Chapter-III AC Circuits Concepts

3.1 Introduction
The electrical quantities which vary or changes continuously with time are known as Alternating quantities.
Alternating voltage and current are some of those quantities.
The magnitude of these Alternating quantities changes continuously with time and the direction also vary or
changes after definite time period. These alternating quantities may have square waveform, triangular
waveform, saw tooth waveform, sinusoidal waveform etc.
Here we are concern mainly with sinusoidal waveforms. These Alternating sinusoidal quantities are applied to
different electrical circuits and their steady state behavior is studied.
3.2 Representation of Sinusoidal Alternating Voltage and Current
When an alternator produces AC voltage, the voltage switches polarity over time, but does so in a very
particular manner. When graphed over time, the wave traced by this voltage of alternating polarity from an
alternator takes on a distinct shape, known as a sine wave (Fig 3.1).
Fig 3.1
3.2.1 Graph of AC Voltage over Time (The Sine Wave)
In the voltage plot from an electromechanical alternator, the change from one polarity to the other is a smooth
one, the voltage level changing most rapidly at the zero (crossover) point and most slowly at its peak. If we
were to graph the trigonometric function of sine over a horizontal range of 0 to 360 degrees, we would find
the exact same pattern as in Table 3.1.
Angle (o) sin(angle) wave Angle (o) sin(angle) wave
0 0.0000 zero 180 0.0000 zero
15 0.2588 + 195 -0.2588 -
30 0.5000 + 210 -0.5000 -
45 0.7071 + 225 -0.7071 -
60 0.8660 + 240 -0.8660 -
75 0.9659 + 255 -0.9659 -
90 1.0000 +peak 270 -1.0000 -peak
105 0.9659 + 285 -0.9659 -
120 0.8660 + 300 -0.8660 -
135 0.7071 + 315 -0.7071 -
150 0.5000 + 330 -0.5000 -
165 0.2588 + 345 -0.2588 -
180 0.0000 zero 360 0.0000 zero
Table 3.1
The reason why an electromechanical alternator outputs sine-wave AC is due to the physics of its operation.
The voltage produced by the stationary coils by the motion of the rotating magnet is proportional to the rate at
which the magnetic flux is changing perpendicular to the coils (Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction).
That rate is greatest when the magnet poles are closest to the coils and least when the magnet poles are furthest
away from the coils. Mathematically, the rate of magnetic flux change due to a rotating magnet follows that of a
sine function, so the voltage produced by the coils follows that same function.
A Sinusoidal Alternating voltage changes polarity after every half cycle (Fig 3.2). It can be represented by
equation
t V v
m
sin
(3.01)
Fig 3.2
Where, v = Instantaneous value of alternating voltage.
V
m
= Maximum value of alternating voltage.
= Angular velocity = 2f
f = frequency in Hz.
Similarly a Sinusoidal Alternating current is also cyclic in nature. After every half cycle the direction of the
flow of current changes. It can be represented by equation
t I i
m
sin
(3.02)
Where, i = Instantaneous value of alternating current.
I
m
= Maximum value of alternating current.
While electromechanical alternators and many other physical phenomena naturally produce sine waves, this is
not the only kind of alternating wave in existence. Other waveforms of AC are commonly produced within
electronic circuitry. Here are but a few sample waveforms and their common designations in Fig 3.3 below.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 3.3
These waveforms are by no means the only kinds of waveforms in existence. These are simply a few that are
common enough to have been given distinct names. Even in circuits that are supposed to manifest pure sine,
square, triangle, or saw tooth voltage/current waveforms, the real-life result is often a distorted version of the
intended wave shape. Some waveforms are so complex that they defy classification as a particular type
(including waveforms associated with many kinds of musical instruments). Generally speaking, any wave shape
bearing close resemblance to a perfect sine wave is termed sinusoidal, anything different being labeled as non-
sinusoidal. Being that the waveform of an AC voltage or current is crucial to its impact in a circuit, we need to
be aware of the fact that AC waves come in a variety of shapes.
Waveform : The Shape of curve obtained after taking time on X-axis and the voltage( or current) values on Y-
axis.
Instantaneous value: The value of alternating quantity at any particular instant of time is called as
Instantaneous value.
Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is called as a cycle.
Alternation : One half of a cycle is called as an alternation.
Time period: The time taken by the wave to complete one cycle is the time-period. It is denoted by T and unit is
in seconds.
Frequency: The no. of Oscillations by the wave in one second is called the frequency. It is denoted by f and
unit is hertz.
Angular velocity: The velocity with which the coil moves or the ratio of angle turned per unit time is called
angular velocity. It is denoted by .
= 2f = 2 / T
Amplitude: The maximum value of sinusoidal wave attained during one cycle is called the amplitude or peak.
It is denoted by E
max
for voltage amplitude the I
max
for current amplitude.
Peak Value: The maximum instantaneous value measured from its zero value is known as Peak value.
Peak to Peak Value: The value between maximum positive instantaneous value from its maximum negative
value is known as Peak to Peak value. Peak to Peak value = 2 * Peak value
3.3 Generation of Alternating Voltage and Current
According to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction when a coil rotates in a magnetic field, an e.m.f is
induced in it, which is given by
dt
d
N e


