LECTURE NOTES ON

ELECTRICAL POWER ENGINEERING (EPE316B)

MODULE 4: THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

DR. UDOCHUKWU B. AKURU

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

Department of Electrical Engineering
 Study Objectives
• To describe, identify and explain the basic construction and modes of
operation: motoring, generating and plugging.
• To compare the properties of a squirrel cage rotor with a wound type
rotor.
• To explain their advantages and disadvantages.
• To describe generation of the rotating field in IM.
• To explain the applications of IMs.
• To identify and determine their equivalent circuits.
• To describe, explain and demonstrate the no load and blocked rotor tests.
• To define, derive, and calculate power and torque.
• To identify the classes of squirrel cage induction motors, starting of
induction motors.
• To describe and explain the speed control: pole changing, line voltage
control, line frequency control, rotor resistance control.
• To describe, identify and explain the selection of induction motor and
degree of protection.
Introduction
 Applications
• Refrigeration
• Milling plants
• Compressor plants
• Pumps
• Conveyor drives
• Etc.
 Highlights
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
a) It has simple and rugged a) It is essentially a constant
construction. speed motor and its speed
cannot be changed easily.
b) It is relatively cheap.
b) Its starting torque is inferior
c) Requires little maintenance. to DC shunt motor.

d) It has high efficiency. c) It has poor power factor

under light loads.

e) It has self starting torque

Basic Construction
MAIN PARTS
Basic Construction…
 Basic Construction…
INDUCTION MOTOR ROTOR TYPES

Squirrel Cage Rotor Wound-Rotor

(Slip-Ring)
Rotor bars (slightly skewed)

End ring
 Basic Construction…
Cage Rotor

• A cage induction motor consists of a series of conducting bars

laid into slots carved in the face of the rotor and shorted at
either end by large shorting rings.
• The design referred as cage rotor since the conductors looks
like the exercise wheels for hamsters, otherwise also called
squirrel cage motors.
 Basic Construction…
Wound-Rotor

• A wound-rotor has a complete set of three-phase

windings usually Y-connected.
• Wound-rotor induction motors are rarely used, since
they are more expensive than cage, and require more
maintenance for their brushes and slip rings.
 Squirrel Cage vs Slip-Ring IMs
• The slip-ring induction motors have the following
advantages over the squirrel cage motors:

a) High starting torque with low starting current.

b) Smooth acceleration under heavy loads.
c) No abnormal heating during starting.
d) Good running characteristics after external
rotor resistances are cut out.
e) Adjustable speed.
 Squirrel Cape vs Slip-Ring IMs
• The disadvantages of slip-ring motors are:

a) The initial & maintenance costs are greater

than those of squirrel cage motors.
b) The speed regulations is poor when run with
resistance in the rotor circuit.
 The Principle of Operation
• The principle of operation is based on the
rotating magnetic field.
• There are three factors that cause the
magnetic field to rotate; the fact that
1. The voltages of a three-phase system are 120º
out of phase with each other.
2. The three voltages change polarity at regular
intervals.
3. The arrangement of the stator windings around
the inside of the motor
 The Principle of Operation …
• A 3-phase stator winding is energized from a 3-phase
supply.

• A rotating magnetic field is set up which rotates

round the stator at synchronous speed.

• The rotating field passes through the air gap & cuts
the rotor conductors, which as yet, are stationary.

• Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux &

stationary rotor, emf’s are induced in the rotor
conductors.
 The Principle of Operation …
• Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited, the induced
rotor emf produces rotor current which lags behind
the voltage due to inductance of the rotor.

• The current-carrying rotor conductor produces its

own magnetic field which lags behind by 90º.

