CHAPTER 3

EARLY CONTACTS WITH NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES (900 – 1400 A.D.)

Though less studied due to scarce written sources, the topic on the Philippines’ early contacts
with its neighbors can now be better appreciated with the recent discovery of material evidences as well
as new documentary sources.

Oral and cultural evidence show that early on, the Philippines already had trade and cultural
exchanges with its Asian and Southeast Asian neighbors. The seemingly scattered island group of people
actively engaged in trade and commerce with their neighbors; an exposure that further enriched the
economic life and culture of the early Filipinos, long before the coming of the West.

Early Trade Routes and Contacts

Ancient Filipinos, just like their Southeast neighbors, were expert seafarers and boat builders.
They made all sizes and types of boats- big or small, single-hulled or outrigged. Because they had
mastered the wind and sea currents, they could travel far and wide to trade with nearby Southeast and
East Asian neighbors. Some scholars suggested they reached even as far as Champa (present-day
Vietnam) and India. Thus, long before the coming of the Portuguese and Spaniards in the region, the
Philippines had outside trade contacts and along with these, varied cultural exchanges took place.

Scholars have yet to agree as to when and with whom these contacts began. O.W. Wolters said
such a trade may have been there as early as the 3rd Century, based on the pearls and gold excavated in
Funan. Sulu was rich in pearls and gold was abundant in the country. Filipino historians and
archeologists believe the Filipino-Chinese trade contacts began around the ninth century during the
Tang dynasty (618-906 A.D.). They cite as evidence Tang stonewares that were found in the Babuyan
Islands, along the coasts of Ilocos, Pangasinan, Mindoro (Puerto Galara), Batangas (Calatagan), Manila
(Santa Ana), Bohol, Cebu, Jolo and Cagayan de Oro. If the Chinese did not bring these items directly to
the Philippines, Chinese goods probably found their way to the islands by the way of the Borneo
through Arab traders who had earlier direct trade contacts with the Chinese.

Arab Trade Routes in Southeast Asia

Between 900 and 1200 A.D., a group of people called Orang Dampuan from Southern Annam
(Vietnam Today), established trading posts in Sulu. A flourishing trade developed between Champa
(Annamese Kingdom) and the people of Sulu who were called Buranun. This trade proved favorable to
the Orang Dampuans whose prosperity drew the ire of the Buranuns. In a fit of jealousy, the Buranuns
massacred some Orang Dampuans causing the others to flee and return to Champa. It was not until the
13th century that they would return to Sulu to trade peacefully once more.

The famous pearl trade of Sulu also attracted another group of people known as the Banjar of
nearby Borneo. Regular Trade relations ensued between Sulu and Banjarmassin. The Buranuns who had
not yet forgotten their tragic experience with the Orang Dampuans, were also suspicious of the Banjars.
But the traders of Banarmassin, aware of the fate of the Orang Dampuans were more diplomatic.
Instead of antagonizing the Buranuns, they brought their beautiful princess to Sulu and offered her as a
bride to the Buranun prince, who eventually married her. Sulu thus became a tribute-state of the empire
of Sri-Vijaya, along with the Banjarmassin and Brunei. Sulu developed into an emporium to which
trading ships of java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Siam, and China would anchor to savor Sulu’s prosperous
trade and splendor.

Arab traders, who up to this point dominated this Southeast Asian trading, were later bared
from the central Chinese coast. They relocated to the Malay Peninsula where they sought an alternative
route starting from Malacca and passing through Borneo and the Philippines to reach Taiwan. They
continued to carry Southeast Asian goods to the Western world using this southern route. They also
carried Philippine goods on board Arab ships to the Chinese mainland through Canton. So keen was the
competition that the Arab ships carried non-Chinese goods amounting to 20-40% of the total cargo. This
lasted up to the Javanese or Madjapahit period (1377-1478)

The Chinese trade in the Philippines greatly improved during the Ming dynasty (1368-1478).
During this time Emperor Yung-lo sent a fleet of vessels to the Philippines, under the command of
Admiral Cheng Ho, to visit Lingayen, Manila Bay, Mindoro, and Sulu in 1405-1406, 1408-1410 and 1417.
The Chinese Emperor even tried to impose its suzerainty over Luzon, however, put an end to this
ambitious plan.

Economic and Cultural Exchanges

Using the compass on sea voyages, Chinese traders competed with the Arabs from the eleventh
to the twelfth century. Sung porcelain unearthed in Sta. Ana, Manila and Around the Laguna de Bai,
attested to the success of this trade. By the thirteenth century, the Chinese had overtaken the Arabs in
the region. Description of the lucrative trade between China and the Philippine archipelago can be found
in Chao Jukua’s Chu fan-chi (1225) where the Chinese mentioned the following places: Ma-I (Mindoro or
Baé in Laguna), Min-to-lang (Mindanao), Ma-li-lu (Manila), Su-lu (Sulu), and Pi-shoye (Visayas). The
Philippine trade goods included bulak (raw cotton), abaca, cloth of various patterns, hardwoods, gums,
resins, betel nuts, pear shell, pink and blue coral trees, large conch shells, tortoise shells, sponges,
rattan, beeswax, musk, sandalwood, leather, mats, and pepper.

In exchange, China brought: iron bars, porcelain and pottery, silk chintz, black damask, java
cloths, red taffeta, blue cloth, bronze gongs, small bells, mirror, scales, coins, jade, projectiles, gold,
silver, censers, lead, colored glass beads, iron needles, tin, lead sinkers for fishing nets, lacquered ware,
copper cauldrons, wine, ivory, and “tint” (a kind of Chinese silver money). Although trade was
conducted in general through the barter system, by the eighth century, a type of currency began to be
used in the form of barter rings.

By the twelfth century, gold coins (piloncitos) began to be used as medium of exchange. With
trade of products came cultural exchanges, including religion. These in turn, would influence the
indigenous lifestyles, customs and religious beliefs of the ancient Filipinos. This is particularly true of the
influences on our language, system of writing, technology, attire, ornaments, food and religious beliefs
and practices. Much of the Chinese influence on the Filipino life is economic in nature. This is shown by
the Chinese words that were adopted into the languages of the Philippines, particularly Tagalog.
examples

Chinese Tagalog English

Am-pau Ampaw Puffed rice or corn
He-bi Hibi Dried salted shrimps
 Ke-tai Katay Cut up meat
Le-piah Lipya Plowshare
Hok-bu Hukbo Army
Peh-chihai Petsay Chinese cabbage
There are hundreds of Tagalog words which have their origin in Chinese. Most of these words have
economic meanings.

The Filipinos also learned from the Chinese the use of umbrellas, porcelain, gongs, the
manufacture of gunpowder, metallurgy, and mining methods. Perhaps the Filipinos also borrowed the
Chinese custom of having parents arrange the marriage of their children. Wearing white clothing,
instead of black, for mourning of death of family and relatives, is also of Chinese origin, especially among
the Visayans.

Quite apart from the Chinese, the ancient Filipinos were also influenced by the Indians of India.
The ancient Indians may not have settled in huge numbers in the Philippines, but their influence on
Filipino culture may have come through the ancestors of the present Indonesians. The Malays who
came to the Philippines were possibly Hinduized Malays, that is, Malays who professed the Hindu
religion of India. This Indian influence is clearly seen in some of the words in the different languages of
the Philippines, including Tagalog, which were derived from Sanskrit, the ancient language of India.
Some of the Tagalog words of Sanskrit origin are the following:

Sanskrit Tagalog English

Ahi Ahas Snake
Swamin Asawa Husband or wife
Bhaga Bahagi Part, portion
Vartta Balita News
Kotta Kuta Fort
Dala Dala Fishing net
Ganda Ganda Beauty
Hari Hari King
Lalarawa Lalawa Spider
Tara Tala Star

Sanskrit words or their variations are also found in Visayan and Maguindanaoan languages.
Such words as agama (religion), pandita (priest or scholar), tumbaga (copper), baginda (emperor), sutra
(silk), are of Sanskrit origin. Several deities in the myths of ancient Filipinos show traces of Indian
influences: Indra Batara, Lord of the Universe; Idiyanale, god of agriculture; Agni, god of fire. A figurine
of the Hindu goddess Padmapani was found in Butuan and was dated to 300AD. This could attest to that
ancient contact between the Philippines and the Indian sub-continent.

The Philippine Catholic wedding ceremony has Indian influences. The use of the cord and the
veil during the Catholic marriage ceremony in the Philippines is Indian in origin. It is not originally
Western or Spanish Catholic, because the non-Philippine Catholic marriage has no veil and cord
ceremonies.
 The Laguna Copperplate discovered in the Pagsanjan, Laguna river delta in 1986 is another
evidence of this early Philippine contact with its Southeast Asian neighbors particularly the Malays and
Indonesians. Dated to 900AD, the copperplate contains an inscription in an old Philippine language,
stating the full payment of a loan obtained by a woman trader from her contacts in the nearby
Indonesia. The copperplate also shows shared knowledge in metallurgy and its use in trade and
commerce to record transactions as certificate of credit and loan payment.

THE COMING OF ISLAM

After Mohammad’s death in 632 A.D., Islam spread outside of Arabia in two stages. In the first
stage, Islam was brought to the rest of the Middle East, Northern Africa, Spain and Central Asia. In the
second stage, Muslim missionaries travelled with Arab merchants to India, China, and to Southeast Asia
where a number of them (traders and also missionaries) settled and intermarried with members of the
royalty. They also set up mosques and madrasahs (schools).

In the Philippines, Islam was introduced by Tuan Masha’ika, a trader from Malaya, and his
companion Tuan Maqbalu who came to Sulu in the 1240’s. According to Sulu genealogy called Tarsila,
his wealth increased and with it, the status of Muslims in the communities was raised. By 1380, when a
missionary from Java, Karim ul’ Makhdum arrived in Buansa (Sulu), he found a thriving Muslim
community that welcomed him and his efforts to strengthen Islam around the Mosque he built in Tubig
Indangan, Tawi-tawi.

Ten years later (1480), Rajah Baginda arrived from Sumatra. He further deepened Islamic
consciousness among the Muslims in Sulu by building more madrasahs in the area. He later rose to a
position of power tin Sulu. But it was Abu Bakr (who married Rajah Baginda’s daughter, Paramisuli), who
succeeded in establishing a government similar to the sultanate of Arabia.

Meanwhile, in Maguindanao (present-day Cotabato and Lanao) Serif Kabungsuan arrived from
Jahore, now a state of West Malaysia, and converted many inhabitants to Islam. He became the first
sultan of Maguindanao. So rapid was the spread of Islam that when the Spaniards first arrived in 1570,
they found Maynila and nearby places with Muslims connections. The rulers of the Kingdom of Maynila
were found to be related by blood and marriage to the royal house of Muslim Brunei.

