Application of Remote Sensing-GIS in
Mapping Lithium Prospective area.
Kamini Sharma, Mohammad Ewaz Sadaat, Gopal Mohan
Multidisciplinary Centre for Geoinformatics, Delhi Technological University, New Delhi, India
kaaminisharma212@gmail.com, mohammadewazsadaat_2k21geo01@dtu.ac.in,
egopalmohan@gmail.com
Abstract— This paper explains the use of Remote sensing-GIS
in Mineral Resource mapping, focusing on mineral essential in
Green energy transition that is Lithium, It explains the necessary
geology required for its mineralization such as Pegmatites-
Granites and their exploration indicators. Further we have
mentioned about India’s first discovered lithium reserve in
Maragala-Allapatna region of Mandya district, Karnataka that
has been used for studying and validating the use of GIS-Remote
sensing techniques and datasets in detecting ore mineral and its
direct and indirect indicators, specifically hydrothermally
produced lithium metal ore and its source rock pegmatites. For
the purpose we had created five kinds of maps using GIS and its
data integration, manipulation and statistical interpolation
techniques. These maps were Lithological or rock type map,
Structural-Lineament map, Gravity and Magnetic anomaly map,
and Geobotanical anomaly map. These maps revealed the
potential zones and areas suitable for lithium ore occurrence.
Keywords—Mineral, Ore, Remote sensing, GIS, Lithium,
Maps, Geology, Hydrothermal, Pegmatites.
I. INTRODUCTION
O ptical and thermal remote sensing data, namely satellite-
acquired images, have been an important tool in Geological
Mineral exploration allowing to target exploration areas for
more than four decades [1].
The major contribution that remote sensing offers to mineral
exploration was it being fairly quick, and non- intrusive way,
which favors mining and exploration companies especially in
inaccessible remote areas. However, Rajesh [2], in an overview
of the use of remote sensing and Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) in mineral exploration, points out the difficulty
of directly pinpointing mineralization using only remote
sensing data, highlighting the importance of the integration
with other types of geological data.
Sabins [3], in one of the first reviews about the types of data
and image processing methods for mineral exploration,
describes two main approaches to target mineral deposits;
(i) Structural and lithological mapping; and (ii)
Hydrothermal alteration mapping.
Later, Rajesh [2] proposed three approaches: (i) lithological
mapping; (ii) structural mapping; and (iii) alteration mapping.
These approaches have been applied since the 1970s to identify
very distinct types of mineral deposits.
The more common applications include porphyry copper [4-14]
and gold [14–25] deposits. Other applications may include: iron
ore deposits [26–29], volcanogenic massive sulfide ore (VMS)
deposits [29–32], several skarn-hosted deposits [33-36], chromite
deposits [37-40], uranium deposits [37-41], rare earth elements
(REE) exploration [34,42], brine and evaporite deposits [46,47],
porphyry molybdenum deposits [47-48], zinc-lead (Zn-Pb)
deposits [49], diamond [50] and bauxite exploration [51].
The Green energy transition is causing a perceived substantial
increase in the demand for raw materials and, while recycling
rates are improving, new discoveries are required to maintain
supply [52]. Mapping mineral abundances in an environmentally
sensitive manner requires minimally invasive and cost-effective
exploration technologies. Geological remote sensing offers a cost-
effective way of exploring for mineral resources.
High resolution imaging of complex geological surfaces is
extremely relevant for several critical raw materials such as
lithium (Li), rare earth elements (REEs), tungsten and
tantalum-niobium, as these are usually found in relatively small
deposits up to a size of a few hundred m2. Lithium, for example,
has become a key mineral in the energy transition towards a low-
carbon future [53]. Lithium ion batteries are widely used in
Electrical Vehicles. Similar tendency is shown by the EU
Commission that changed the status of Li to ‘critical’ in the 2020
European commission report (EU Commission, 2020). The two
primary sources of Li are brine deposits and hard rock deposits
such as pegmatites.
Pegmatites are intrusive igneous rocks defined by some
combination of coarse but variable crystal size, prominent
anisotropy of crystal orientation, mineralogical zonation and
skeletal, radial and graphic intergrowth crystal habits [54]. The
majority of pegmatites have a granitic composition, primarily
composed of quartz, feldspar and mica [54].