• Consequently, the rotor magnetic field interacts with

the net effect of rotor and the rotating stator fields to
produce torque which tends to move the rotor in the
same direction as the rotating field.
 The Principle of Operation …
• In practice, the rotor can never reach the speed
of the rotating stator field. Should that be the
case, the following will result:

a) There would be no relative speed between the

stator and the rotor.

b) There would be no rotor emf.

c) There would be no induced rotor current & no

torque.
 The Concept of Slip
A three-phase set of voltages has
been applied to the stator, and three
phase set of stator currents is
flowing. These produce a magnetic
field Bs, which is rotating in a
counterclockwise direction .
The speed of the magnetic field’s
rotation or synchronous speed is
where
120 f se
nsync = nsync = synchronous speed in r/min
fse = frequency in Hz
P P = number of poles
 The Concept of Slip…
• Since the behavior of an induction motor
depends on the rotor’s voltage and current, it
is more logical to talk about this relative
speed.
• Two terms commonly used to define the
relative motion of the rotor and the magnetic
fields are:
1. Slip speed
2. Slip
 Slip Speed
Slip speed is defined as the difference between
synchronous speed and rotor speed

nslip = nsync - nm
where
nslip = slip speed of the machine
nsync = speed of the magnetic fields
nm = mechanical shaft speed of motor
 Slip
Slip is the relative speed expressed on a per
unit or a percentage basis
nsync - nm sync - m
s= x 100% or s= x 100%
nsync sync

Speed, n (in rpm) can also be substitute with ω

in (rad/s)

If the rotor turns at synchronous speed (rotor stop), s = 0 while if the

rotor is stationary/standstill, s = 1. All normal motor speed fall
somewhere between those 0 to 1 limits.
 Slip…
The two equations below can be derived from the
previous equations:

Mechanical speed of rotor

n m = (1 - s)nsync
(in rpm),

Mechanical speed of rotor

(in rad/s),
m = (1 - s)sync
 Rotor Frequency
Rotor frequency, f re = sf se

P(nsync − nm )
Rotor frequency, f re =
120
When the rotor is at standstill or stationary:

𝒔=𝟏 𝒇𝒓 = 𝒇

As the rotor picks up speed:

𝑵𝒔 − 𝑵𝒓 𝒇𝒓 & 𝒔
(decreases) (decreases)
Equivalent Circuit Model
 Equivalent Circuit Model…
𝒔𝑬𝒓

Effect of Slip on the Rotor Circuit: 𝒔𝑿𝒓

𝒔. 𝒇
 Rotor Equivalent Circuit Model

Rotor Circuit at Standstill

𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟐
𝑰𝟐 = =
𝒁𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑿 𝟐 𝟐

𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐 = =
𝒁𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐 𝟐
Rotor Equivalent Circuit Model…
• We shall now see how mechanical load of the motor is
replaced by the equivalent electrical load.

• Figure (i) shows the equivalent circuit per phase of the rotor
at slip s.

Rotor Circuit at Slip

Rotor Equivalent Circuit Model…

′ 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐 = =
𝒁𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒔𝑿𝟐 𝟐
Rotor Equivalent Circuit Model…
Rotor Equivalent Circuit Model…
 Rotor Equivalent Circuit Model…
Rotor Torque
The torque developed by the rotor is directly
proportional to:

Rotor current,
𝑰𝟐
∴ 𝑻 ∝ 𝑬𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐
= 𝑲𝑬𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐 Rotor e.m.f,
𝑬𝟐

Power factor of the rotor circuit,

𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐
Rotor Equivalent Circuit Model…
Starting Torque

𝑻𝒔 = 𝑲𝑬𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐
𝟑
𝑲=
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒔

𝑬𝟐 ∝ 𝑽𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚
𝑲𝑬𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑻𝑺 = 𝟐
𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐 𝟐
∴ 𝑻𝑺 ∝ 𝑽𝟐

𝑻𝒔 is maximum when: 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑿𝟐
Rotor Equivalent Circuit Model…
Starting Torque
Variation of 𝑻𝒔 with 𝑹𝟐
Equivalent Circuit Model…
Equivalent Circuit Model…
Power & Torque
Power & Torque…
Power & Torque…
 Dynamic Torque
Under Running Conditions at
Slip, s

𝑲𝒔𝑬′ 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑻𝑹 ∝ 𝑬′ 𝟐 𝑰′ 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅′ 𝟐 𝑻𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟐
𝑹 𝟐 + 𝒔𝑿𝟐

𝑰′ 𝟐 𝟑 𝒔𝑬′ 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
and ∴ 𝑻𝑹 = . 𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅′ 𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒔 𝑹 𝟐 + 𝒔𝑿𝟐

𝟑 𝟑 𝒔𝑬′ 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑲= ∴ 𝑻𝑹 = . ′ 𝟐
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒔 𝒁 𝟐
 Dynamic Torque…
Torque – Slip
𝑹𝟐 = 𝒔𝑿𝟐 Curve