TEACHINGS OF ISLAM

The basic tenets of Islam are found in the Qur’an (Koran), the holy book of the Muslims. Written
in Arabic, the Koran is considered the word of the Supreme Creator , Allah, as directly communicated by
the angel to the prophet Mohammad. Among the teachings of the Koran are the following:

 There is only one Supreme Being, Allah, the creator of the Universe and all of humankind.
 Allah is just and merciful God and it is Allah’s desire that all should repent of their sins, purify
themselves so they could enter Paradise after death.
 Life In this world is only temporary and one’s good deeds, as well as the bad deeds, are listed by
an angel for final judgement on the last day on the last day of the entire humanity. Each one will
be judged according to what one has done in his lifetime.
 The Korean forbids any human or animal representation in their art. Only geometric patterns are
allowed.
 Eating pork, drinking wine, gambling and other vices are forbidden in Orthodox Islam.
  Islam forbids loans and usury.
 Muslims are duty-bound to help the poor, the orphans and widows.
 Telling lies, stealing, adultery and murder are all grave sins that deserve serious punishment.
 Every Muslim must have goodness expressed in faith in God and such virtues as patience,
faithfulness, honesty, industry, honor and courage.
 A follower of Allah has to observe the following rituals or obligations: a declaration of faith in
the oneness of God (Shahada); prayer facing the east (Mecca) five times a day (salah); fasting
(sawm); giving the alms (zakat), and a one-time pilgrimage to Mecca (hadji).

Fasting is observed during the Ramadan, which is held at the ninth month of the Muslim calendar. No
solid food are taken from early dawn until the sun sets. They purify themselves by praying and practicing
good deeds and self-restraint.

The Sultanate

Unlike the barangays of the non-Muslim ancient Filipinos which were smaller in size and very
much decentralized, the Sultanate governed a much larger territory through a centralized network of
officials with the Sultan at the top

Sultan
(With royal or Arab ancestry)

Ruma Bichara
(Acouncil of elders composed of datus) and panglimas (teacher)

Other officials
Waiir - first minister/datu
Maja rajah - customs chief
Rajah laut - chief of the seas
Qadi-chief interpreter of the Muslim adats (traditions) and the law
and the Muslim court (the Shariah)
 CHAPTER 4
ENCOUNTER WITH THE WEST (1400 – 1600)

To the West, for quite a long time, the Philippines and the rest of the world was Tierra
Incognita (Unknown Lands). Coming into the region for purposes of trade and other reasons
(Christianization and civilizing the “uncivilized”), these lands were new and exciting “discoveries” for the
Europeans. But this is certainly not true of the Filipinos, of the “Indians” of America and the “Blacks” of
Africa. These peoples, unknown to the West, have long inhabited these lands and evolved their own
civilizations that are unique to their given environment and history

The West, led by Portugal and Spain, rival each other for the possession of rich colonies in
America, Asia and Africa. With her naval supremacy, daring and imaginative explorers, and a Spanish
Pope who drew up treaties defining territorial rights to her, Spain won over his rivals. Using both the
“sword and the cross” Spanish conquistadores and missionaries succeeded in establishing colonies in
the Americas without much resistance.

Until the fatal battle in Mactan, Cebu, an island in the Philippines, when Spain’s famed
explorer, Ferdinand Magellan, was killed by the local chieftain Lapulapu. It took almost fifty years
before another attempt to colonize the islands succeeded under Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. After meeting
stiff resistance in Cebu, Legaspi later established the first European settlement in the archipelago. Then
he moved to the island of Luzon where he founded a permanent Spanish colony in the kingdom of
Maynila.

THE COMING OF THE SPANIARDS

How and why the Spaniards and the Portuguese came to the “Orient” (the European’s term
for Asia or the East) is a long story. In the sixteenth century, Europe was experiencing some changes
because of the growth of industry and commerce, the advances in science, the improvement in the
science of navigation, and the invention of machines and marine instruments.

Added to this was the desire of the Europeans to know more about the countries of the
“Orient” because of the stories told by the Christian crusaders of Europe, who went to the Holy Land to
reclaim it from the Muslims. The stories led many Europeans to admire the wonders of the East. Also,
some Europeans were already trading with Asian countries. Oriental spices, silk, fruits, attar of roses,
Persian rugs, perfumes and precious stones were easily sold in Europeans markets at big profits. This
stimulated more trade with the countries of Asia.

The Venetians or citizens of Venice, which later became a city of Italy, enjoyed this
monopoly at the start. Soon after, the Portuguese, the Spaniards, and other peoples of Europe began to
trade with Oriental countries. As a result, rivalry developed among the European countries. This
commercial rivalry led to European expeditions to Asia.

The Trade Routes

At the time the Europeans were developing their trade with Asia, there existed three trade
routes connecting Europe to Asia. The first was the Northern Route which passed through Central Asia
by land, then to the cities of Samarkand and Bokhara, then around the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea,
and finally to Constantinople in the Mediterranean. The second was the Central Route which started
from Malacca in the Malay Peninsula, then to the Indian Ocean and the Indian ports, then to the Persian
Gulf to Baghdad and Constantinople, and finally to Cairo in the Mediterranean. The third was the
Southern Route which also started from Malacca, then to the Indian Ocean and to the ports of India,
then to the Red Sea, and finally to Cairo in the Mediterranean.

In the fifteenth century an important event took place which led to research for new routes.
In 1453, the Turks captured the city of Constantinople through which two routes passed. They closed
the Northern and Central Routes. However, they allowed the Venetians to use the Southern Route on
condition that they pay a certain sum as fee. The Venetians, therefore, came to monopolize the
Southern Route. This proved the advantageous for them, since they controlled the European trade to
the East. This Venetian monopoly compelled Portugal and Spain to look for another route in Asia so they
could continue their lucrative trade with the Asian countries.

Early Voyages to Asia

Of all European countries, Portugal was the first to send expeditions to the East. One of the
most famous Portuguese navigators was Prince Henry, who was also called, “The Navigator.” In his
desire to make Portugal a sea power, he sent an expedition to the Azores, near the coast of Africa in
1421.

This expedition “discovered” the islands of Madeira and the Azores and soon they were
developed into Portuguese colonies. Later, Prince Henry himself led expeditions to Western Africa, using
the instruments for navigation he developed, like the astrolabe, the windrose compass, and the caravel,
which was a kind of ship.

Prince Henry’s voyages inspired other explorers to sail to the East. In 1487, the Portuguese
navigator Bartholomew Diaz “discovered” the Cape of Good Hope and continuing his voyage, reached
Calicut, India. This voyage marked the first time that a European country, through her explorer, reached
the East by sailing around outermost tip of the continent of Africa. Spain, upon learning of this
successful voyage, sent an expedition to what is now North America.

Christopher Colombus, a native of Genoa, which later became a part of Italy, went to Spain
and offered his services to the King and Queen. Sailing from Spain, he “discovered” North America in
1492. He tough that large mass of land he had “discovered” was Asia. Later, Amerigo Vespucci, also an
Italian, was sent by Spanish King and Queen to explore what Colombus had found. The geographers at
the time thought that Amerigo found a “New World,” and so they named this land, America.

Other “discoveries” followed soon after. In 1500, Vicente Pinzon “discovered” what is now
Brazil. 1513, Nunez de Balboa crossed what is now Panama and “discovered” the Pacific Ocean. These
geographical “discoveries” led to more explorations of new lands and their development as colonies of
European Countries.

The Division of the World

The fact that Portugal was the first country to sail to the East and establish colonies earned
her the prestige as the first sea power to chart an alternate passage to India. On the other hand, Spain,
which sent explorers to Americas, began to lay claim to these areas. Thus, a sea rivalry resulted from the
“discoveries” made by Spain and Portugal.

To avoid possible war between the two great nations, Pope Alexander VI, a Spaniard, whose
family name Borja was Italianized into Borgia, issued a bull in 1493 dividing the world into two. All lands
south and west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands were to belong to Spain. Portugal, on the other
hand, was to take possession of the continent of Africa. In order to make this provision clear, the Pope
issued another bull on the same day (May 3) by which an imaginary line was drawn from north to south
at 100 degrees west of the Azores.

Lands to be discovered east of this imaginary line would belong to Portugal, and those on
the west would belong to Spain. But in September of the same year (1493) the Pope, being a Spaniard,
nullified this provision of the second bull by allowing Spain to own lands to be discovered in the East,
which properly belonged to Portugal. The King of Portugal protested the decision of the Pope because it
violated the rights of Portugal as provided for in the second bull of May 3, 1493.

To avoid any conflict between the two nations, they concluded the Treaty of Tordesillas on
June 7, 1494.

The important provisions of this treaty were the following:

a) An imaginary line was drawn from north to south at a distance of 370 leagues west of the Cape
Verde Islands. Lands to be discovered east of this line would belong to Portugal, and those on
the west would belong to Spain.
b) If the Spanish ships discovered lands east of the demarcation line, the said lands should be
turned over to Portugal, and lands discovered by Portuguese ships west of the line should be
turned over to Spain.
c) No Portuguese ships shall be sent to lands belonging to Spain, and vice versa, for the purpose of
trading with them.

The Magellan Expedition

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese who went to Spain to offer his services to the Spanish
King. He had seen battles in Malacca and Africa for the King of Portugal, who ignored Magellan rather
than reward him for his services to the Crown. This hurt Magellan, so he left Portugal for Spain. With the
help of his father-in-law and Don Juan de Aranda, a man occupying a very high position in the Spanish
India House of Trade, Magellan was able to see King Charles I of Spain. The meeting between the two
was held in 1518.

Magellan, with the help of visual aids like maps and illustrations, explained to the young King
that he could reach the Moluccas, then known as the Spice Islands, by sailing west. Moreover, he told
the King that the Moluccas belonged to the Spanish side of the demarcation line, drawn according to the
Treaty of Tordesillas. So impressed was the youthful King that he agreed to send an expedition to the
Spice Islands under the command of Magellan.

The expedition consisted of five ships: the flagship Trinidad, the Concepcion, the Victoria,
the Santiago, and the San Antonio. Magellan and his men heard Mass in the Church of Santa Lucia de la
Victoria, after which, the captains and the crew of the ship took an oath of loyalty to Magellan as their
commander-in-chief. Amidst the cheer of the people and the ringing of church bells, the ships sailed
down the Quadalquivir River to San Lucas de Barrameda. On September 20, 1519, the expedition left
port and sailed southward across the Atlantic.

After two months of difficult voyage, hardship and hunger, the Magellan expedition reach
what is now Pernambuco in Brazil. From here, Magellan continued his voyage to Rio de Janeiro and
reached the Rio de la Plata in February 1520. In March, he reached Port St. Julian at the southern tip of
South America, where mutiny of his captains took place. Magellan suppressed the mutiny and punished
the rebels severely.

Continuing his voyage, Magellan reached the southernmost tip of South America. He crossed
a strait to the Pacific Ocean. This strait now bears his name, the Strait of Magellan. By this time, he only
had three ships remaining. With courage and determination, Magellan crossed the Pacific and reached
the Ladrones Islands, now the Marianas, in March 1521. He ordered his men to rest and to get some
fresh food and water. Some of the natives there stole one of his boats. In anger, Magellan named the
islands Islas de Ladrones (Islands of Thieves). After allowing his men to rest and procure provisions,
Magellan continued his voyage. On March 17, 1521, he sighted the mountains of what is now Samar.
This event marked the coming of the first Spaniards in the Philippines. The next day, Magellan ordered
his men to land at Homonhon islet so the sick men could be taken care of.