TABLE 1- COMMERCIALLY OR SCIENTIFICALLY IMPORTANT LITHIUM BEARING MINERALS [55],
GEOLOGY
Geochemistry and Mineralogy
In most geologic settings, Lithium is found only as a trace
element, measured in parts per million (ppm). Earth’s mantle
contains 1.6 ppm lithium and the oceanic crust contains 4.3
ppm [55]. The upper continental crust (that is, rocks typically
at Earth’s surface on land) contains an average of 20 ppm
lithium [55]; at this abundance, lithium ranks about 30th
among the elements, behind copper but ahead of lead, tin, and
silver.
Lithium is classed as a large-ion lithophile element: as a
cooling magma starts to crystallize minerals, lithium stays in
the remaining melt until near the end. Active plate tectonics
over Earth’s history have concentrated lithium in the
continental crust through the partial melting of the mantle
beneath mid-ocean ridges and volcanic arcs. The melt, or
magma, rises and then cools to become new rock in Earth’s
crust, bringing much of the available lithium with it.
Among the common rock or sediment types, the highest
lithium concentrations are in shales (which average 66 ppm),
deep-sea clays (which average 57 ppm), and low-calcium
granites (which average 40 ppm) [55]. These trace
concentrations are insufficient for an ore deposit or even for
the formation of minerals in which lithium is part of the
chemical formula. When present only in trace concentrations
such as these, lithium atoms substitute for other metals
(typically magnesium) in common rock-forming minerals.
Lithium minerals form only when rare combinations of
favorable factors line up [55].
. garnet, tourmaline, biotite, and apatite. In addition to the lithium
Most of the known lithium minerals are found in coarsely
crystalline granites known as lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT)
pegmatites. In terms of lithium resources, the most important
minerals are spodumene and petalite (both lithium aluminium
silicates) and the pink mica lepidolite (potassium lithium
aluminium silicate). The main lithium mineral in sedimentary
rocks is the clay hectorite [55]. More information on lithium
minerals is provided in Table 1
Lithium is extremely soluble. During weathering of rocks, it tends
to be removed in solution and carried to the sea by rivers. Thus,
lithium would be expected to have built up in the oceans in the
same way that a build-up of sodium has made the oceans salty.
Yet, remarkably, seawater contains less than 1 ppm lithium. The
likely explanation is that seawater lithium is scavenged in trace
quantities by clay minerals and accumulates in sea-floor oozes
[55].
Deposit Types Present and potential sources of lithium worldwide
are broken down by deposit type, as follows: closed-basin brines,
58 percent; pegmatites (including lithium-enriched granites), 26
percent; lithium-clays (hectorite), 7 percent; and oilfield brines,
geothermal brines, and lithium-zeolites (jadarite), 3 percent each
[55].
Lithium-Cesium-Tantalum Pegmatite Deposits
Granitic pegmatites are igneous rocks distinguished by an
extremely coarse but variable grain size and by other unique
textures, particularly what are known as graphic intergrowths [55].
Pegmatites are composed primarily of the major minerals in
granite, namely quartz, albite (sodium feldspar), potassium
feldspar, and the white mica muscovite, plus smaller amounts of
minerals petalite, lepidolite, and spodumene,
Fig, 1 Schematic cross section showing the concentric arrangement of lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatites (small purple, blue, and green
bodies) around a parental granite pluton. In this model, common pegmatites form near the parent, whereas pegmatites with enrichments in
incompatible elements (indicated by chemical symbols) and corresponding rare minerals form farther away [55] Be, beryllium; Cs, cesium; Li,
lithium; Nb, niobium; Rb, rubidium; Sn, tin; Ta, tantalum [55].
LCT pegmatites may contain the cesium ore mineral, pollucite;
the tantalum ore mineral, columbite tantalite; the beryllium ore
mineral, beryl; and the tin ore mineral, cassiterite.
LCT pegmatites may also yield gemstones and high-value
museum specimens of rare minerals. Gemstones include the
beryl varieties aquamarine, emerald, and heliodor; the lithium
bearing tourmaline variety elbaite (“watermelon tourmaline”);
and the spodumene varieties hiddenite, kunzite, and triphane.
LCT pegmatites are also mined for feldspars, muscovite, and
ultrapure quartz. The diversity of mineral species in the most
complex LCT pegmatites is impressive; at the Tanco deposit in
Manitoba, Canada, for example, 105 minerals have been
identified [55]. LCT pegmatites are famous among geologists