𝟏
𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝
𝟐𝑿𝟐

𝑹𝟐
𝒔=
𝑿𝟐

𝟑 𝑬𝟐 𝟐
∴ 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = .
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒔 𝟐𝑿𝟐
 Dynamic Torque…
STARTING 𝑹𝟐
𝑻𝒔 ∝ 𝟐
TORQUE 𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐 𝟐

MAXIMUM 𝒔
TORQUE 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝
𝑿𝟐

FULL - LOAD 𝒔𝑹𝟐

TORQUE 𝑻𝑭𝑳 ∝ 𝟐 𝟐
𝑹 𝟐 + 𝒔𝑿𝟐
 Speed Regulation
Percentage Speed 𝑵(𝑵𝑳) − 𝑵(𝑭𝑳)
%𝑺𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Regulation 𝑵(𝑭𝑳)

Speed Control
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇
𝑵𝒔 =
𝑷

𝑵𝒔 − 𝑵𝒓
𝒔=
𝑵𝒔

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇
𝑵𝒓 = 𝟏 − 𝒔 𝑵𝒔 𝑵𝒓 = 𝟏 − 𝒔
𝑷
Torque-Speed Characteristics
 Torque-Speed Characteristics…

The shape of Torque/Speed Curve depends on the voltage and

frequency applied to the stator of an IM, 𝑻 ∝ 𝑽𝟐
 Torque-Speed Characteristics…
• The induced torque of motor is zero at synchronous
speed.
• The torque-speed curve is nearly linear between no
load and full load. In this range, the rotor resistance
is much larger than the rotor reactance, so the rotor
current, the rotor magnetic field, and the induced
torque increase linearly with increasing slip.
• Maximum possible torque (pullout/ breakdown
torque) cannot be exceeded. It is 2 to 3 times the
rated full-load torque of the motor.
• The starting torque is slightly larger than its full-load
torque, so it can still carry any load that it can supply
at full power.
Induction Motor Power Factor
 Modes of Operation
• In general, an induction machine can be
operated in three modes:
– motoring,
– generating and
– plugging.
• These are discussed in the next slide by
considering an induction machine
mechanically coupled to a dc machine as
shown in the figure a.
Modes of Operation…
Modes of Operation…
 Motoring
• If the stator terminal are connected to a 3-
phase supply, the rotor will rotate in the
direction of the stator rotating magnetic
field.
• This is the natural (or motoring) mode of
operation in the induction machine.
• The steady-state speed, n is less than the
synchronous speed, ns as shown in figure b.
 Generating
• If the speed of rotor, n of the induction motor is
driven faster than synchronous speed, ns as in
figure c then the direction of the induced
torque in the machine reverses and the machine
becomes a generator, converting mechanical
power to electrical power.
• At this time, it is called the generating mode.
• The generating mode of operation is utilised in
some drive applications to provide regenerating
braking
 Plugging
• If the motor is turning backward relative to the
direction of the magnetic fields, the induced torque
in the machine will stop the machine very rapidly
and will try to rotate it in the other direction.
• This torque is a braking torque.
• Since reversing the direction of magnetic field
rotation is simply a matter of switching any two
stator phases, this fact can be used as a way to very
rapidly stop an induction motor.
• The act of switching two phases in order to stop the
motor very rapidly is called plugging.
 Tests
• The equivalent circuit of an induction motor is very helpful
to determine the motor’s response to changes in load.
• How R1, R2, X1, X2, and XM be determined for a real motor?
• The information may be found from a series of tests on the
induction motor similar to that in transformer.
• There are two basic tests conducted for induction motors:
– DC test
– No-load test
– Blocked rotor test
• The tests are mainly used to determine the induction motor
equivalent circuit parameters.
 DC Test
• DC voltage is applied to the stator windings which
means no emf is induced in the rotor and no
reactance effects.
• The test is used to determine R1.

2R1 = VDC/IDC
 No-Load Test
• The no-load test of an induction motor
measures the rotational losses of the motor
and provides information about the
magnetization current.
• The test circuit for this test is shown in the
following figure where wattmeters, a
voltmeter and three ammeters are connected
to an induction motor, which is allowed to
spin freely.
 No-Load Test…
• The only load on the motor is the friction
and windage losses, so all Pconv in this motor
is consumed by mechanical losses, and the
slip of the motor is very small (possibly as
small as 0.001 or less).

𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑷𝒄𝒖 + 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕 𝑷𝒄𝒖 = 𝟑𝑰𝟏 𝟐 𝑹𝟏

 No-Load Test…
• In this motor at no-load conditions, the
input power measured by meters must equal
the losses in the motor.
• The rotor copper losses are negligible
because current I2 is extremely small.
• The stator copper losses are given by:
PSCL = 3I12R1
• The test is used to determine:
Prot = Pcore + PF&W + Pmisc.
 Locked Rotor Test
• Test performed on induction motor to
determine its circuit parameters.
• Also called as blocked-rotor test.
• This test corresponds to the short-circuit test
on a transformer.
• In this test, the rotor is locked or blocked so
that it cannot move, a voltage is applied to
the motor, and the resulting voltage, current
and power are measured.
 Locked Rotor Test…
• To perform the locked-rotor test, an ac voltage is applied to
the stator, and the current flow is adjusted to be
approximately full-load value.
• When the current is full-load value, the voltage, current,
and power flowing into the motor are measured.
• The test is used to determine Req (R1 + R2) and Xeq (X1 + X2) .
 Power Flow Diagram
• It shows flow of the input electric power fed to the
stator of the motor being converted into
mechanical power at the shaft of the motor.
 Power Flow Diagram…
where:
•Stator Copper Loss,
PSCL = 3I12 R1
•Core Losses,
Pcore = 3E12 GC
•Air Gap Power,
R2
PAG = Pin − PSCL − Pcore PAG = 3I
2
2
s
•Rotor Copper Loss,
PRCL = 3I 22 R2 = sPAG
 Power Flow Diagram…
where:
• Developed Mech. Power,
1- s 
Pconv = Pdev = PAG − PRCL = 3I 22 R2  
 s 
• Output power,
Pout = Pconv − PF &W − Pmisc

• Developed Torque,
Pconv PAG
 ind = =
m  sync
 CLASSES OF SCIM
• It is possible to produce a large variety of
torque-speed curves by varying the rotor
characteristics
• NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers
Association) in the US and IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) in the Europe
have defined a series of standard to help
industry to select appropriate motors.
• These standard are referred as design classes.
• Figure below shows typical torque-speed curves
of four standard NEMA design classes.
CLASSES OF SCIM…
 CLASSES OF SCIM…

DESIGN CLASS A
• Standard motor design
• A normal starting torque, a normal starting
current, and low slip.
• Full-load slip of class A motor must be less
than 5% and must be less than class B motor
with equivalent rating.
 CLASSES OF SCIM…
DESIGN CLASS B
• Have a normal starting torque, a lower
starting current, and low slip.
• The motor produces about the same starting
torque as class A but with 25% less current.
 CLASSES OF SCIM…
DESIGN CLASS C
• Have a high starting torque, with a low
starting currents, and low slip (less than 5%
at full load).
• The pullout torque is slightly lower than that
for class A motors, while starting torque is
up to 250% of the full-load torque.
 CLASSES OF SCIM…
DESIGN CLASS D
• Have a very high starting torque (275% or
more of the rated torque) and a low starting
current, but with a high slip at full load.
• The motor produces about the same starting
torque as class A but with 25% less current.
CLASSES OF SCIM…
 Starting of Induction Motors

• Induction motors do not have problem of

synchronous motors do
• In many cases, they can be started simply by
connecting them to power line
• However, there a reason for not doing that
such that it may cause a dip in power system
voltage
Starting of Induction Motors…
• For wound- rotor inductions motors, starting can be
achieved at relatively low currents by inserting extra
resistance in the rotor circuit during starting.
• This extra resistance not only increases the starting
torque but also reduces the starting current.
• For cage induction motors, the starting current can
vary widely depending primarily on the motor’s
rated power and on the effective rotor resistance at
starting conditions.
• To estimate the rotor starting current at starting
conditions, all cage motors now have a starting code
letter
Starting of Induction Motors…
• The limit of the amount of current the motor can draw
at starting conditions is expressed in term of the
starting apparent power given by