Having rested, Magellan proceeded to the islet of Limasawa, which at that time was ruled
by Rajah Kulambu. He befriended the rajah and his brother , Si Agu, and sealed their friendship with a
blood compact. This was the first blood compact between Filipinos and the Spaniards. On Easter
Sunday, March 31, Magellan ordered a Mass to be celebrated on the islet. Father Pedro de Valderrama,
who accompanied the expedition, celebrated Mass near the seashore. This was the first Mass
celebrated in the Philippines. Afterwards, Magellan ordered that a large cross be planted on the top of a
hill overlooking the sea. Pigafetta said, “After the cross was erected in position, each of us repeated a
Pater Noster and an Ave Maria, and adored the cross; and the kings [Kulambu and Si Agu] did the same.”
Magellan took possession of the islands in the name of King Charles and called them the Archipelago of
St. Lazarus because it was on St. Lazarus day that he found the islands.

The First Baptism

Magellan stayed only a week in Limasawa because there was not enough food in the islet.
Hearing of a rich island not far away, he ordered his captains to sail from what is now Cebu. Guided by
Rajah Kulambu, the ships entered the harbor of Cebu on April 8, 1521. Magellan told his Malay slave,
Enrique, to assure the people of Cebu that they came as friends and not as enemies. The Cebu chieftain,
Rajah Humabon, welcomed the Spaniards and soon a blood compact ensued between him and
Magellan.

Gifts were exchanged between the parties of the blood compact. On April 15, 1521, Mass was
celebrated in Cebu. A cross was erected and Magellan persuaded the Cebuanos to become Christians.
Some 800 natives became Christians that day, among them Rajah Humabon, who was given the
Christian name Carlos in honor of King Charles of Spain, and his wife, who was given the name Juana, in
honor of King Charles’ mother. To commemorate this event, Magellan presented Juana an image of the
Infant Jesus. The Infant Jesus is now the Patron of Cebu.
THE BATTLE OF MACTAN

Meanwhile, a quarrel between two chieftains of the neighboring island of Mactan occurred.
Rajah Sula asked Magellan’s help to defeat his rival, Rajah si Lapulapu, who according to Sula, refused to
recognize the King of Spain as his sovereign. Magellan at once accepted the invitation to interfere in the
local quarrel in order to show his might. He and around sixty of his men, all well-armed, sailed for
Mactan early in the morning of April 28. Si Lapulapu, who refused to listen to Magellan’s demand that
he pay tribute to Spain, prepared to fight to the end. In the battle that followed, Magellan was wounded
in the leg. Seeing this, the brave people of Mactan rushed at him and killed him with their spears. With
the death of Magellan, the Spaniards fled to their ships and left. Some of them, however, returned to
Cebu and there, while attending a party given by Rajah Humabon, were massacred by some Cebuanos.
This horrific event happened because some Spaniards robbed the natives and raped some women.

The Importance of the Expedition

The remaining Spaniards decided to leave Cebu. Of the three ships, one was burned because
it had become useless. Two ships remained: the Victoria and the Trinidad. The Victoria was to sail to
Europe by way of Africa, while the Trinidad was to return to Europe by the way of the Pacific. The
Trinidad was captured by the Portuguese, while the Victoria, commanded by Sebastian del Cano,
succeeded in reaching Spain.

Magellan’s voyage across the Atlantic and the Pacific was the greatest single voyage ever
known to man in early modern times. The hardship, especially the hunger and the cold weather that
the crew of the Magellan expedition experienced, remains unsurpassed to this day. The route that
Magellan took in reaching the Philippines was a new “discovery” then, which put an end to the
Venetian monopoly of the Southern Route. From this time on, Spain became supreme in the building of
colonial empire that only Great Britain in later modern times was able to equal. More importantly,
insofar as geography was concerned, Magellan’s voyage proved conclusively that the earth was round.

Insofar as Filipinos were concerned, Magellan’s expedition was significant because it led to
other Spanish expeditions to the Philippines. These expeditions especially that of Legazpi’s, led to the
Spanish colonization of the Philippines and with this, contacts between Europeans and Filipinos were
established.

The Villalobos Expedition

The return of the Victoria to Spain won the admiration of the King and the Spanish people.
Encouraged by the result of the Magellan expedition, King Charles sent other expeditions which,
however, failed. These were the Loaysa expedition of 1525-1526, commanded by Father Juan Garcia
Jofre de Loaysa; the Cabot expedition of 1526- 1530 commanded by Sebastian Cabot; and the
Sayavedra expedition of 1527-1528, commanded by Alvaro de Sayavedra, which reached Mindanao but
did not succeeded in settling in any of the islands.

Meanwhile, Spain and Portugal quarrelled over the possession of the Moluccas. The
monarchs of the two countries were close relatives and so they agreed to settle the question of
ownership by peaceful means. On April 22, 1529, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Zaragoza,
under which Portugal won possession of the Moluccas after paying Spain the sum of 350,000 ducats.
 To avoid future misunderstanding between the two countries, another imaginary line was
drawn from north to south at 2971/2 leagues east of Moluccas. Lands to be found on the west of this
line would belong to Spain, while those on the east would belong to Portugal. In paying Spain a sum to
get the Moluccas, Portugal bought what was rightfully hers in the first place. The Moluccas Islands lay
east of the demarcation line as provided in the Treaty of Tordesillas.

For many years after the conclusion of the Treaty of Zaragoza, Spain respected its
provisions. However, from 1538-1541, King Charles of Spain agreed with his viceroys in Mexico and
Guatemala that expeditions should be sent to the East, particularly to the Spice or Moluccas Islands. The
Viceroy of Mexico chose his brother-in-law, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, to command the expedition. With
six ships, Villalobos left Mexico on November 1, 1542, crossed the vast Pacific, and reached Mindanao in
February 1543.

The natives of Mindanao refused to have any dealing with the Spaniards. Faced with
starvation, Villalobos ordered his men to plant corn to feed themselves. But the crop failed and
Villalobos was forced to send one of his men, Bernardo De la Torre, to Tandaya (now Samar) to get some
food. De la Torre met the local chieftain, Makanadala, who gave him enough food. Villalobos, in his
pleasure, named the islands of Samar and Leyte, Felipinas in honor of Prince Philip of Spain, who later
became King Philip II. Leaving the Philippines, Villalobos sailed for the Moluccas where they were
captured by the Portuguese. They were later set free and Villalobos tried to sail for Mexico but died in
Amboina in 1546.

The Legazpi Expedition

Many years passed before another expedition was sent to the Philippines. In 1556, upon the
suggestions of the Viceroy of Mexico, an expedition to the East was sent by King Philip II, who succeeded
his father, King Charles I. King Philip emphasized that the expedition should not enter territories
belonging to Portugal. The purpose of the expedition was to survey the trade in spices and make a
report on it.

The King also specifically ordered that a new return route from the Oriental islands to
Mexico be discovered. The King chose Father Andres de Urdaneta, who was a member of the Loaysa
expedition, as pilot of the new mission. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi was appointed head of the expedition.
With four ships and about 380 men, Legazpi sailed from the Mexican port of Navidad on November 21,
1564.

One of the ships go lost on its way but was found later and ordered to head back to Mexico
after reaching Mindanao. The expedition reached Cebu in February 1565. Later, Legazpi sailed to
Cibabao (Leyte) then to Samar. Here, he concluded a blood compact with some of the chieftains, one of
whom was Bankaw, Datu of Limasawa. Early in March, he sailed to Camuigin Island, then to Butuan in
Mindanao, and then to Bohol where he enetered into a blood compact with Datu Si Katuna and Si Gala.
The scarcity of food in Bohol led Legazpi to order his men to sail for Cebu.

The Discovery of a new Route

Having settled in Cebu, Legazpi ordered the return of the ship San Pedro to Mexico. It was to be piloted
by Father Urdaneta and accompanied by Legazpi’s grandson, Felipe de Salcedo. Sailing from the port of
Cebu on June 1, 1565, Father Urdaneta steered the Ship northeastward from the Philippines in wide arc
through the Pacific and ended in Santa Catalina, in California. After overcoming many difficulties, the
ship sailed down the California coast to Mexico, arriving at the port of Navidad on October 1. From
Navidad, the ship sailed to Acapulco. With this return voyage, Father Urdaneta discovered a new route,
which the Manila galleons would follow in later years.

FIRST SETTLMENT IN CEBU

Legazpi and his men entered Cebu harbor on April 27. The Cebuanos were hostile to him
probably because in the past, some white men who look like Spaniards maltreated them. Legazpi
explained to the Cebuanos that the white men who maltreated them were not Spanish but Portuguese.
He also told them that he wanted the Filipinos and the Spaniards to be friends. The Cebuano chieftain,
Tupas, did not believe him and the Cebuanos and the Spaniards found themselves in skirmishes. Tupas
fled to the mountains after setting all the houses on fire in what is now Cebu City. The day after the
skirmish, a Spaniard found the image of the Infant Jesus which Magellan gave to Juana, Rajah
Humabon’s wife, forty-four years earlier. The image was not burnt.

Legazpi, although victorious, applied a policy of attraction. He invited the Cebuanos to come
down from the mountains and promised not to harm any of them. Convicted that Legazpi was sincere,
Tupas and his men returned to the lowland and entered into an agreement with Legazpi with the help of
Tupa’s brothers, Si Makayo and Si Katapan.

The agreement provided that (1) the Filipinos promised to be loyal to the King of Spain and
to the Spaniards; (2) the Filipinos promised to help the Spaniards in any battle against an enemy; and in
return, the Spaniards promised to protect the Filipinos from all enemies; (3) a Filipino who had
committed a crime against a Spaniard should be turn over to Spanish authorities, while a Spaniard who
had committed a crime against a Filipino should be turn over to the Filipino chieftain; (4) goods to be
sold, to either the Spaniards or the Filipinos should be moderately priced; and (5) an armed Filipino
would not be allowed to enter the Spanish settlement.

With the conclusion of this agreement, peace and reign in Cebu, Legazpi then turned his
attention to the founding of a Spanish settlement. A land, donated by Tupas and other Cebuano
chieftains, was used as Spanish settlement. This was in the form of triangle one side of which faced the
land and the other sides faced the sea. A fort was constructed and the Spaniards called it Fort San
Pedro. Initially, the Spanish settlement was called San Miguel. But Legazpi remembered the unharmed
image of Infant Jesus and renamed the settlement, “City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus.”

THE SETTLEMENT IN PANAY

Legazpi was beset with many problems in Cebu. One was the bad feeling of some of his own
men who refused to work. Some of them robbed the graves of the Filipinos. Legazpi acted justly and
punished all to those who refused to cooperate with him. There was also a conspiracy among the
Spanish soldiers to seize the ship San Pablo. The captain of the boat informed the Master of Camp,
Mateo del Saz, about it and the conspirators were arrested. The leader of the conspiracy was beheaded,
and the rest was pardoned.

Legazpi also faced the hostility of the Portuguese. The latter realized that the Philippines lay
on the Portuguese side of the demarcation line. The Portuguese captain, Gonzalo de Pereira, harassed
Legazpi by blockading Cebu in order to starve the Spaniards. With the help of Cebuanos, Legazpi
succeeded in forcing Pereira to leave the Philippines. Faced with these problems, Legazpi decided to
move to Panay. Upon learning that there was a plenty of food there, he and some of his men sailed for
Panay in 1569. On the banks of the Panay River, Legazpi founded the second Spanish settlement in the
Philippines. He won over the people of Panay by convincing them of his peaceful intentions. The Spanish
missionaries, the Augustinian friars, converted some natives to Christianity. The friendliness of the
Filipinos was shown when they brought food to Legazpi. Consequently, the Spaniards were saved from
starvation.

