correction

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The problem of poor power factor can be alleviated by cancelling some orall of the reactive
component of power by adding reactance of the oppositetype to the circuit. This is referred to as
power factor correction.
If youcompletely cancel the reactive component, the power factor angle is 0° and
p.f =1. This is referred to as unity power factor correction.
Inductive reactance can only be canceled by capacitive reactance and vice versa, so we have to add
acapacitor either in parallel or in series to the circuit as the additional load.

6.5.3 Why Equipment Is Rated in VA

We now examine why electrical apparatus is rated in VA instead of watts.Consider that (a): a
generator is rated at 600V, 120 kVA.This means that it is capable of supplying I =120 kVA/600V =200 A.
If the generator is supplying a purely resistive load with 120 kW. Since S = P fora purely resistive load,
S =120 kVA and the generator is supplying its ratedkVA. But if (b): the same generator is supplying a
load with P = 120 kW as before, butQ =160 kVAR. Its apparent power is therefore S =200 kVA, which
meansthat the generator current is I=200 kVA/600 V =333.3 A. Even though it issupplying the same
power as in case (a) , the generator is now greatly overloaded,and damage may occur.
This example illustrates clearly that rating a load or device in terms ofpower is a poor choice, as its
current-carrying capability can be greatlyexceeded (even though its power rating is not). Thus, the size
of electricalapparatus (generators, interconnecting wires, transformers, etc.) required tosupply a load
is governed, not by the load’s power requirements, but ratherby its VA requirements.

Electrostatics
Ever wondered how lightning occurs? Or why you see sparks when you
remove your sweater in a dark room? Then you are in the right
place. Electrostatics is the branch of physics which can help explain
these amazing wonders. It is very vital because it can be used to explain
natural electrostatic phenomena and help us learn how to solve basic
problems in this field. So what next? Let us explore this world of
interesting phenomena!

Contents
 Introduction

 Superposition

 Charge Distribution in Conductors

 Rearrangement of Charges under the Influence of Electric Field

 Applications

 Problems from Community

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Introduction
The charges observed in the universe are of only two types: positive
and negative. These charges interact in different ways; in general, we
can say that like charges repel each other and unlike charges
attract each other. To be specific, they interact in the following ways:

Note: Charges are conserved, i.e. charges can neither be created nor
destroyed.

Let us now understand one of the most basic concept of electrostatics:

quantization of charges.

Quantization of Charges:

One of the most basic principle that many people fail to understand is
the quantization of charges, according to which a charge can only be
an integer multiple of the elementary charge
Mathematically, we can say

But this is very simple because we know that the charges, which are
nothing but protons (+ve) or electrons (-ve), are indivisible. Hence a
charge can't be a fraction, because protons can't be further divided.

But if we consider quantum physics, protons can be further divided into

things called quarks, which have fractional values of , more
specifically in the ratio of one-thirds. But they are always found in a
colony (as protons).

Proton (a quantum model):

BBC

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Applied Electricity

Now that we have understood that a charge can never be a fraction,

we'll try to get familiar with the force between two charges with the
help of the famous Coulomb's law.

Coulomb's Law:

This law states that the force between two charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to

the square of their separation. Therefore, we have

Now, we introduce a constant of proportionality (Coulomb's constant):

Here, the quantity is known as the permittivity of free space. This

formula gives us the magnitude of the force exerted between the two
charges. For more details visit Coulomb's law.

Submit your answer

Electric Fields and Field Lines:

Electric field lines are the imaginary curves in an electric field along
which a point charge would move if it is placed in it. The field lines are
different for a positive charge and a negative charge. For a positive
charge, the electric field lines extend outward infinitely, and for a
negative charge, the electric field lines appear to come inwards.

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Applied Electricity

Field lines around a positive and negative charge

But when two charges interact with each other, things are different. We
can classify it into two cases: first when two charges are unlike, and
second when they are like. The image below can help you understand it:

Field lines when different charges interact

Superposition
Main article: superposition of electric fields.

Every charged particle or a system of charged particles in the universe

creates an electric field in the space around itself. This field can be
calculated with the help of Coulomb's law. But, what would happen if
there were two or more charges in space? How would the electric field
in the region around them be affected? The principle of superposition
helps us understand this phenomenon.

The Principle of Superposition:

It states that every charge in space creates an electric field at a point

independent of the presence of other charges in that medium. The
resultant electric field is a vectorsum of the electric field due to
individual charges.

Charges in a Straight Line:

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Applied Electricity

Charges in a Triangle:

Three charges and are placed at the vertices of an equilateral

triangle of side length in vacuum. Find the magnitude of electric force
experienced by charge .

Data:

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Let us consider the interaction of the charge with each of the two
charges separately.

Let the electric field by the charges and be and respectively.

The magnitudes of and can be calculated using Coulomb's law:Using

the principle of superposition, we haveLet the force acting
on be Then

Submit your answer

Three equal charges are placed in such a way that they form a right
triangle with sides Each charge has a magnitude of .

Find the net force acting on the charge at the right angle.

Details and assumptions:

 Take .
 Round your answer to the nearest
integer.

Try solving this problem by applying the concepts of charges in a

straight line and triangle.

Submit your answer

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Applied Electricity

It is required to hold four equal point charges each in equilibrium at

the corners of a square. Find the charge in Coulombs, , that will do this
if kept at the center of the square.