and mineral collectors for their huge crystals.
The largest spodumene crystal yet found is 14 meters (m) long
(from South Dakota) the largest beryl crystal, 18 m; and the
largest potassium feldspar crystal, 49 m [55]These finds are all
the more remarkable because pegmatites are believed to have
crystallized in a matter of days to years [55].
The main producers of lithium from pegmatites are Australia,
Brazil, China, Portugal, and Zimbabwe. The world has
hundreds of known deposits and some of these (for example, in
Quebec, Canada) contain large reserves of lithium that have
not been mined.
Kesler and others [55] estimated lithium resources for 20 of the
world’s most important
Pegmatite deposits or districts. Bradley and McCauley [55] and
Bradley and others [55] have summarized tectonic factors in
pegmatite genesis. LCT pegmatites are found in the metamorphic-
igneous hinterlands of orogenic belts and are a consequence of
plate convergence.
Most LCT pegmatites formed during collision between continents
or microcontinents and are associated with Aluminium-rich
granites that originated by melting of metamorphosed sedimentary
rocks. On a regional scale, LCT pegmatites tend to occur in
districts alongside fertile granites, with the highest concentration
of lithium and other incompatible elements in the more distal
pegmatites (fig. 1). Individual pegmatites take various shapes,
ranging from tabular dikes and sills to irregular bodies.
Lithium-Enriched Granites
Some muscovite-bearing granites include zones that are enriched
in the elements such as lithium, tantalum, tin, and fluorine. At the
Yichun Mine in Jiangxi Province, China, the top of a biotite-
muscovite granite grades into muscovite granite and then into
lepidolite granite, which has been mined for lithium and tantalum
[56]. Lithium-enriched granites are closely related to LCT
pegmatites, and the two have not been distinguished from one
another in recent global assessments of lithium resources [57,56] .
 Karnataka’s Mandya district [Figure 2 and 3]. The data provided a
total estimation of available Li2O as about 30,300 tonnes over an
Exploration for Lithium-Cesium-Tantalum Pegmatite Deposits area of 0.5 km x 5 km, which works out to about 14,100 tonnes of
lithium metal.
The search for new LCT pegmatite districts begins with the
knowledge that all LCT pegmatites were emplaced into Also, recent core drilling in a small area of 30 m X 440 m at
orogenic belts [55]. The global age distribution provides a Marlagala has led to an estimated 1,600 t of Li with an average
first-order filter in the search for new LCT pegmatites in grade of 0.246 wt%, [57,58,59].
unexplored regions. The potential for giant deposits seems So, our aim was to validate the deposit presence by the help of
greatest in Archean (2,500 Ma and older) collision zones. Most Remote sensing and GIS to map out the relevant Lithology-Rock
LCT pegmatites intruded metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, types, Structure Lineaments, and Geobotanical metal anomalies
typically at conditions of medium pressure and medium to high using Geological, Geophysical and Remote sensing satellite data
temperatures (greenschist to amphibolite facies) [55]. New to demarcate the areas with presence of Lithium deposit or its
deposits are likely to be found within a few kilometres of a direct and indirect indicators. Using the provided information we
“fertile” granite, which generally are large enough (typically chose an Area of Interest (AOI) of 692 Km2 shown in the Figure3.
several square kilometres in area) to be known already from
routine geologic mapping. Fertile granites are identified by the
presence of distinctive minerals, such as muscovite,
tourmaline, and garnet; by anomalously high concentrations of
such trace elements as cesium, lithium, rubidium, tin, and
tantalum; and by low concentrations of the major elements
calcium, iron, and magnesium [55] Around a fertile granite, the
more distal LCT pegmatites are
more likely to be enriched in lithium (Fig. 1). Weathering of
LCT pegmatites can result in both soil anomalies and indicator
minerals. Smith and others [55] demonstrated that arsenic,
beryllium, antimony, and tin form a 12-by-20-km halo in
lateritic soils around the Greenbushes pegmatite; niobium,
tantalum, and boron form a smaller, 1-by-5-km halo.
Cassiterite, tantalite, elbaite, and spessartine are sufficiently
dense and durable to serve as heavy indicator minerals for
lithium that can be found by panning unconsolidated
sediments.
Fig 3- Satellite Image of the Areas (red rectangle) and Points (yellow
pins) of Interest. Source- Google Earth Engine.