The First Spanish Voyage to Manila

With Panay as his home base, Legazpi decided to spread Spanish rule to other islands of the
archipelago. He sent small expeditions to the other islands of the Visayas. Masbate, Burias, and Ticao
were claimed in the name of the King of Spain. Then the same expedition, headed by Captain Enriquez
de Guzman sailed for southern Luzon reached Albay. At almost the same time, Juan de Salcedo,
Legazpi’s younger grandson, led a small expedition to the north. With a few Spanish soldiers and about
500 Visayans, Salcedo sailed to Talim Island and claimed it for Spain.

Then he continued his voyage until he reached Lubang Island, near Mindoro, and fought
Filipinos who refused to recognize him. Defeating the people of Lubang, Salcedo returned to Panay after
reaching the outer rim of Manila Bay. He reported to his grandfather that Manila was a prosperous
Muslim kingdom. Legazpi then decided to send expedition in Manila. This expedition left Panay for
Mindoro on May 8, 1570, and stayed there for five days. Then the voyage to Manila Bay was continued.
The Spanish forces was now divided into two; one was headed by Martin de Goiti, who succeeded
Mateo del Saz as Master of Camp, and the other was commanded by Salcedo. When they reached
Batangas, Salcedo explored the Bonbon River and what is now Taal, while Goiti explored Balayan. In
Taal, Salcedo had an armed encounter with some Filipinos. He was wounded in the leg, but the
Spaniards with their superior weapons won the skirmish in the end. Then Salcedo rejoined Goiti and the
two proceeded to Manila by sea.

At that time, Manila or Maynila, as it was called by the natives, was a thriving Muslim
kingdom ruled by Rajah Sulayman or Soliman. The kingdom was south of the Pasig River in what is now
Fort Santiago. Goiti demanded that Sulayman paid him tribute, but the ruler of Manila refused. On May
24, Goiti fired a cannon shot to recall a boat he had sent on an errand. Sulayman and his men thought
that it was a sign of Spanish hostility, and so they answered with shots from their native cannons called
lantaka. The superior fire power of the Spaniards led the Filipinos to burn down their houses and left
Manila in the hands of the enemy. But Goiti did not stay in Manila. He returned to Panay to report to
Legazpi what happened.

THE FOUNDING OF MANILA

Miguel Lopez de Legazpi was happy to hear from Goiti. He informed his men that the King of
Spain appointed him as governor and captain-general of the islands, which was equivalent to governor-
general. He was, therefore, the first governor-general of the Philippines. Legazpi also informed them
that the King ordered them to colonize the rest of the archipelago. At this time, however, food became
scarce in Panay. Father Diego de Herrera, an Augustinian friar, suggested that they settle in Luzon
instead. So Legazpi decided to leave for Luzon on April 20, with Manila as the object of his expedition. In
Manila, Rajah Sulayman, realizing the firepower of the enemy, ordered his people to burn their houses
and to retreat in the interior. At the same time, he gathered a force of fierce warriors from the
barangays of Pampanga and Bulacan, and fought the enemy in the Battle of Bangkusay in Tondo. He
and the warriors were defeated. What happened to Sulayman was not clear. Some say he died in the
battle. Others say that he escaped to the interior. At any rate, the Filipinos were defeated and Legazpi
took over Manila in1571. Legazpi began laying the foundation of a new city.

Manila was in ruins so he ordered his men to build new houses. A church was also
constructed for the missionaries, while a big house was built as the governor’s official residence. On
June 24, 1571, Legazpi made Manila the capital of the Philippines. King Philip the II later called Manila,
“Distinguished and Ever Loyal City”. On the same day that Legazpi declared Manila as the capital of the
archipelago, a city government or ayuntamiento was organized. He appointed two alcaldes or
magistrates, an alguacil mayor or chief constable, twelve regidores or legislative council members, and
one escribano or court clerk. With the founding of Manila as the capital of the Philippines, the
foundation of the Spanish colonial empire in Asia had been laid.

Expeditions to the Other Parts of Luzon

With Sulayman defeated and Sulayman’s uncle, Lakan Dula, cooperating with the Spaniards,
Legazpi thought of sending expeditions to other parts of Luzon. He sent his grandson to the towns of the
south of Manila, while he sent Goiti to explore Central Luzon, as far as Pangasinan. Salcedo conquered
Taytay, Cainta, and other towns of what is now Rizal Province. Then in 1572, he went to northern Luzon
and defeated the Filipinos in Zambales, Pangasinan, and the Ilocos region. In what is now Vigan,
Salcedo founded the town of Villa Fernandina in honor of Prince Fernando, the first-born son of King
Philip II. From the Ilocos, Salcedo proceeded to the northeastern coast of Luzon, marched along the
Pacific coast of what is now Quezon Province, sailed to Polillo Island, back to the shore of Luzon, and
from there returned to Manila over trails, hills, and mountains. Tragedy greeted him in Manila, for he
was informed that his grandfather, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, had died on August 20, 1572.
 CHAPTER 5
THE PHILIPPINES UNDER SPANISH RULE (1600’S – 1800’S)

Unlike the country’s early contact with its Asian neighbors, which was limited to trade and
commerce, the encounter with the West, particularly with Spain, led to direct rule or colonization. What
did it mean to be a colony, specifically, a crown ‘’colony’’ in those times?

Spain governed the Philippines through the Union of Church and State, introducing in the
process new beliefs, institutions, and practices in the political, economic, and religious aspects of
people’s lives. The results, though effective and positive for Spain, caused hardships for the majority of
the inhabitants, except for the few members of the maharlika class. The Maharlika, who later emerged
as the new class called principalia, benefitted under the regime and was integrated into the new colonial
order for good or ill as shown in the succeeding events.

REASON FOR SPANISH COLONIZATION

When King Charles I decided to send an expedition to the Moluccas, his purpose was
primarily commercial. Spices commanded high prices during that time, so trade in spices was very
profitable. Thus, King Charles was persuaded to send Magellan expedition to Asia to search for the Spice
Islands. Later, when Legazpi succeeded in founding Spanish settlements and in laying the foundations of
Spanish colonization of the Philippines, the Spanish claim to the archipelago was sealed based on two
reasons. First, since the ‘’discovery’’ of the Philippines was made under the auspices of Spain, the
Philippines, therefore was rightfully owned by Spain. Second, since Spain, being an actual possession of
the Philippines, it had the right to colonize it. In other words, Spain claimed the Philippines by right of
‘’discovery’’ and by right of actual occupation or conquest. As such, the Philippines were a possession or
property of the King of Spain and, therefore, a crown colony.

POLITICAL CHANGES

As a crown colony, the Philippines was administered by the Council of the Indies. Even so,
the Spanish officials in the Philippines were appointed by the King of Spain, who issued royal orders and
decrees dealing with the proper administration of the colony. In 1863, the Philippines, as a colony, was
placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Colonies or Overseas Ministry (Minesterio de
Ultramar). In order to make the administration of the Philippines efficient, the Overseas Ministry was
advised and aided in its work by the Council of the Indies.

THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

 In organizing the central government of the Philippines, the Spanish authorities saw it that
they would be guided by their experience in Mexico and South America. Consequently, many features of
the government established in these countries were adopted in the Philippines. Like Mexico and Spanish
America, the Laws of the Indies were applied in the Philippines.

Some Spanish laws were likewise adopted, like La Novisima Recopilacion, Leyes de Toro, and
the Siete Partidas. These laws, as well as the Laws of the Indies, were humane, however most of them
were not even enforced In the Philippines. The Spanish colonizers organized a highly centralized form of
government. By this, it meant that the central or national government was so powerful that almost
everything had to be done with its knowledge and consent. The central government was headed by the
governor and captain general or governor–general, who was appointed by the King of Spain. As
governor-general, he was the Kings official representative in the colony. He possessed vast executive,
legislative, and judicial powers. There were, however, only two branches of government: ht executive
and the judicial. There was no legislature or congress because the laws for the Philippines were made by
the Spaniards in Spain and, to a certain extent, by the governor–general himself. He issued orders with
the force of law, which were called superior decrees. On the other hand, decrees or orders coming from
the King of Spain were called Royal decrees or orders.

The governor-general was the president or presiding officer of the Audiencia. He was also
the vice royal patron in the Philippines. As the Kings representative, he could appoint minor officials it
the government, including the parish priests. He was also the commander–in chief of the armed forces.
Combining all these powers, the governor–general was a truly official. This power was best shown in the
right of cumplase bestowed upon him by the King. The cumplase was the right of the governor to
suspend the operation of a Royal decree or order relative to the Philippines if n his opinion, the said
order or decree would not be beneficial to the administration of the country. The usual formula n
exercising the right of cumplase was ‘’I obey but do not comply’’.

The Audiencia

The judicial powers of the government were exercised by the Audiencia and the lower
courts. The Audiencia was established in the Philippines in 1583 to administer justice to the aggrieved
people in the colony. Governor Santiago de Vera was its first president. The Audiencia was the highest
court insofar as civil and criminal cases were concerned.

Moreover, political and administrative matters were brought before the Audiencia by the
governor. In the absence of a governor or when he could not perform his duties, the Audiencia exercised
political and administrative powers. It also audited the finances of government. Some powerful persons
in the colonial government were against the Audiencia because the population of the Philippines was
still small to justify having an Audiencia. Also, the natives were very poor.

This being the case, the Audiencia was a financial burden to the King of the Spain. Because
of this opposition, the Audiencia was abolished in 1589. In its place, a council composed of 400
members headed by the governor general was created. This council, however, was unsatisfactory to
many because of its many members. So the King ordered the re-establishment of the Audiencia in 1595.
However, it actually carried out its function in 1598 when it was inaugurated.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT
 Under the central government was the provincial government. Pacified provinces, which
were already recognizing the authority of Spain, were governed by civil provincial governors. Those that
were not yet fully pacified and conquered were rule by military officers. The provincial governor was
called alcalde mayor. He was appointed by the governorgeneral. His salary was small but he could
collect a part of the tribute to increase his income. What made him rich and powerful was the right gien
to him to engage in trade. This right was called indulto de comercio. In all most cases, the provincial
governor abused this power so that he committed graft and corruption.

It was later abolished in 1844 because the alcalde mayor abused his power to the extent of
scandalizing the Spaniards. Another anomalous practice was the provincial governor role as judge of the
province. Since many abuses were committed by the governors-judge, in 1886, the King ordered that the
provincial governor should remain as judge only. Another man was appointed as provincial governor
whose main duty was to administer the province.

Under the provincial government was the municipal government. The town or municipality,
composed of several barrios, was headed by the gobernadorcillo (little governor), also called capitan
municipal or simply capitan. Today, he is called mayor. The gobernadorcillo was elected by thirteen
electors who were prominent in the town. Six of these electors were former cabezas de barangay; six
were actual cabezas de barangay, and the thirteenth elector was the outgoing capitan. The one selected
as gobernadorcillo had to be approved by the Spanish friar- curate. If approved, his name was sent to
the provincial governor who, in turn, submitted his name to the office of the governor-general in Manila
for final approval. The capitan was aided in the administration of the town by deputies called tenientes,
a chief of police, and subordinate officials called alguaciles.