Details and Assumptions:

Charge Distribution in Conductors

Charge distribution between plates can be figured out using the
following basic principles:

1. Electric Field inside a Conductor

At any point inside a conductor, the electric field equals zero. This
phenomenon can be explained using the fact that all the charges
present on a conductor move away towards the outer surface of
the conductor.
2. Conservation of Local Charge
Charges present on an isolated conductor that are conserved, i.e.
the net charge on the conductor, remain constant.
3. Potential of a Conductor
The surface of a conductor is an equipotential, since the electric
field is zero and the conductor behaves like an equipotential
surface.

Charges in a Sphere:

Let us investigate the charge distribution in a hollow sphere. First, lat us

see how the charges are distributed on a sphere; by Newton's shell
theorem, the charge distributed over a sphere can be considered as a
point charge at the center of the sphere with equal magnitude. Thus, we
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Applied Electricity

can consider the electric field to be pointing outward/inward depending

on the charge the sphere is carrying.

A positively charged hollow sphere(credit MIT)

Charge Distribution between Two Charged Plates:

Consider the below situation:

There are two charged plates with initial charge and respectively. To
find the charges inside and outside respectively of both the charges, we
use the above-mentioned rules along with Gauss' law.

Using Rule 1, net electric field inside both the plates should be zero,
i.e. But the enclosed charge amounts to . Thus

Now, at point net charge is zero. The charge due to a large charged
plate is given bySo, net field at isSo, the situation becomes as follows:

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Applied Electricity

Now, using Rule 2 on both of the charges, we have

Charge distribution between two charged plates of which either/both of

them is/are earthed

Rearrangement of Charges under the Influence of

Electric Field
[Anyone interested can do it]

What happens to the charges in an object when an electrified body is

brought towards it? Charges present in an object can rearrange
themselves under the influence of an electric field, depending upon the
nature of the field.

Polarization

When an uncharged object is placed in an electric field, its charges

rearrange themselves. The electrons move away from the direction of
the field, while the positive charges are displaced towards the electric
field. This effect is known as polarization. The charges align themselves
in the following manner:

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Applied Electricity

Dielectrics

Capacitors

A: conductor, B: positive(+)A: conductor, B: negative(-)A: insulator, B:

positive(+)A: insulator, B: negative(-)

In the above diagram, is the distribution of electrical charges in an

object, being influenced by a nearby electrified body What are the
object and the type of charge on respectively?

Applications
Electrostatics is the field of physics and
especially electrodynamics that has many examples that can be seen
in real life. Out of all of them, lightning and the Van de Graaff
generator are a couple, one of which is natural while the other is one of
the most ingenious human inventions ever.

We are going to discuss both of them in detail below, and hopefully

show you the utter beauty of science, especially physics.

Lightning

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Applied Electricity

So, we have all seen lightning. It is that spark in the sky when the
weather isn't too nice. But, trust me when I say that it is not as boring
as it seems! We all know from the previously discussed topics that 2
bodies which have a potential difference will always cause charges to
flow from a higher potential region to a lower one. Well, that is what all
lightning is!

During a storm, or in a humid weather, the air between the clouds and
between the clouds and the ground gets partially ionized, i.e. it allows
the charge to flow through it, unlike the neutral air we have in hot
weathers. So, this causes a potential difference to be developed
between the two surfaces, which further causes a flow of charges, and
hence an electric shock is produced in the form of a zig-zag projectile.
This type of sudden discharge occurs because both the bodies posses a
very high amount of charges, because of which they become very
unstable, and hence they come to equilibrium by this process.

Now, the basic question that arises is, "Why zig-zag?"

The reason is simple. The path of least resistance is the path that is
the motive of every single charge in the lightning strike. Moreover, the
entire atmosphere varies with humidity, temperature, pressure, and
what not as we move along it. This causes fluctuations in its resistance,
and hence the path is never straight, but rather it is one of the millions
of possibilities that a lightning surge could have taken!

Gauss’s Law for Electric Fields

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Applied Electricity

Fig. 33 Charge enclosed

Gauss’s law for the electric field describes the static electric field generated by a
distribution of electric charges. It states that the electric flux through any closed
surface is proportional to the total electric charge enclosed by this surface. By
convention, a positive electric charge generates a positive electric field. The law was
published posthumously in 1867 as part of a collection of work by the famous German
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss.

Integral Equation
Gauss’s law in integral form is given below:

Flux is a measure
of the strength of a field passing through a surface. Electric flux is defined in general
as

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Applied Electricity

We can think of electric field as flux density. Gauss’s law tells us that the net electric
flux through any closed surface is zero unless the volume bounded by that surface
contains a net charge.

Differential Form
When considering a spatially extended charged body, we can think of its charge as
being continously distributed throughout the body with density ρρ. The total charge is
then given by the integral of the charge density over the volume of the body.

Using this definition and applying the divergence theorem to the left hand side of
Gauss’s law (1), we can rewrite the law as:

Since this equation must hold for any volume VV , we can equate the integrands,
giving the differential form of Gauss’s law:

It can be shown that Gauss’ law for electric fields is equivalent to Coulomb’s law
(see Equivalence of Gauss’ Law for Electric Fields to Coulomb’s Law)

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Gauss's Law
Gauss's law states that the net flux of an electric field through a closed surface is proportional to the enclosed
electric charge. One of the four equations of Maxwell's laws of electromagnetism, it was first formulated by Carl
Friedrich Gauss in 1835 and relates the electric fields at points on a closed surface (known as a "Gaussian
surface") and the net charge enclosed by that surface. The electric flux is defined as the electric field passing
through a given area multiplied by the area of the surface in a plane perpendicular to the field. Another statement
of Gauss's law is that the net flux of an electric field through a surface divided by the enclosed charge is equal to a
constant.

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