III. DATASET AND SOFTWARE USED

Fig. 2 Map showing study area.[56]
II. STUDY AREA
In the Year 2020, the researchers at the Atomic Minerals
Directorate, a unit of India's Atomic Energy Commission,
estimated India’s first lithium reserves of 14,100 tonnes in a
small patch of land surveyed in the southern Karnataka district,
according to a paper in journal Current Science [57,58,59]. The
survey showed presence of 1,600 tonnes of lithium resources
in the igneous rocks of the Marlagalla-Allapatna region of
The dataset used in the study was acquired from Bhuvan portal of
Geological Survey of India and Earth Explorer website of United
States Geological Survey. Bhuvan portal was used to download
various vector shape files of AOI depicting Lithology,
Mineralization, related abandoned and active quarry, Lineaments
and its types such as faults, fractures, folds types, major rivers and
ponds. Magnetic and Gravity anomaly point data of AOI was also
acquired from Bhuvan.
Earth Explorer website was used to acquired Landsat 8 collection
2 level 2 OLI/TIRS satellite imagery of the study area. Image of
November month, of year 2018 was selected as then most of the
land was covered with vegetation which was used to create
stressed vegetation anomaly map of the AOI.
Software used was ArcMap of ArcGIS suite to overlay and
manipulate the data and create final maps.
IV. METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS
To create layers depicting suitable areas of Mineral deposit
presence, we created five maps of Lithology, Structure, Gravity
 anomaly, Magnetic anomaly, and Geobotanical anomaly. The Out of these rocks Igneous intrusions such Pegmatites, Granites
details and relevance of each type is mentioned as follows; along with surrounding Amphibolite and meta-igneous and
A. Lithological Map sedimentary country rocks have potential to host Hydrothermal
Lithium mineralization [55]. Extent and spatial position of these
The Rock types of the study area are mostly of Archean and rock types can be accessed through this lithological map.
Paleoproterozoic age. The area is part of West Dharwar Craton
comprising Dharwar Subgroup and Peninsular Gneissic
complex. It consist of rocks of Kibbanahalli formation of
Bababudan group and Karighatta formation of Sargur group,
Main lithologies in these formations are Granite Gneiss,
Granitoid, Migmatite Gneiss, Fuchsite kyanite quartzite,
Garnet-Staurolite-Kyanite-Muscovite Quartzite, Amphibolite,
Banded Iron Formation, Banded Magnetite Quartzite,
Limestone, Meta-Pyroxenite, Garnet Mica schist, Meta-
Ultramafite, Acidic Intrusives such as Felsite, Quartz veins,
Pegmatites and Basic Intrusives such as Dolerite.[Fig.4]

Fig. 4 -Lithological map of the study area showing various rock types, presence of mineralization commodity and area of active and
abandoned quarries.
.
 B. Structural Map
The Structures can govern; (a) the distribution of metallogenic
provinces within orogenic belts or platforms, (b) the distribution
of ore-bearing regions and fields within the metallogenic
provinces and (c) the localization of ore deposits in a particular
ore field [60].
Remote sensing data on suitable scales can throw valuable light
on the relationship of global, mega, and minor structural features
with mineral deposits. Deduction of information regarding
localization of mineral deposits by certain types of geological
Fig. 5 -Structural map of the study area showing various major and minor lineaments such as fracture, Joint, fault, fold and its type.
structural/Lineament belts, shear zones, faults, fractures,
contacts, folds, joints or intersections of specific
structural/lineament features is important in planning mineral
exploration strategy[61].
In our study area we delineated many major and minor
lineaments [Fig 5] by creating their map in ArcGIS software, a
fault/fracture density map can be created by using this structural
map. Association of Lineaments with drainage and other surface
water bodies reveals more about the tectonic geology of the
terrain.[61]
 C. Magnetic Anomaly Map
Magnetic anomaly patterns [Fig. 6] can be used as a tool for
mapping lithology, metamorphic zones and hydrothermal
alteration systems, as well as identifying structures that may
control passage of magmas or hydrothermal fluids associated
with mineralisation.[62] Here we had magnetic anomaly
point data, which was used as a input to create a continuous
interpolation surface using statistical Natural Neighbour
Interpolation technique depicting areas of high or low
magnetic susceptibility associated with metalliferous rock
type or mineralization.

Fig. 6 -Magnetic Anomaly Map of the study area showing areas of high or low magnetism in rocks, points represents the coordinates
where magnetic anomaly was observed.
 D. Gravity Anomaly Map mineralization can be identified by gravity anomaly as they’ll have
Here, we had point data of gravity anomalies which we used to
Bouguer anomaly maps are used to identify additional potential create a gravity anomaly map using Natural Neighbor Interpolation
areas of mineralization [63]. Gravity maps show areas with high in ArcGIS.
density bedrocks and large dense intrusive bodies (E.g.-
Granites) as such areas locally have observed gravity value
higher than the surroundings. Thus, the source rock of lithium

Fig. 6 -Gravity Anomaly Map of the study area showing areas of high or low gravity/density in rocks, points represents the coordinates
where gravity anomaly was observed.
E. Geobotanical Anomaly Map
Vegetation stress is known to be caused by absorption of any
metal type, which manifests as physiological declines in
growth rate, photosynthetic activity, and chlorophyll content
[64] However, the magnitude of stress, which manifests as
change in reflectance spectra, varies with metal and vegetation
type [64].
This idea has been used since the early stage of satellite remote
sensing, and change in reflectance spectra of plants with metal
absorption (particularly heavy metal) has been investigated [64].
This absorption induces vegetation stress by interfering with
chlorophyll activity and inhibiting water suction from soils and
water supply to leaves. The wavelength ranges from visible to
near infrared (VNIR; 400–1400 nm),

One key factor of geobotanical remote sensing (GBRS) for

mineral exploration is the presence of unusual/stressed
vegetation over mineralized areas, which can be identified
from the reflectance spectral pattern of plants.