The City and its Government

During the first century of Spanish rule, there were only two cities; Cebu and Manila. As
conquest and settlement continued, the Spanish officials created one city after another. By the
seventeenth century, the Philippines had six cities: Cebu, Manila, Vigan Nueva Segovia (now Lal-lo,
Cagayan), Arevalo (now a part of Iloilo City), and Nueva Caceres (now Naga).

The city, then and now, was the center of social, commercial, religious, and cultural life. Its
government was different from that of the town. It was called ayuntamiento, equivalent to today’s city
hall, and consisted of two alcaldes, twelve regidores (now called councilors), a chief of police, a city
secretary, and few other lesser officials.

Each barrio or barangay of the town was headed by a cabeza de barangay who did not
receive any salary. However, he was given a portion of the taxes collected in his barrio. Also, he was
considerd a member of the principalia or the aristocracy, together with the town mayor and other
municipal officials. As a former maharlika, who ruled the barangay as datu, gat, or lakan, they were
given economic and political privileges.

Propagating the Catholic Faith

When Legazpi sailed for the Philippines, he was accompanied by some friars belonging to
the Augustinian Order. Many Filipinos who were converted to the Cathoic faith by the first Augustinians
that came with Legazpi in 1565, later on returned to their old animist religion. The King then decided
that the entire Philippines should be converted to the Catholic faith. Missionaries were sent to the
colony after the death of Legazpi. The Augustinian Order continued to send its missionaries to make
converts. The missionaries spread Catholicism in and around Manila, the Visayas, the Ilocos, Pampanga,
and Pangasinan.

In 1577, the Franciscan missionaries arrived and spread the Catholic faith in Manila, in the
provinces near and around the Laguna de Bay (pronounced Ba-i), such as the present provinces of
Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, and Quezon. They also established missions in Camarines and other parts of
Bicol provinces. In 1581, the Jesuits, who were not friars, arrived in the Philippines. They spread
Catholicism in Manila, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, Samar, and later, in Mindanao. The Dominican missionaries
came into Manila in 1587 to spread the Catholic faith in Manila, the Cagayan region, and Pangasinan.

The Recollect Missionaries came in 1606 and propagated the faith in Manila, Bataan,
Zambales, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao, Burias, Cuyo, Romblon, Negros, and other parts of Mindanao.
These missionaries worked hard to convert the Filipinos to Catholicism that in a span of a little more
than twenty years from the time Legazpi lande in Cebu, the number of converts to the Catholic faith was
about 250,000. This number rose to a little less than one million in the middle of the eighteenth century;
to about four million in the 1860s; and to about six and a half a million at the end of the Spanish period
in 1898, this number was not enough to cover the entire Philippines. The lack of missionaries was
responsible for the return of some converts to their old religious practices.

The Union of Church and State

Because the early King of Spain help much in propagating and defending Catholic faith, they
became closely identified with the Church. There was union of Church and State in Spain. The same
union was introduced in the Philippines, so that the officials appointed by the King by his representative
in the colony, were also defenders of the faith. On the other hand, the friars and the Jesuits were not
only priests, but also agent of the Spanish King.

Thus, because of this union, the governor-general had the authority to appoint priests to the
parishes. The clergy, on the other hand, were active in the government and have political powers. The
friars became members of some agencies of the Central Government. In the local government, the friar-
curate almost always was the cencus enumerator, the health officer, the inspector of schools, the
examiner of pupils who wanted to study in primary school, the census who approved or disapproved
dramas or other writings to published, and the auditor of the local government. He also certified the
good physical condition of a young people of every town, the friar-curate performed many duties. In this
way, he became very powerful.

In some cases, a high Church official was also eligible to become governor-general during the
latter’s absence or illness. Example of church officials who became acting governors-general were
Archbishop Francisco de la Cuesta (1719-1721); Bishop Juan Arrechederra (1745-1750); Bishop Miguel
Lino de Ezpeleta (1759- 1761); and Archbishop Manuel Rojo (1761-1762).

The Church Organization

To administer the parishes efficiently, the Catholic Church was divided into district. In turn,
each district was divided into parishes and missions. The districts represented geographic regions that
had different dialects or languages. On the other hand, the parishes represented villages, while missions
represented areas or regions that were not yet conquered and converted to Catholicism.
 In 1578, Manila became a diocese. At first it was a mere suffragan of the Archbishopric of
Mexico, Three years later, Fr. Domingo de Salazar was appointed the first Bishop of Manila. The
Bishopric of Santivanes as the first archbishop under the Archbishopric of Segovia, the Ecclesiastical
Government by the Pope upon the recommendation of the King of Spain.

Serving under him were the bishop who administered the parishes under their jurisdiction.
The church, like the civil government, had a court of their justice called Eccesiastical Court or
Archbishop’s Court and was composed of the archbishop, the vicar-general, a notary, and other officials.
Cases dealing with the laws of the Church and those involving priest were tried y this court.

The Inquisition

The Inquisition was an ecclesiastical office, whose duty was to reach for heretics and those
guilty of preaching or practicing religious doctrines that were contrary to that of the Catholic Church.
There was no office of the Inquisition in the Philippines. There was, however, a representative or
commissary of the Mexican Inquisition in the Philippines. It was the duty of this representative to ferret
out heretics among the Spaniards, therefore were subject to arrest by the representative of the Holy
Inquisition in Mexico.

The Introduction of Printing

Most religious works used by the missionaries during the early years of Spanish rule were
handwritten. There was no printing press during those early years. Because it took much time to copy
religious books, the Dominicans introduced in the Philippines the art of printing.

The first printing press they introduced was called xylography or printing by woodblock, in
which a rectangular piece of wood, say, one or two inches thick, was carved out with words. Then the
piece of wood was covered evenly with ink and piece of paper was placed on the woodblock and
pressed with a heavy object. When the paper is lifted, it has an imprint of the Christian doctrine in
Tagalog and in Chinese. They were printed in 1593. It cannot be determined as to which of the two
books was no record of the exact rate, the two books were printed in the same years.

Printing by woodblock was cumbersome, so the Dominicans improved printing by

introducing the use of movable types. In this kind of printing, a letter is joined to a small piece of wood
or iron or any similar material. Father Francisco de San Jose, popularly called Blancas de San Jose,
introduced the movable type of printing (also called typography) in 1602, he became an expert in this
kind of printing and wrote a grammar book in Tagalog and printed it in the Dominican press. In 1606, the
Franciscans put up a printing press in Lengua Tagala by Father Domingo de los Santos was printed in
1703 in Tayabas

The Residencia and the Visita

Because of the abuses commited by many Spanish officials who were sent to the Philippines,
the King and Ministers of Spain introduced two institutions in their colonies, including the Philippines.
These were the residencia and the visita. These two institutions were introduced to stop the abuses of
high Spanish officials in the colonies. The residencia was the public investigation and trial of outgoing
colonial officials in order to ascertain whether they had committed abuses in the performance of their
duties.
 The procedures involved the incoming governor-general to conduct the investigation and
trial of his predecessor and other officials of the government. The result of the investigation and trial
was sent to Spain for final decision. While the residencia was instituted with a good purpose, in many
cases, it was abused by the investigating governorgeneral and his men, who often harassed the outgoing
governor. It was common during those days for enemies of an outgoing official to invent charges to
embarrass him. Governor-General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera (1635-1644) was a good example
when his enemies filed unfounded charges against him, resulting in his imprisonment.

The visita, on the other hand, was a secret investigation of an official’s conduct as a public
servant. Its purpose was to ensure that the official will work honestly and efficiently as he was expected
to do this was done any time in the duration of the official’s term.

The Plaza Complex

The plaza complex can best illustrate this politico-religious structure of the colonial
government of the country under Spain. The houses of the natives were situated around a plaza or town
center to bring them close to the church, the convent, the municipio, the marketplace and the
cemetery. This setup allowed the Spaniards to effectively administer and control the natives. The church
easily regulated the activities of the natives, whose residences were “under the peal of bells” or bajo de
las campanas.

ECONOMIC CHANGES

The Encomienda

In order to reward the Spaniards who helped in the conquest and the establishment of
settlements in the Philippines, the King of Spain, as early as 1558, ordered that lands be distributed to
his loyal subjects. In accordance with this order, Legazpi gave lands to those who had helped in the
conquest of the Philippines. The encomienda, in principle, was not actually a piece o land, but a favor
from the King, under which the Spaniard receiving the favor was given the right to collect tributes or
taxes from the inhabitants of an area assigned to him. The man who received this favor was called
encomiendero. The encomienda was, therefore, a public office.

The size of the encomienda was determined by the number if people living in it and the
value of the land on which the natives lives. The law limited the number of natives in an area
administered by an encomendero to 300, while the value of the land was limited to P2,000. At first, an
encomienda could be held for three generations, but it was later reduced to only two generations.

However, because of the complaints of the holders of encomiendas, the King in 1635
returned the tenure to three generation. In exchange for this favor from the King, the laws of the Indies
provided that the encomiendero should teach the natives under his jurisdiction the Christian doctrine.
He was also ordered to protect them from any harm. However, these humane provisions, like the many
laws coming from Spain, were not followed. Instead, the encomienderos, with possibly very few
exceptions, abuses their authority and maltreated the Flipinos.

There were three kinds of encominedas:

1) The royal encomienda, which belonged to the King:

2) The ecclesiastical encomienda, which belonged to the Church;
 3) The private encomienda, which belonged to a private individual. So many were the abuses
committed by the encomienderos that the King abolished the private encomienda toward the
end of the seventeenth century.

Forced Labor

In theory, Spain’s colonial system was the best of all colonial systems followed by other
European countries like England, France, and Holland. The Laws of the Indies, for example, described
how to prevent the exploration of natives in their employment. While Filipinos were required to render
services to the State and the Church, the same Laws of the Indies provided that the natives, who were
ordered to work either for the State or the Church, should be paid their wages. The Spaniards officials in
the Philippines ordered the Filipinos to work in the construction of churches, roads, bridges, ships, and
in the industries of hauling cutting timber. However, some conditions were set for forced labor, called
polo y servicios, which included the following:

1. That the Filipinos to be drafted for work must be paid for their work;
2. That the Filipinos laborer should not be made to work in distant places where they could not
return to their families;
3. That the drafting of laborer should not coincide with the planting and harvest seasons;
4. That men who are physically incapable should not be overworked;
5. That forced labor should be resorted to only in cases of absolute necessity; and
6. That the number of laborers drafted should be diminished as soon as laborers from other
countries had volunteered to work.

On paper, the provisions of the policy on force labor protected Filipino laborers from
exploitation. In practice, however, it was cruel because the laws regarding force labor were violated. For
example, Filipinos were not paid their wages. They were separated from their families from sending
them far-flung provinces. They were not given food, as required by law, but instead they had to provide
for them own food. Moreover, they were overworked and as a result thousands of Filipino laborers died.
This was one of the causes in the decrease in the population of the Philippines for the some years in the
sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. For a Filipino laborer to be exempted from force labor, he had
to pay a fee called falla. This is fee was unreasonably high, and oftentimes the laborer could not afford
to pay it.

The Tribute

In order to raise enough money to finance the administration of the colony, especially, the
construction of churches, government buildings, roads, bridges, and improvements in transportation
and communication, the Filipinos were compelled to pay a tribute in cash or in kind, in full or
installment basis, to the Spanish colonial government. The tribute was a form of recognition of the
Filipinos loyalty to the King of Spain. When it was introduced officially in 1570, the amount was small.
Those who paid tribute were persons above sixteen years and those who below sixty. In 1589, the
tribute was raised, of which a small portion went to the Church. This was called sanctorum. Because of
the opposition to the tribute and to the abuses connected with its collection, the King abolished in 1884
and the cedula personal was introduced. This is the present equivalent of the residence certificate class
A.