(3.03)
An alternating voltage may be generated:
(a) By rotating a coil at constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig 3.4.
Fig 3.4
(b) By rotating a magnetic field at a constant angular velocity within a stationary coil as shown in Fig 3.5. If
a machine is constructed to rotate a magnetic field around a set of stationary wire coils with the turning
of a shaft, AC voltage will be produced across the wire coils as that shaft is rotated, in accordance with
Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction. This is the basic operating principle of an AC generator,
also known as an alternator (Fig 3.5)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig 3.5
Let us consider the first case in which a coil is rotated in the stationary magnetic field.
As the coil is rotated in anticlockwise direction, it cut the lines of magnetic field and intern e.m.f is generated in
the coil.
When the coil (abcd) is parallel to the magnetic field minimum magnetic field lines are cut, and hence no e.m.f
is induced in the coil. As the coil moves in anti-clockwise direction, the angle between the coil and the magnetic
field lines increases. Hence flux cut will be more and more e.m.f is induced in the coil. When the coil is
perpendicular to the magnetic field, maximum lines are cut and hence maximum e.m.f is generated.
Let the generating system have the following specifications:
Number of turns of the coil = N
Area of the coil = A
Flux density of the Magnetic Field = B
Angular speed of the coil =
The flux linked with the coil =
The flux linked with the coil can be expressed as
cos . BA A B (3.04)
As = t, equation (3.04) will become
t BA cos
(3.05)
From equation (3.05), equation (3.03) will become
dt
t BA d
N e
) cos (
(3.06)
Or t sin NBA e (3.07)
The generated e.m.f will be maximum when
1 sin t (3.08)
And that maximum e.m.f is given by
NBA E
m

(3.09)
From equation (3.09), equation (3.07) will become
t sin
m
E e
(3.10)
This is an equation of alternating sinusoidal induced voltage.
Where e = Instantaneous value of Induced Voltage.
E
m
= Maximum value of Induced Voltage.
3.4 Average Value of Alternating Quantities
Mathematically average value is given by

Base
curve under the Area
value Average
(3.11)
The average value of an alternating quantity (whether it is sinusoidal or square or triangular) if calculated over
a complete cycle will be zero because it has identical positive and negative half cycles. Hence the average value
of an alternating quantity is calculated over a half cycle.
The Sinusoidal alternating current is given by
t I i
m
sin
(3.02)
Fig 3.6
For an alternating Sinusoidal quantity
alteration one of length base
n alternatio one of Area
) value(I Average
av

(3.12)

1
]
1

0
) (
1
t d i
(3.13)
Or
1
]
1

0
) ( ) sin(
1
t d t I
m
(from equation (3.02)) (3.14)
m
m
av
I
I
I 637 . 0
2

(3.15)
Similarly for Sinusoidal alternating voltage the average value is given by
m
m
av
V
V
V 637 . 0
2

(3.16)
3.5 Root Mean Square (r.m.s) or Effective Value
The effective or r.m.s value of an alternating current is that steady current (DC) which when flowing through
a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current
(AC) when flowing through the same resistance for same time.
For example when we say that the r.m.s or effective value of an alternating current is 5A, it means that the
alternating current will do work or produce heat at the same rate as 5A direct current under similar conditions.
The rms value of non-sinusoidal quantities can be calculated by Graphical method
n
i i i i
I
n
rms
2 2
3
2
2
2
1
+ +
(3.17)
The r.m.s value of Sinusoidal quantities over a complete cycle can be calculated by Integral method
2 / 1
2
0
2
) (
2
1
1
]
1

wt d i I
rms
(3.18)
From equation (3.02),
t I i
m
sin
(3.02)
2 / 1
2
0
2
m
) ( t) sin I (
2
1
1
]
1