Fig. 7 -Geobotanical Anomaly Map of the study area showing

zones of metal enrichment.
in which the effect of metal absorption on reflectance spectra is
readily apparent, has generally been used for GBRS [64]. The
effect is also discriminable in a longer wavelength range,
shortwave infrared (SWIR; 1400–2400 nm), as vegetation
stress. [64].
Common to NDVI and other VIs is the main use of VNIR
reflectance’s only. However, SWIR reflectance’s are sensitive
to leaf water content and thus can be used to detect vegetation
stress by water supply interference. Therefore, VI derived from
reflectance data in the VNIR and SWIR regions is expected to
enhance detection accuracy of vegetation anomalies. Based on
this, the Vegetation Index considering Greenness and
Shortwave infrared (VIGS), is used. This index is aimed at
wide availability to general multispectral satellite imagery by
integrating visible Green, Red, NIR, and SWIR reflectance’s
as:
(1)
where G, S1, and S2 denote reflectance’s in the visible green
and two SWIR regions, respectively, and w1, w2, w3, and w4 are
weights for emphasizing each term. Considering reports on the
variability of reflectance’s induced by vegetation stress in the
selected regions and using the data sets in the latter two
references, weights set, w1=1.0, w2=0.5, w3=1.5 and w4=1.5,
was used as the most suitable because the VIGS from this
combination greatly enhanced the difference in stress. Three
normalized difference spectral indices are incorporated into
VIGS and combined using the above weights, which are green-
red based normalized difference index to detect chlorosis-
related phenomena, NDVI, and a SWIR-based normalized
difference index that is sensitive to water contents of leaves,
partly controlled by the metal-induced stress. The VIGS is said
to discriminate between high
and medium metal contents more clearly than the NDVI [64].
For our study area, we used Landsat 8- Multispectral Image of
30 m spatial resolution and its Green, Red, NIR, SWIR1 and
SWIR2 bands, to calculate the VIGS. We performed the raster
calculations of relevant bands using Equation 1 in ArcMap.
The VIGS data values, those exceeding the mean plus one
standard deviation (1.0σ) were regarded as anomalous, related
to metal enrichment [64]. Thus, values more than 0.75 of VIGS
were considered anomalous and were classified to show areas
of metal enrichment (Fig. 7).
V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In Mineral Exploration using GIS-Remote sensing, various types
of datasets are integrated in GIS, such as remotely sensed-
geophysical datasets- such as Gravity and magnetic maps that
have potential to demarcate ore minerals at the intersections of the
gravity or magnetic anomalies [65]. Geobotanical maps can show
plant anomalies such as dwarfism, chlorosis, late flowering, poor
plant health or endemic plant species (that exist only near ore
mineral) which can be direct indicators of ore mineralization [66].
Lithological map be used to clearly demarcate the ore mineral host
rock extent and presence. Structural maps are useful to delineate
the conduits of hydrothermal fluids that is faults and fractures
which host hydrothermal mineral deposits.
In our study area, Marlagalla-Allapatna region of Karnataka’s
Mandya district, using Lithological map we were able to delineate
the Lithium bearing rock Pegmatites and Granites. The
surrounding country rock that can harbour Li such as Amphibolite
was also clearly visible. Using, Structural map of the study region
we were able to mark faults and fractures, a lineament density map
can be created from this as high lineament density areas have
more potential of harbouring mineralization. Similarly anticlinal
type of fold is known to bear hydrothermal mineral deposits.
Magnetic anomaly of the study area is showing places of higher
magnetic susceptibility in rocks in the NNE region. Gravity map is
also showing highest density amphibolite rock in the study area
with higher gravity anomaly.
Geobotanical anomaly map of the area also clearly indicates the
metal enrichment areas. All these layers of maps, with their
Lithium metal ore indicating features can be used as evidence of
mineral ore presence. By the help of GIS, these map layers can be
weighted and overlayed to create mineral presence probability
map to indicate areas of high and low probability of lithium
occurrence.

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