Sstart = (rated horsepower)(code letter factor)

• The starting current can be found from

IL = Sstart
(√3 )VT
Starting of Induction Motors…
• In summary:
a) Direct-on-line starting
b) Stator resistance starting
c) Autotransformer starting
d) Star-delta starting
e) Rotor resistance starting.
 DOL Starting
MAIN
FUSES
CONTACTOR

O/L RELAY

COIL
Stator Resistance Starting
Autotransformer Starting
 Star-delta Starting
MAIN
CONTACTOR DELTA STAR

O/L
RELAY
 Star-delta Starting (STAR)
MAIN
CONTACTOR

STAR
Star-delta Starting (DELTA)
DELTA
Rotor Resistance Starting
 Speed Control
Speed control techniques of
induction motor

Vary synchronous Vary slip of the

speed motor

Change the Vary terminal

Change the Vary the rotor
number of poles voltage of
electrical frequency resistance
on the machine motor
 Speed control by Pole Changing
• There are two major approaches
1. The method of consequent poles
– An old method for speed control
– Relies on fact that number of poles in the stator
windings can easily be changed by a factor of
2:1 with only simple changes in coil
connections
– Major disadvantage is the speed must be in ratio
of 2:1
 Speed control by Pole Changing…
2. Multiple stator windings
– Approach to overcome limitation in consequent
poles
– Speed could be switched from ie a1800 to 1200
rpm simply by supplying power to other set of
windings
– Unfortunately, this increase the price of the
motor and therefore used only when absolutely
necessary
• By combining these two method it is possible
to build a four-speed induction motor.
 Speed control by Changing Line
Frequency
• If the frequency applied to stator changed,
the rate of rotation of its magnetic field nsync
will change
• The synchronous speed of motor at rated
conditions is known as base speed.
• By using variable frequency control, it is
possible to adjust the speed of motor either
above or below base speed.
Speed Control by Changing the Line
Voltage
• Torque is proportional to the square of
applied voltage.
• The speed of motor may be controlled over a
limited range by varying the line voltage.
• This method is sometimes used on small
motors driving fans.
Speed Control by Changing the Rotor
Resistance
• In wound-rotor induction motors, it is
possible to change the shape of torque-s[eed
curve by inserting extra resistances into the
rotor circuit.
• However, inserting extra resistances into
rotor can seriously reduces the efficiency of
the machine.
 Speed Control: Selection
• Today’s choice for motor speed control is the
solid-state variable frequency induction
motor drive
• The drive is very flexible:
• Its power input either single-phase or three-
phase, 50 or 60 Hz from 208V to 230V.
• The output drive’s output is a three-phase set
of voltages with varying frequencies and
voltage from 0 to 120Hz and 0 V to rated
voltage, respectively.
 Speed Control: Selection…
• The output voltage and frequency control
are achieved by using pulse- width
modulation (PWM) techniques.
• Both frequency and output voltage can be
controlled independently by PWM.
• The typical induction motor drive has many
built-in features, such as:
1. Frequency (Speed) adjustment
2. A Choice of Voltage and Frequency Patterns
3. Independently Adjustable Acceleration and
Deceleration Ramps
4. Motor Protection
 MOTOR PROTECTION
• The induction motor drive has built in a variety
of features designed to protect the motor
attached to the drive.
• The drive can detect excessive steady-state
currents (an overload condition), excessive
instantaneous currents, overvoltage conditions,
or under voltage conditions.
• In any case, it will shut down the motor.
• Induction motor drives are now so flexible and
reliable displacing dc motors over a wide range
of speed variation in many applications.
Terminal Block

STAR CONNECTON
Terminal Block…

DELTA CONNECTON
 Induction Motor Rating
• The power (kW) rating is the mechanical output of the
motor when it is operated at rated line voltage, rated
frequency & rated speed.
• Under these conditions, the line current is that specified on
the nameplate & the temperature rise does not exceed that
specified.
• The speed given on the nameplate is the actual speed of the
motor at rated full-load, it is not the synchronous speed.

• The nameplate of a 3-phase induction motor provides the

following information:

Power Line voltage Line current

Speed Frequency Temperature rise

THANK YOU

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

Department of Electrical Engineering