Taxes

Aside from the tribute, the Filipinos also paid other taxes. They included the diezmos
prediales, the donativo de Zamboanga, and the vinta. The diezmos prediales was a tax consisted of one-
tenth of the produce of the land. The donativo de Zamboanga, which was introduced in 1635, was a tax
specifically used for conquest of Jolo. The vinta, on the other hand, was a tax paid by the people of
some provinces along the coast of western Luzon to for the defense of the coasts from Muslim pirates,
who raided the Visayas and Luzon for ‘’slaves’’ that they needed in their overseas trading.

The Galleon Trade

Even before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Philippines had already been trading with her
neighbors. Jolo and Manila were trading centers of the archipelago. After the Spanish conquest the
settlement of a large part of the Philippines, Manila became a leading commercial center in the region.
The early Spanish colonial officials encouraged trade between Manila and other countries of the East
because it was so lucrative that it could make them wealthy within a short period of time.

Ships from Japan, China, Siam (Thailand), India, Cambodia, Malacca, and what is now,
Indonesia, anchored in Manila to unload their valuable cargoes. These, in turn, were shipped by Spanish
traders to Mexico were they commanded high prices. Later commercial restrictions were placed on
trade due to the complaints of merchants of Cadiz and Sevilla. They complained that their goods were
driven out of Mexico by the oriental goods that came from Manila. The Spanish merchants of Manila
denied the charge. But the King did not lift the restrictions on trade. These restrictions consisted of
P250,000 worth of goods to be sent to Mexico and P500,000 worth of goods to be sent from Mexico to
Manila. This trade across the pacific was called the galleon trade. Later, the amounts were raise to
P300,000 up to P500,000.

Not all could engage in the galleon trade because it was a government monopoly. Only
privileged persons, such as high-ranking officials of the State, the Church, and the crew of the galleons,
were allowed to engage in trade. The galleon trade was so restrictive that the prosperity of the
Spaniards in Manila depended solely on the success of the voyage to and from Mexico. In some cases,
the galleons were captured by English Buccaneers. Others, however, sank in the southern coast of Luzon
near Samar. In the nineteenth century when commercial liberty was adopted as a European policy, the
monopolistic galleon trade declined. In 1811, the last galleon from Manila sailed from Acapulco, Mexico
and the government’s monopoly of the galleon trade came to an end. Other ports in the Americas, like
in Peru and Ecuador, were open to the Philippine trade and thus, the Manila-Acapulco trade further
declined.

The Mexican Subsidy

Because of the poor economic condition of the country, which the Spaniards, generally
speaking, did not try to improve, the Philippines became a burden to Spain. In order to prevent the
government from becaming bankrupt, the Mexican government sent to the Philippines an annual
subsidy called the situado. This subsidy amount to P250,000, on the average.

This amount was enough to save the colonial government of the Philippines from
bankruptcy. However, the money received from Filipinos. A large portion of the subsidy went to the
pockets of Spanish officials, employees, and priests in the form of salaries. The Mexican subsidy was
finally stopped when Mexico became independent in 1821.

The Economic Society

Governor Basco founded the Economic Society of Friends of the Country in 1781 to
effectively implement an economic policy in the colony. This was according to the King’s decree which
gave him the right to establish a society of selected persons who are capable enough to produce useful
ideas. In order to make it solvent from the start, prominent Spanish traders of Manila give the Society
the sum of P960 a year, a hefty sum during those days. The Society was divided into sections:

1. Factories and manufactures,

2. Industry and popular education,
3. Natural history,
4. Domestic and foreign commerce, and
5. Agriculture and rural economy

Under the auspices of the Society, economics subjects were discussed by government
officials, traders, and merchants; pamphlets on the cultivation of indigo, coffee, sugar, cacao, hemp, and
other plants were published and widely distributed; agricultural implements from the United States
were imported to improved the agriculture and thus increased production; and advanced agricultural
methods were also introduced.

As a result of these activities, the Society was able to export indigo to Europe for the first
time in Philippine history. This was in 1784. The Society’s activities were not limited to the
encouragement of agriculture and industry. It also founded the Academy of Drawing in Manila in 1824,
and granted scholarships to those who were interested in the art of dyeing. In 1861, the society founded
an agricultural school in Manila for the purpose of training farmers in advanced agricultural methods.

The Government Monopolies

Governor Basco was also remembered for his role in establishing government monopolies,
the most important of which was the tobacco monopoly. Seeing the advantages of a monopoly in
tobacco, Basco recommended to the King that the monopoly be established in the Philippines.
Consequently, the King issued a decree in 1780 ordering the establishment of the tobacco monopoly. It
was, however, actually established in the colony in 1782.

The following were the provisions of the decree: (1) the cultivation of the tobacco was
probihited exept for the provinces selected to grow it; (2) contrabands sale of tobacco was forbidden;
(3) the government had the exclusive right to purchase all tobacco products, to inspect and classify the
tobacco plant, and to prepare and manufacture cigar and cigarettes; and (4) the government had the
right to prohibit the exportation and importation of tobacco by any agency not connected with the
government. In other words, the government had the monopoly of the planting, inspection, sale and
purchase of tobacco, and its manufacture into cigar and cigarette.

Basco’s estimate that increased government revenues would result from the tobacco
monopoly was correct. In 1808, the government realized a net profit of about P500,000. For the planting
year 1880 to 1881 the monopoly lead to the development of agriculture in provinces where tobacco was
grown, like the Ilocos, Nueva Ecija, the Cagayan Valley, and Marinduque. On the other hand, those
advantages of the tobacco monopoly where offset by its bad results. For example, the Spanish officials in
charge of inspection and classification of tobacco committed abuses like seizing the lands from tobacco
farmers who failed to produce the required quota of tobacco.

In most cases, inspectors also searched the houses of farmers for alleged contraband
tobacco, but in reality the purpose was to abuse farmer’s family. In other cases, the farmers were not
paid the value of the tobacco crop; instead, they received nothing but paper promises or promissory
notes saying that they would receive the amount due them. This amount, in many cases, was not paid
because of the dishonesty of the Spanish employees and officials.

The payment for the tobacco found its way into their pockets. What was worse was that the
tobacco farmers themselves could not smoke the tobacco they produced. They could not afford to buy
cigar manufactured by the government because of its steep price. Thus, because of the anomalies
connected with the tobacco monopoly, opposition to it grew. Consequently, the King, in 1881 ordered
its abolition, but it was actually abolished in 1882 in the Philippines.

The government also had other monopolies, such as those on wine and liquor, gun powder,
playing cards, and buyo or anise while it was true that these monopolies gave the government a big
income, at the same time, they were a burden to the Filipinos. Many farmers from the Ilocos and the
Cagayan Valley left their homes in disgust and went to Manila. As a result, the population of the tobacco
provinces decreased which lead to the neglect of agriculture and, consequently, to the low income of
those provinces.

The Royal Company

Governor Basco’s administration was also highlighted by the establishment of the Royal
Company of the Philippines in 1785. The Company had a capital of P8,000,000. This amount was divided
into 32,000 shares costing P250 a share. The aims of the Company were to promote the progress of the
Philippines by improving the foreign trade of the colony with Spain and to develop the natural
resources of the Philippines by encouraging industry, manufacturing, and agriculture.

Of the expected net profits of the Company, four percent was to be invested in agricultural
pursuits. To implement this program, the King granted the Company many privileges. For example, it
was given the monopoly of the trade between the Spain and the Philippines. Again, products that the
Philippines exported to Europe where exempted from tariff duties. Moreover, the Company’s ships were
allowed to visit oriental ports and the prohibition that Manila merchants could not trade with China and
India was lifted.

Because of this privilege, commercial relations between the Philippines and Europe were
promoted and, consequently, led to increased revenues. The encouragement of the cultivation of indigo,
sugar cane, pepper, and other spices by the Company, led to increased agricultural production.
Moreover, foreign capital was encouraged to enter Manila thus improving the trade and commercial
relations between other countries and Philippines.

With the influx of foreign capital the revenues of the government increased. In spite of these
incentives, the company failed in its twofold aims.

This failure may be attributed to the following causes:

1) the Spanish merchants in the Philippines, who had been accustomed to the profitable galleon
trade, did not cooperate whole heartedly with the Company;
2) the Company was not able to establish direct commercial contact with Japan, China, and India,
so it had to buy commodities from these countries from the Manila merchants, resulting in
paying higher prices for those commodities than in the countries where they came from;
3) the Company was not well-managed because its officials spent their time in activities that were
not connected with the promotion of the welfare of the Company; and
4) foreign vessels, instead of the Company’s vessels brought to the Manila such items are
groceries, canned goods, wine, and other European products. As a result of the failure of the
Company to implement its program for the Philippines, it was abolished in 1834.

Economic Development: An Overview

The first one hundred and fifty years of the Spanish rule was characterized by a slow
economic development. Population decreased and uprisings and revolts became problems to the
colonial government. Several factors accounted for the slow development of the Philippine economy.
First, most Spanish officials were lazy, incompetent, and inefficient. Instead of developing the natural
resources of the colony, the Spanish officials and minor employees were interested in enriching
themselves in office.

There were many loafers among them who depended on government employment to earn a
living. Consequently, they refused to till the soil. To them, soiling the hands was demeaning. They
wanted ‘’white-collar’’ jobs. Second, there were frequent quarrels among the Spaniards themselves,
especially between the clergy and the governors-general, on one hand, and the high-ranking
ecclesiastical officials and the friarcurates, on the other. These quarrels sapped their energy and led to
demoralization. Instead of improving the condition of the colony, they helped make things worked by
spending their time fighting each other.

Incompetence was paramount among Spanish officials. It was seldom that one of them
cared for the welfare of the Filipinos. For these official and employees, the Filipinos were there to be
exploited. Thus, even the Spanish writer, Tomas de Comyn, said in 1810:

In order to be a chief (governor) of a province of those islands (Philippines), no training or knowledge or

special services are necessary; all persons (Spaniards) are fit and admissible… It is quite a common thing
to see a barber, or a governor’s lackey, a sailor or a deserter, suddenly transformed into an alcalde
(provincial governor), administrator, and a captain of the forces of a populous province without any
counselor but his rude understanding, or any guide but his passions.
 Under these circumstances, the people became unproductive and seemingly indolent. There
was very little economic and social improvement in the life of the masses, while the colonial officials and
the church hierarchy grew rich.

CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES TO SPANISH AUTHORITY (1560 - 1820s)

Ruins of old Spanish forts, a moro watchtower along the coast, statues of Spanish
conquistadores and missionaries, and occasionally, images of Filipino heroes like Lapulapu, Rajah
Sulayman, Sultan Kudarat, mark many Philippine towns. Though seemingly cold and mute, these
markers have great stories to tell and lessons to teach.

The Spanish colonial government was greatly challenge by its rivals, the Portuguese and the
Dutch, as well as the numerous uprisings and revolts by the Filipinos in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.
However, the colonial government was able to quell all these revolts in spite of the very small number of
Spaniards in the country.