t d I
rms
(3.19)
Or
2 / 1
2
0
2 2
m
) ( t sin I
2
1
1
]
1

wt d
(3.20)
Or
2 / 1
2
0
2
) (
2
t) cos2 - (1
2
1
]
1

t d
I
m
(3.21)
Or
2 / 1
2
0
2
2
2 sin
4
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

t
t
I
m
(3.22)
Or ( )
2 / 1
2
0 0
2
4 sin
2
4
1
]
1

,
_

m
I
(3.23)
OR
2
m
rms
I
I
(3.24)
Similarly for Sinusoidal alternating voltage the rms value is given by
2
m
rms
V
V
(3.25)
3.6 Form Factor
Form factor of an Alternating quantity is defined as the ratio of r.m.s value of an Alternating quantity to the
maximum value of that Alternating quantity.
value Average
value s m r
K
f
. . .

(3.26)
For a Sinusoidal alternating current
K
f =
m
m
I
I
637 . 0
707 . 0
(3.27)
Or K
f =
1.11 (3.28)
From the definition of form factor it is clear that form factor enable us to find the r.m.s value of an sinusoidal
alternating quantity if average value of an sinusoidal alternating quantity is given or vice versa.
Note: It is to noted that the constant value of the form factor (K
f =
1.11) is for sinusoidal alternating
quantity only and not for any other alternating quantity.
3.7 Peak Factor
Peak factor is also known as crest factor or amplitude factor. It is defined as the ratio of maximum value of an
alternating quantity to the rms value of that alternating quantity
value r.m.s.
value Maximum
K
p

(3.29)
For a Sinusoidal AC current
K
P
=

m
m
I
I
707 . 0
(3.30)
Or K
P
=

1.414 (3.31)
Note: - It is to noted that the constant value of the Peak factor (K
p
= 1.414) is for sinusoidal alternating
quantity only and not for any other alternating quantity. Notations of these factors may vary from book
to book.
The peak factor is of much greater importance because it indicates the maximum voltage being applied to the
various parts of the apparatus. For instance when an alternating voltage is applied across a cable, the breakdown
of the insulation will depend upon the maximum voltage. The insulation must be able to withstand the
maximum value of the voltage rather then the r.m.s value.
3.8 Power in AC Circuits
Suppose that the voltage and current in a circuit are out of phase and the phase difference between them be
angle .
Apparent Power
The product of the applied voltage and total current is known as apparent power. It is also known as real power.
Apparent Power = V I Volt Ampere (VA) (3.32)
Active Power
The power actually used in the circuit (or dissipated in the form of heat) is known as Active Power. It is also
known as true power.
Active Power = V I cos Watt (W) (3.33)
Reactive Power
Power which is returned to the source by reactive components (for e.g. inductor, capacitor etc) in the circuit is
called reactive Power.
Reactive Power = V I sin Volt Amp. Reactive (VAR) (3.34)
3.9 Complex Notation
All the phasors related to electrical quantities can be resolve in to two components namely horizontal
component and vertical component. Accordingly these phasors can be expressed in four forms:
Polar Form
Rectangular Form
Trigonometric form
Exponential form
Out of these four types, two are the most important and commonly used forms to express the phasors. They are
Polar Form and Rectangular Form. These will be discussed in detail in the next articles.
3.9.1 Polar Form
The voltage and current phasor need not always be along X or Y axis as indicated in Fig. 3.11.
V
I
Fig 3.11
They may be at an inclined direction also (as in case of RL, RC and RLC series circuits discussed in the
previous sections). Let us consider four different types of voltage equations.
v
1
= V
1
sin t where
1
= 0
0

(3.35)
v
2
= V
2
sin (t + 45
o
) where
2
< 90
0

(3.36)
v
3
= V
3
sin (t + 90
o
) where
3
= 90
0

(3.37)
v
4
= V
4
sin (t 60
o
) where
4
is negative (3.38)
In Fig. 3.12 these four phasors are represented.
Fig. 3.12
These equations in polar form can be represented as
0
1 1
V v
(3.39)
o
V v 45
2 2

(3.40)
o
V v 90
3 3

(3.42)
o
V v 60
4 4

(3.43)
3.9.2 Rectangular Form
Any inclined phasor can be resolved into two components, one along the horizontal or X-axis and the other
along the vertical or Y-axis.
Phasor v
1
equation (3.39) is represented in polar form by its magnitude and direction as
0
1 1
V v
(3.39)
Horizontal component of v
1
1 1 1
) 0 cos( V V v
o
h

