Vba

at Port Ports
1 will be coupled into
ts 2 and
upper guide and input power 3 or
The 4-port device is then called a
directional coupler or Bethe hole coun only
ler which
is deseribed in this chapter.

64.14 Attenuators
Attenuators are passive deyices used to control power levels in a mi
rowave
system by partially absorbing the transmitted signal wave. Both fixed and v
able attenuators are designed usingresistive films (aquadag).
A coaxial fixed attenuator uses afilm with losses on the centre
conductor totn
absorb some of the power as shown in Fig. 6.24(a). The fixed waveguide
tyne
consists of a thin dielectric strip coated with resistive film and ype
placed at the cen.
tre of the
waveguide parallel to the maximum E field. Induced current on the
resistive film due to the incident wave results in
power dissipation, leading to
attenuation of microwave energy. The dielectric
strip is tapered at both ends upto
a
length of more than half wavelength to reduce
reflections. The resistive vane is
supported by two dielectric rods separated by an odd
length and perpendicular to the electric field multiple of quarter wave-
(Fig. 6.24(b)).
z
O

Resistive film Lossy material on centre conductor

(a)

Micrometer
Attenuator flap

(b)
(c)
Fig. 6.24 Microwave attenuator: (a)
coaxial
(b) and (C) waveguide attenuators line fixed
attenuator
uator
A variable-type attenuator can be constructed by moving the resistive
of micrometer screw from one side of the narro
van
means wall to the ane by
centre where
 ld is
eld maximum E
is max (Fig.. 6.24(b))
.24(6)) or
t h eE fiel
by
changing the depth of insertion of a
wane at anE field maximum
resistive
through a longitudinal slot at the middle of
essdwall
the b r o a d w a as shown in Fig.
6.24(c).¢A maximum of 90 dB attenuation is
ith VSWR
thesible with VSW of 1.05. The
resistance card can be
shaped to give a linear
ion of attenuation with the depth of
variation

insertiom
Ap cecisjon-type variable attenuator makes -use of a circular section
pred
very thin tapered resistive
ing aa very
ntaining
(C)
card (R,), to both sides of
which are
cted axisymmetric sections of circular-to-rectangular waveguide tapered
ected axisymmeti

itions (RC, and RC,) as shown in Fig. 6.25. The centre circular
trans
section with
osistive can be precisely rotated by 360° with respect to the two fixed
sistive card cai
the

TE10 E sin2

RC
TEM

TE1

TE10RC /R1

E sin 6 E sin2 6
E sin
E cos 6

R3
E sin 6 cos &
R2
g.6.25 Precision type variable attenuator
cards
R, Ry R Tapered resistive transitions
waveguide
RC, and RC, - Rectangular-to-circular
C Circular waveguide section
current on
s of circular rectangular waveguide transitions. fhe induced
to
the resistive
S1stive card R, due to the incident signal is dissipated
as heat-producing
attenuation of the transmitted signal. The incident TE10 dominant un wave in he
rectangular waveguide is converted into a dominant TE1 mode in the
alar toto the
waveguide. A very thin tapered resistive card is placed perpendicular the E
circula
at the circular end of each transition section so that it has a negligible
to it. Therefore,
efe
ible effectfiel
the field perpendicular to it but absorbs any compónent parallel to it. Theref on
a pure TE mode is excited in the middle section
If the resistive card in the centre section is kept at an angle 6 relative to
E field direction of the TE mode, the component E cos 6 parallel to
the cara
card
gets absorbed while the component E sin 0 is transmitted without attenuation
This later component finally on
appears as electric field component E sin' in
rectangular output guide. Therefore, the attenuation of the incident wave is
E
=

Esin 0 sin IS21

Or, a (dB) -40
=
log (sin 0) -20 log IS21
=

Therefore, the precision rotary attenuator produces attenuation (6.79)

which depends
only on the angle of rotation 6 of the resistive card with
wave polarisation. Attenuators respect to the incident
are
normally matched reciprocal devices, so that
Sgl=1S (6.80)
and VSWR-
ISlor 1S22 ysWR+1 01
where the VSWR is measured at the
(6.81)
port concerned. The
precision rotary attenuator is S-matrix of an ideal
S= 0 sin0
sin0 0
(6.82)
64.15 Phase Shifters
A phase shifter is
two-port passive dEvIce tnat
hase of the wave transmitted
a

througn it. Phase produces a variable change in

ing lossless dielectric slab within
a shifter can be
waveguide a
maximum E fieldA differential phase change isparallel to and realised by
ealised by plac
plac-
at the osition of
wave velocity thfough produced position of
to atdue to the chang
the dielectric slab compared
ge of
waveguide. Two ports are matched by reducing the
through
through.
the dielectric slab tapered at both endsus shown in reflections
an empty
N of the
of
Fig. from
6.26. wave
Dielectric
slab
B
b

26 Phase shiftere
 COSe Chgn Ol a diclectriC Slan and
T h e p r o p a g a t i o n

uide are, respectively

empiy

2T
(6.83)

210 27-(/20) (6.84)