Why? First, the revolts lacked coordination. Second, the Filipinos had no leader of great
ability. Third, the Filipino rebels had insufficient arms with which to fight on equal terms the Spaniards
and their Filipino soldiers. Fourth, there was no feeling of unity and nationalism among the Filipinos.
Fifth, many Filipinos were more loyal to the Spaniards, especially to the friars, than to their countrymen.
The Spanish colonial officials and friar-curates worked hand in hand and adopted the policy of "divide
and rule".

This policy was so successful that the Spaniards could boast that with only a few Spanish
soldiers, they were able to hold the Philippines for the King of Spain; that in all the revolts, The
Spaniards used Filipinos against Filipinos. The Spaniards alone never succeeded in quelling the numerous
revolts and uprisings. It was the Filipino soldiers who did the job for them.

THE PORTUGUESE AND DUTCH THREATS

Spanish claim over the Philippines was challenged by a keen rival from the very start. The
Portuguese knowing that the islands belonged to them under the Treaty of Zaragoza, refused to
acknowledge that Legazpi's presence in Cebu was legal. In 1566 and again in 1568, Portuguese ships
under the command of General Gonzalo Pereira anchored in Cebu without Legazpi's permission and on
both occasions asked Legazpi to leave.

When Legazpi refused, Pereira blockaded Cebu to starve the Spaniards but Legazpi and his
men held their ground and forced the Portuguese to leave instead. Returning in 1570, Pereira
bombarded the Spanish settlement. However, the Portuguese again failed to dislodge their rivals.
Portuguese incursions into the archipelago ceased only when Portugal became part of the Spanish
empire in1580.

The Dutch, the inhabitants of a small country called Netherlands or Holland, also threatened
Spanish rule. At the height of Spain's power under King Charles I and his son, King Philip II, Holland was
part of the Spanish Empire. The Dutch, being a freedom-loving people, revolted against Spain and
proclaimed their independence in 1579. Spain, however, refused to recognize Dutch independence.

Soon after the Thirty Years' War in Europe, in which Spain was deeply involved, Spain finally
recognized Holland's Independence with the conclusion of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. Spain,
however, closed the port of Lisbon to the Dutch to discourage them from trading with the Portuguese.
The need for trading posts forced the Dutch to send their ships to the East. In the process, Holland
colonized Malaya and what is now Indonesia.

In 1597, Holland sent an expedition to the East under the command of Admiral Oliver van
Noort. Reaching Manila Bay, van Noort seized Filipino and Chinese vessels. A Spanish squadrom under
the command of Antonio de Morga engaged the Dutch in a battle. In the first battle of Mariveles, van
Noort was defeated and was forced to leave for Holland.

The second Dutch attack occurred in 1610 when they tried to land on Cuyo Island. The
Filipinos were, however, hostile the Dutch and fought them off. Another expedition was sent later, and
upon reaching Manila Bay, the Dutch fleet blockaded Manila. The Spaniards, aided the Filipinos, fought
them and the second battle of Mariveles took place. In this battle, the Dutch were badly beaten.

In spite of this, the Dutch were relentless. In 1616, another Dutch fleet appeared near
Manila Bay and began to plunder vessels carrying foodstuff from the provinces to Manila. The Audiencia,
which was then discharging the duties of the governor-general, sent a fleet against the Dutch and in a
Battle of Playa Honda in 1617, the Dutch were again defeated.

There were more Dutch attacks in the succeeding years, but they were always defeated by
the Spaniards with the help of the Filipinos. The last attack which occurred in 1647, tried to capture
Cavite and Bataan, but this time they were finally driven off. The Dutch never again made any serious
attempt to contest Spanish sovereignty in the Philippines.

EARLY RESISTANCE IN LUZON, VISAYAS, AND MINDANAO

The early uprisings against the Spaniards were from Luzon. These were attempts to regain
lost freedom and authority over their kingdom and territory. Manila was probably the earliest Spanish
stronghold to stage an uprising. Lakan Dula was friendly to Legazpi and his men and cooperated with
them in many ways. For instance, he and his men helped Legazpi rebuild Manila.

He also helped Martin de Goiti, Legazpi's second Master of Camp, in the conquest of what
are now the Central Luzon provinces. Legazpi repaid Lakan Dula by exempting him and his descendants
from the payment of tribute and from forced labor. When Legazpi died, his successor, Governor Guido
de Lavezares, perhaps through ignorance or bad faith, lifted the exemption of Lakan Dula and his
relatives from the tribute and forced labor.

The old rajah resented this treatment. In 1574, during the attack on Manila by the Chinese
adventurer Limahong, Lakan Dula led a revolt against the Spaniards. Having put to death some Spanish
soldiers, he retreated to what is now Navotas, Rizal Province, and gathered his warriors.

Legazpi's grandson, Juan de Salcedo, and Father Geronimo Marin persuaded Lakan Dula to
lay down his arms. In return, they promised to exempt him and his descendants from the payment of
tribute and forced labor. Lakan Dula believed them and ordered his men to return to their homes in
peace. The governor pardoned him and gave him gifts of silk and gold.

The Tondo "Conspiracy"

Despite the Spanish promises of good treatment, the Filipinos harbored feelings of hostility
toward the colonizer. In some cases, the hostility was ignited by love of freedom. These happened in
1587 when a group of Filipinos in Tondo formed a secret society whose purpose was to regain their
freedom. Among the members of the society, which the Spanish writer wenceslao E. Retana called the
first Katipunan, were Lakan Dula's son Magat Salamat; his nephew Agustin de Legazpi; Juan Banal Chief
of Tondo; Pedro Balingit, Chief of Pandacan; and many others.

The plot spread throughout Central Luzon and as far as Cuyo Island and Borneo. The
society's plan was to have a Christian-Japanese ally bring Japanese weapons and soldiers to the
Philippines and with these weapons drive away the Spaniards. After which Agustin de Legazpi would be
proclaimed King of the Philippines. The plan seemed good, but it was aborted due to spies who reported
it to Spanish authorities. Immediately, the leaders were arrested and executed, while those implicated
were banished to Mexico.

The Revolt of Magalat

Disillusionment with Spanish rule may not be national in scope but it spread to many places.
In Cayagan, some natives, led by Magalat, rose in revolt against Spanish rule in 1596 and although it was
quelled, the Filipino rebels continued their opposition to the Spaniards. The governor-general sent a
strong contingent composed of a few Spanish soldiers and hundreds of Filipino recruits against Magalat
but the Ilocanos fought bravely. When they failed to defeat Magalat, the Spanish authorities thought of
another way to get rid of him. They hired a Filipino assassin to murder Magalat. The plan succeeded and
Magalat was killed. According to a Spanish contemporary historian, Antonio de Morga, with the death of
Magalat, Cayagan "became quiet" and peace reigned once more.

Ladia's "Conspiracy"

A man claiming to be a descendant of Lakan Dula tried to instigate a revolt in 1643 against
the Spaniards of Malolos, Bulacan. He was Pedro Ladia, a native of Borneo who came to Bulacan to lead
an armed uprising against Spaniards. If they succeeded he would be proclaimed "King of the Tagalogs".
His plan reached the friar-curate of Malolos who dissuaded the town peolpe from believing Ladia. He
urged them to remain faithful to the Church and to the King of Spain. At the same time, the friar-curate
notified the Spanish authorities of Ladia's activities. Ladia was arrested, sent to Manila, and then
executed.

The Revolt of Maniago

Central Luzon, since time immemorial, had been the center of discontent in the country. In
1660, Kapampangans, under the leadership of Francisco Maniago, declared war against the Spaniards.
This revolt, like the conspiracyof Agustin de Legazpi and that of Ladia, sought to destroy Spanish power
and to declare that the people of Central Luzon were free and independent.

But aside from this purpose, the revolt was also caused by the abuses of the Spanish officials
who refused to pay for the food they had taken from the Filipinos. The angry Kapampangans set fire to
their houses and swore they would continue to fight until they regained their freedom. Attempts of the
friar-curates of the province to persuade the rebels to lay down their arms failed. Instead, the
Kapampangans tried to stop commerce between Manila and the Central Luzon towns by setting up
stakes along the rivers. At the same time, they issued an appeal to the people of Pangasinan and the
Ilocos provinces to join them in their battle for freedom. The governor-general deployed Filipinos troops
under the Spanish officers to the affected areas to prevent the further spread of the revolt.

The governor-general himself, fearing other towns might follow Maniago's example,
personally conferred with the Chief of Arayat, Juan Macapagal, who promised to help the Spaniards
quell the revolt. Maniago's cause weakened with Macapagal's announced intention to side with the
Spaniards.

Consequently, Maniago sent an emissary to the governor-general in order to make peace

and make the following demands: (1) for the governor-general to pardon all those who participated in
the revolt; (2) the Kapampangans to receive the sum of P200,000 as payment for the rice which the
Spaniards seized from their barangays, of this amount, P14,000 was actually paid as down payment, and
the remainder of the total amount to be paid in installment; and (3) for the Kapampangans to continue
to cut timber, as required by the law on forced labor, but they would be given sufficient time to perform
their duties at home. The governor-general accepted these demands and Maniago, satisfied, laid down
his arms. The revolt was a success in the sense that Maniago was able to air his people's grievances and
get what they wanted.

The Revolt of Malong

It soon became apparent that these struggles for freedom were due to Spanish oppressive
imposition, for instance, one of the causes of the disillusionment of the people of Pangasinan was
maltreatment of the people by Spanish officials of the province with regard to the polo y servicio (forced
labor). The Spaniards needed labor to cut down trees for timber.

In 1660, under the leadership of Andres Malong, a native of Binalatongan (now San Carlos),
the people of Lingayen rose up in arms, The revolt spread to the whole province and in the course of the
disturbance, many Spaniards including the provincial governor, were killed. So successful was the revolt
that Malong, in his enthusiasm, proclaimed himself “King of Pangasinan”. With this royal title, he
appointed officials in the areas under him.
 At the same time, he urged the people of the Ilocos pprovinces, Zambales, and Cagayan to
take arms against the Spaniards. To show his strength, he sent thousands of soldiers to Ilocos, Cagayan,
and even Pampanga, were Maniago was also fighting the Spaniards, to incite the people of provinces to
join the revolt. By sending his own soldiers to other provinces, Malong weakened his position.

The government forces, as usual consisting mostly of Filipino recruits, pursued Malong and
in a skirmish he was defeated and captured. Later, he was executed for having been a “traitor” to Spain.
In 1762, like Malong’s revolt, the people of Binalatongan, Dagupan, Clasiao, Santa Barbara, Mangaldan,
San Jacinto, Malasiki in Pangasinan, and Paniqui (then a part of Pangasinan) rose in arms over the
imposition of tribute. Led by Juan dela Cruz Palariz, the uprising lasted a year and came to be known as
the Palaris Revolts.

Revolt of Bancao

Disillusionment with Spanish rule was not confined to the provinces of Luzon disturbances in
Visayas were also widespread. In Leyte in 1622, Bancao, a chieftain of Limasawa, led revolt against the
Spaniards because of the intolerance of the friars. Legazpi befriended Bancao who had given him food
and other supplies. He became Catholic and a loyal subject of the Spanish king. Later, Bancao returned
to the religion of his forefathers. Because of this apostasy, the Spanish friars-curate of his town hated
him as he convinced a lot of natives to go back to their original faith.