(3.44)
Vertical component of v
1

0 ) 0 sin(
1 1

o
r
V v
(3.45)
It has horizontal component alone. It is along positive X-axis, and is considered as the reference phasor.
Phasor v
2
equation (3.40) is in the I quadrant, leading v
1
by an angle 45
o
and can be represented in polar form as
o
V v 45
2 2

(3.40)
Horizontal component of v
2

) 45 cos(
2 2
o
h
V v
(3.46)
Vertical component of v
2

) 45 sin(
2 2
o
r
V v
(3.47)
Phasor v
3
equation (3.42) is leading v
1
by an angle 90
o
and can be represented in polar form as
o
V v 90
3 3

(3.42)
Horizontal component of v
3

0 ) 90 cos(
3 3

o
h
V v
(3.48)
Vertical component of v
3

3 3 3
) 90 sin( V V v
o
r

(3.49)
Phasor v
3
is along positive Y-axis. It has only a vertical component.
Phasor v
4
equation (3.43) is an inclined phasor shown in IV quadrant lagging reference phasor v
1
by an angle
60
o
. It can be represented in polar form as
o
V v 60
4 4

(3.43)
Horizontal component of v
4

) 60 cos( ) 60 cos(
4 4 4
o o
h
V V v
(3.50)
Vertical component of v
4

) 60 sin( ) 60 sin(
4 4 4
o o
r
V V v
(3.51)
Therefore, in general, any phasor is said to have:
Either a horizontal component as v
1
or
Vertical component as v
3
or
Both horizontal and vertical components as phasors v
2
and v
4
To distinguish a vertical component from horizontal component the complex operator j is introduced.
The operator j is added along with the vertical component of the phasor. Its value is
1 90 1 + j (3.52)
1 180 1
2
+ j (3.53)
j j + 90 1 270 1
3
(3.54)
1 0 1 360 1
4
+ j (3.55)
j
j
90 1
1
(3.56)
With the complex operator j, the four phasors v
1
, v
2
, v
3
and v
4
shown in Fig. 1.6 can be represented in a clear
complex form i.e. rectangular form as
) 0 1 ( ) 0 sin 0 (cos 0
1 1 1 1
j V j V V v + +
(3.57)
)
2
1
2
1
( ) 45 sin 45 (cos 45
2 2 2 2
j V j V V v
o
+ +
(3.58)
) 0 ( ) 90 sin 90 (cos 90
3 3 3 3
j V j V V v
o
+ +
(3.59)
)
2
3
2
1
( )) 60 sin( ) 60 (cos( 60
4 4 4 4
j V j V V v
o
+ (3.60)
Conversion facility from the polar form to the complex (or rectangular) form and vice versa are available in
most of the calculators so that one need not always multiply the modulus value with sin and cosine functions.
Once the phasors are represented in the complex form, then their addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division are made as simple as with normal numbers.
The only change is that the calculator mode of operation has to be changed to the complex mode and each
phasor is to be provided with two values within a set of brackets, an active or real value and another reactive or
imaginary value along with the complex operator j or sometimes represented as i.
3.10 Resultant of Alternating Quantities
When a number of similar alternating quantities are acting simultaneously in an AC circuit, then their combined
effect or the resultant can be calculated by the following methods:
(i) Trigonometric method
(ii) Polar method
3.10.1 Trigonometric Method
Let the following alternating current are acting simultaneously in an AC circuit
t i sin 20
1
where
1
= 0
0

(3.61)
) 45 ( sin 15
0
2
+ t i where
2
< 90
0

(3.62)
) 135 ( sin 25
0
3
+ t i where
3
> 90
0

(3.63)
) 60 ( sin 10
0
4
t i where
4
is negative (3.64)
) 45 ( cos 20
0
2
+ t i where
5
is angle of cosine (3.65)
Step1
First step to find the resultant of an alternating quantity is that if any equation is given in cosine form convert it
into sine form. For example in the above equations, equation (3.65)

is in cosine form.
Now when we convert any Cosine equation in to Sine Equation, there is a problem with the polarity sign. Let us
draw the Cosine equation and Sine Equation:
Fig 3.13 Cosine Equation Fig 3.14 Sine Equation
Sine Equation will start from zero position or from the origin (as Sin 0 = 0) and Cosine Equation will have a
peak at zero position (as Cos 0 = 1). It means that a Cosine equation peak appear first as compare to Sine
Equations peak. That is the Cosine equation is in leading position to that of the Sine equation. Hence when we
convert a Cosine equation in to Sine equation then the Sine equation must lag by 90
0
.
i.e. if we consider a Cosine equation as
v = 20