The natives stopped going to church, which led the friar-curate to seek help from the
governor of Cebu to help restore Spanish influence on the Warays in Visayas. This uprising spread from
Carigara to other parts of Leyte and endangered the friar-curate and the Catholic faith in the province.
The provincial governor of Cebu sent troops consisting of hundreds of Filipino soldiers under Spanish
officers and defeated Bancao, who died fighting. As in other instances, the Filipinos, not the Spaniards,
defeated their fellow-Filipinos.

The Revolt of Sumuroy

In accordance with the law on forced labor, in 1649the governorgeneral ordered the
provincial governors of the Visayan provinces to send workers to the Cavite shipyard. Consequently, the
provincial governors recruited workers who were sent to Cavite. The workers resented leaving their
homes to be separated from their families. To show their deeps resentments, the people of Palapag,
Samar, gathered under leadership of Agustin Sumuroy, and revolted against the Spaniards. The friars-
curate of Palapag killed and soon the fire of discontent swept other towns and islands. The revolt spread
to Mindanao particularly to Zamboanga, Camiguin, Masbate, Camarines and Albay.

The governor-general in Manila was alarmed at the spread of the revolt. He gathered a force
consisting mostly of Filipino soldiers under Spanish officers and sent an expedition to Samar. Sumuroy
fought bravely and he won over the Spanish-Filipino forces in several skirmishes. Sumuroy chose
mountain as a natural fortress and he withstood attacks from the enemy. In 1650, the government sent
a strong army contingent and engaged Sumuroy in a battle in the mountains. He was defeated,
captured, and executed. The event in Samar did not discourage Tapar who led the uprisings in Oton,
Panay in 1663, and Dagohoy who just like Tapar wanted to return to the religion of their ancestors.
Dagohoy’s uprising proved to be one of the longest rebellions in our history, lasting from 1744 to 1829.
Dagohoy set up his own “government” in the mountains, with some 20,000 followers obeying his orders
and practicing their own faith.

More Rebellions in Luzon

The succeeding rebellions, mainly Luzon were clearly economic in nature. By the 1700s, friar
estates and the hacienda system had dramatically expanded due to the demand by the galleon trade for
agricultural products. This caused many inhabitants to lose their lands along with their rights over
communal rivers and forests. Thus, the violent uprisings in 1702 in Tondo; Biñan, Laguna; and Silang,
Cavite were due to the loss of pasturelands and lands for agriculture. By 1743, Pasig, Taguig, Bicutan,
Parañaque, and parts of Cavite and Bulacan were up in arms due to their lack of access to rivers and
forests.

In 1745 haciendas in Bulacan’s Buenavista, Pandi, and Lolomboy were burned and their friar-
owners killed. Up in the north, the principal couple Diego and Gabriela Silang led a widespread revolt in
Ilocos Sur on the issue of the right to engage in the galleon trade (indulto de comercio) by non-Spaniards
on Indios (as what the Spaniards called the native Filipinos). Likewise in 1807, the Basi revolt in Ilocos
Norte erupted over the issue of government monopoly on the production, pricing, and sale of basi, a
favorite local wine among the Ilocanos.

Resistance in the Interior and Mountainous Parts

Rich in gold, forest products and trees for logs or lumber the interior and mountainous areas
of the country were hard to penetrate yet much coveted by the Spaniards. In the Cordillera region, for
instance, people lived in separate and distant tribal communities led by a mingel, a warrior-leader and
expert in headhunting. Trade and commerce with the lowlanders existed but on a limited basis among
the locals. Attempts by the Spaniards to send expeditions to the region between 1591 and 1608 failed
due to the fierce resistance by the taong bundok, which literally meant, ‘people of the mountains.”

Their ancient beliefs and way of life that were less exposed to the outside world, made them
more resistant to colonization whether Spanish or any of the later incursions by the Americans and
Japanese. The process did not only prove expensive and frustrating for the Spaniards, but also
dangerous as confrontations were practically reduced to pangangayao or headhunting expeditions for
the lumads, another term for those who remained non-Christians and non-Muslim long after the
colonization. This situation would also be true of the Lumads in the Visayas, as well as in Mindanao.

The Moro Wars in the South

Certainly the longest and the bloodiest attempt by the Spaniards was the colonization and
Christianization of the Muslim in the southern islands of Mindanao. In fact, the process did not only take
the longest, but also the most frustrating for the Spaniards. The Muslims in the country remained
unconquered and unconverted until the end of Spanish rule. The first encounter between the Spaniards
and the Moros (the term used by the Spaniards for the Muslims, who also ruled their country for more
than 400 years), took place in Cebu between Martin De Goiti and the group of the Bornean traders in
1569. Manila, even in 1571 to 1572 could hardly be called a Muslim kingdom. The connection between
Islamized Brunei and Manila was more by ties in marriage and economic or commercial transaction,
rather than religious. Thus, no sultanate ever evolved in Manila (Luzon) or in the Visayas. However,
Islam penetrated the south early and spread throughout Mindanao.

Two sultanates were eventually set up, one in Sulu and another in the Maguindanao-
Cotabato area. It was logical, therefore, that ties between Brunei and the sultanates would continue
despite the Spanish conquest of Manila. In fact, the new government in Manila had to send troops to
Borneo three times (in 1576, 1578 and 1588) to put an end to their trading activities and military aid to
manila.

However, succeeding military expeditions by the Spaniards directed at Sulu and

Maguindanao (1596 to 1638), though bloody and fierce on both sides, failed. The Spaniards could only
put up forts as defenses for their small territorial gains as outpost, one in Jolo and another in
Zamboanga. Under the capable leadership of Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao and Sulu united as a
confederacy (1638-1671). This event forced the Spaniards to finally withdraw from the place and focus
instead on Luzon.

During this time, the Muslims carried out raids in the Visayas and Luzon for labor force
(slaves or bihag) that they needed in the procurement of products and in trading between Sulu and
Maguidanao on one hand, and Borneo, the Moluccas, Malaya, and Indonesia on the other. After Sultan
Kudarat’s death in 1671, these raiding activities slacked. The two sultanates, are lacking an expert leader
like Kudarat, again engaged each other in battles over the issue of trade and supremacy in the area.

By 1716 to 1747, Spain came back in steamboats equipped with more powerful cannons.
Their victory allowed them to build forts in Iligan Cagayan de Oro. They also brought some Jesuits for
mission work in Mindanao. In the face of developments, The Moro leadership finally entered into a
treaty with Governor-General Urbiztondo in 1851. With some compromises in the treaty, but with no
actual surrender of territory within the realm of the sultanate, the Moros continued to resist the
Spaniards. In 1762-1764, during the brief British occupation of the Philippines, the Moros were forced to
give up of Palawan and Sabah on a lease basis. Nevertheless, until the end of Spanish rule in 1898 they
remained sovereign.

How were the Muslims able to do this? Historians offer the following reasons: (1) the Spanish
force lacked the number and the military capacity to break through the Moro Kuta (defense forts); (2)
Mindanao is far from Manila, the center of power and governance; (3) the Spaniard were more
preoccupied in several fronts with wars or resistances by the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the various
provinces of Luzon and the Visayas; and (4) Islam provided the Spaniards an Identifiable enemy called
“Moros;” thus forcing all followers of Islam to resist as one, despite ethnic differences among them. Of
these four factors, the last one is considered the most plausible explanation to their successful
resistance to Spanish colonization and Christianization.

Their common identity as Muslims, sworn-enemies of the Spaniards, helped to unite them.

REASONS FOR THE GENERAL FAILURE OF THE REVOLTS

There were several reasons why these uprisings failed. First, the Spaniards possessed
superior weapons and were able to employ native volunteers or mercenary soldiers. Second, the people
remained divided and lacked unity, although a centralized form of government and a geographic identity
had been established in the country. This was due to the zeal and clever use by the Spaniards,
particularly the friars, of the “divide and rule” tactic, which kept the strong, if not intact, regionalistic
tendencies of the people.

And third, the giving of positions of power and privileges to the chieftains and their families
by the Spanish authorities, weakened unity among the people and prevented the birth of leaders that
could consolidate the many revolts, however disconnected and isolated from each other they may be.
This further prevented the development of a sense of common identity and purpose as a people.

It was the factor, the lack of a concept of a nation that was most significant and the hardest
one to come by. The people were not only separated into many ethnolinguistic groups, but also
geographically into more than 7,000 islands. Evolving the idea of belonging to one homeland, having one
soul, and one destiny as a nation, would take longer and require more elements than what were present
at this time.

THE CHINESE PRESENCE

Among the early foreign contacts of the ancient Filipinos, the Chinese appeared to be the
most constant and steady visitors, most of them coming in from Canton.They readily interacted with the
Filipinos, adapted to the local ways, and eventually married native women. There had been economic
and cultural contacts with the Chinese for centuries before the Spaniards came. The Chinese came to
Manila annually, bringing with them fruits, ceramics, bowls and plates, silk and other items to exchange
with Philippine gold and silver.

To the Spaniards, the Chinese were Sangleys, which meant “traders who came and went,”
with no intention of conquest and colonization. The Spanish started to get alarmed by the Chinese
presence in 1574 when the famous Chinese commander Limahong came with his shipsand bombarded
the walled city of Intramuros and nearby Malate. Martin de Goiti lost his life in this attack. The combined
forces of the Spaniards and Lakan Dula forced Limahong to leave and head for Lingayen, Pangasinan,
only to be pursued by Spanish-Filipino forces. However, Limahong and his men managed to escape.

Despite the Chinese treat on the Spaniards, the Chinese merchants, with their stores and
restaurants, remained inside Intramuros. Their wares and goods like chocolate, candles, shoes, and
bread, as well as services that Spanish and Filipino communities needed, like carpentry, smithing, and
many more, were in great demand. Thus, the Sangleys rapidly grew in number and the Spanish
authorities were forced to situate them within a limited space called Parian. The word, “parian,”
according to some, came from the Chinese word palien, meaning “union” or “federation.” Originally, the
Parian occupied a space in front of the old Sto. Domingo Church inside Intramuros. When it burned
down, the government moved their quarters outside Intramuros, along the present day Manila Post
Office, Liwasang Bonifacio, Arroceros, and the GSIS building in Roxas Boulevard, Manila. In a sense, the
parian was the precursor of the country’s Chinatown. The government also passed laws allowing the
Chinese to live in the provinces, in an effort to spread them out. All sorts of taxes were imposed on the
Chinese, which in the course of time, became abusive and oppressive.

These impositions provoked the Chinese to rebel. In 1603, Chinese uprisings erupted in
Tondo and Quiapo, which were easily quelled by the combined Spansih-Filipino force. To scare the
Chinese, their leader Eng Kang was beheaded and his head was put on public display. But this did not
prevent other Chinese revolts to spread from Manila to Makati, Taytay, Antipolo, and the provinces.

Again, the combined forces of the Spaniards and their Filipino soldiers stopped these
rebellions in 1639, 1662, and in 1762 at the cost of some 23,000 Chinese lives and great loss to their
properties and businesses. Several decrees were passed for their expulsion in 1744, 1758, and 1759, but
these too failed because by this time, the Chinese had controlled the source of livelihood and even the
daily needs of both Spaniards and Filipinos. Their presence had become a necessity for everyone’s
comfort and convenience. Thus, from 150 Chinese living around Manila upon the arrival of Legazpi in
1571, the Chinese reached 100,000 during the Revolution of 1896.