cos (t) (3.66)
Then its sine conversion will be
v = 20 sin (t - 90
0
) (3.67)
And to remember
) 90 (
0
Sin Cos (3.68)
Now changing equation 3.65
i
5
= 20

cos (t + 45
o
) (3.69)
= 20 sin (t + 45
o
- 90
0
)
i
5
= 20 sin (t - 45
o
) (3.70)
Step2
Draw the phasor diagram of all the above equations (Fig 3.15)
Fig 3.15
Step3
Find X component
X = I
1
cos
1
+ I
2
cos
2
+ I
3
cos
3
+ I
4
cos
4
+ I
5
cos
5
(3.71)
X = 20

cos (0
o
) + 15

cos (45
o
) + 25

cos (135
o
)
+ 10

cos ( 60
o
) + 20

cos (-45
o
) (3.72)
= 20 + 10.61 17.68 + 5 + 14.14
X = 32.07 (3.73)
Step4
Find Y component
Y = I
1
sin
1
+ I
2
sin
2
+ I
3
sin
3
+ I
4
sin
4
+ I
5
sin
5
(3.74)
Y = 20

sin (0
o
) + 15

sin (45
o
) + 25

sin (135
o
)
+ 10

sin ( 60
o
) + 20

sin (-45
o
)
= 0 + 10.61 + 17.68 8.66 7.07
Y = 12.56 (3.75)
Step5
Find magnitude of the resultant vector
I
m
=
2 2 2 2
) 56 . 12 ( ) 07 . 32 ( + +Y X (3.76)
I
m
= 34.44 Ampere (3.77)
Step6
Find angle of the resultant vector
07 . 32
56 . 12
tan tan
1 1

x
y

(3.78)
= 21.39
o
(3.79)
Step7
The resultant of all the above current phasor will be
i = I
m
sin (t ) (3.80)
From equation (3.77) and (3.79)
i = 34.44 sin (t + 21.39
o
) (3.81)
[Note: For subtraction of vectors:
Suppose we have to find
e
1
+ e
2
e
3
+ e
4


(3.82)
i.e. we have to add e
1
, e
2
and e
4
and we have to subtract e
3
from their sum.
In such case, after drawing the phasor diagram, draw another phasor diagram in which invert or shift the vector
(which is/are to be subtracted) by 180
0
and take its magnitude negative].
3.10.2 Polar Method
Considering the same equations of trigonometric method:
t i sin 20
1
where
1
= 0
0

(3.61)
) 45 ( sin 15
0
2
+ t i where
2
< 90
0

(3.62)
) 135 ( sin 25
0
3
+ t i where
3
> 90
0

(3.63)
) 60 ( sin 10
0
4
t i where
4
is negative (3.64)
) 45 ( cos 20
0
2
+ t i where
5
is angle of cosine (3.65)
Step1
First if any equation is given in cosine form convert it into sine form. For example in the above equations,
equation (3.65)

is in cosine form.
i
5
= 20

cos (t + 45
o
) (3.65)
= 20 sin (90
0
+t + 45
o
)
i
5
= 20 sin (t - 45
o
) (3.83)
Step2
Now the above alternating quantities can be converted in to polar form and then in rectangular form as:
i
1
= 20
o
0 (3.84)
= 20 (cos 0
o
+ j sin 0
o
) = 20 + j0 (3.85)
i
2
= 15
o
45 (3.86)
= 15 (cos 45
o
+ j sin 45
o
)

= 10.61 + j10.61 (3.87)
i
3
= 25
o
135 (3.88)
= 25 (cos 135
o
+ j sin 135
o
) = -17.68 + j17.68 (3.89)
i
4
= 10
o
60 (3.90)
= 10 (cos (-60
o
) + j sin (-60
o
)) = 5 - j8.66 (3.91)
i
5
= 20
o
45 (3.92)
= 20 (cos 135
o
+ j sin (- 45
o
)) = -14.14 - j14.14 (3.93)
Step3
The resultant of the above alternating quantities is
i = i
1
+ i
2
+ i
3
+ i
4
+ i
5
(3.94)
= (20 + j0) + (10.61 + j10.61) + (-17.68 + j17.68)
+ (5 - j8.66) + (-14.14 - j14.14)
= 3.79 + j5.49 (3.95)
Or i = 6.67 55.38
o
(3.96)
Or i = 6.67 sin (t + 55.38
o
) (3.97)