AnVe,
thedifferentialphase shiftproduced by the phase shifter is Ao =(#,B,
Thus be produced. The S-matrix of
usting the length
Bradjustingthe 7, different phase shifts can
phase hifter can be expressed by
s ideal
e Jad
0 (6.85)
0

Precision Phase Shifter

Fig. shown in 6.27.
designed as a rotary type as shifter can be
Anrecision phase of
containing a lossless dielectric plate
a section of circular waveguide
This uses be rotated over 360°
This section can
lenoth 2i called halfwave (180°)section. rectangular waveguide
transitions.
of circular to
TeeIsely between tw0 sections
called quarterwave (90°)
lossless dielectric plates of length
each containing to the broad wall of the rectangu-
sections oriented
at an angle of 45° with respect
wave in the
rectan-

at the input and outpat. The incident TE1o

iar waveguide ports halfwave section
guide The in the circular
gular guide becomes TE
a wave
to the
twice its rotation angfe 6 with respect
produces a pháse shiftegual to a length of quarter
The dielectric plates are tapered through
quarterwave section.
reflection due to discontinuity.
at both ends for reducing as fol-
w2velength shifter can be explained
of the rotary phase
The principle of operation section can be
incident field E; in the input quarterwave
iows. The TE mode and other.
one E. polarised parallel
transverse components,
decomposed into two the quarterwave
After propagation through
perpendicular to quarterwave plate.
piale these components are
(6.86)
Ene"P
E =
E,cos 45°e = (6.87)
E,e 0
E, sin45° e"D
=

E =

will
adjusted such that these two components
CTe, E= E,/V2.The length / is (B,-B,)= 90°. There
differential phase change of
equal magnitude but a the quarterwave plate,
these field conmponents
dler propagation through
become (6.88)
eiB}
E =
Eg 2
(6.89)
E =
jEge-iBl =jE E, = e
 E L20
A/4 plate
Dielectric
plates

Y A/2 plate
Rotary section
Plane of input plate

Plane of rotary plate

/4 plate

Ea
EA yA
E
Es
E

4 5A5 Es
X

45
Input /4 plate
Rotary /2 plate
Output /4 plate
Fig. 6.27 Precision
Thus, the quarterwave sections
rotary phase shifter
onvert a linearly
larly polarised wave and vice-versa.
After emergence from the
polarised TE wave cireu-
to aa circu-
halfwave
perpendicular to the halfwave plate cansection, the field
represented ascomponents parallel
be
p and
E= (E, cos 6- E, sin 6)e-=
E =
(E, cos 0+ E sin
6)e"-v*
Eeiei3B (6.90)
2 -B, =T
=
Ee
since,
After emergence from the halfwave section, B,1
e7ei3Bjt/2
or-2P,l=r-2 (6.91)
(6.91)
the fiett (6.92)
may again be decomposed into two
TEn odes, polarised
dicular to the output quarterwave plate. A the outpul components
ents
parallel E, and EB4
plate, the field components parallel and perpendicu of and
an perpen-
cular to the uar terwave
can be written as

E =
(E cos 6+ E, sin 0)e =E 20
quarterwave
rwave plate

(6 03)
 Microwave Network Theory and Passive Devices 193

sin8)eP=E 2846. (6.94)

E E, cos 6-E
herefore, the parallel component E and perpendicular component E, at the
magnitude and in phase to pro
pl end of the quarterwave plate equal
are in
Re a resultant field which is a linearly polarised TE}| wave

u 2 EeB=E28AB (6.95)
incident field E, w:th a phase
haviSame
ng the sanme d1rection
o of polarisation as the
fixed at a given frequency
and 48,/ is
change of 28+ 48 Since Gcan be varied rotating the
halfwave plate
and structure be obtained by
u phase shift of29 can
the quarterwave plates.
eCIsely through an angle of Bwith respect
to
MY
 = 4.9586 m

Hybrid or Magic-T
tees forms
rid tee, called a
a hybrid
tes

Eplane
and H-plane magi.
combination ofthe in Fig.
6.29.
A shown
as
having 4 ports E-plane T-junctionn
Collinear arm 2
Difference
or E-arm 3
Sum or
H-arm 4

Collinear
arm 1

H-Plane T-junction

Fig. 6.29 Magic-T

The magic-T has the
ated with matched load.
following characteristics when all the ports are
If two
in-phase waves of equal
output Port 3 is
at magnitude are fed into Ports I and-
subtractive and hence zero
additively the Port 4. Hence the
at and total output wu
and 4, the sum or H-armn. Port 3 is caled the
difference
 o 00
10 0 0
S= 0
(6.113
0 0

001 0
is formed
by a 120
(b) Three-port circulator A three-port circulator
1-plane waveguide or strip line symmetrical Y-junction with a central ferrite pos
of the disc shown
isc. A steady magnetic field H is applied along the axis as

n Fig. 6.33. Depending on the polarisation of the incident wave and the direction
tothe microwave signal travels from one port to the immediate next one only
. pertectly matched, lossless, non-reciprocal three-port circulator, the
S-matrix is
0 0 S13
IS]= |S21 0 0 (6.114)
0
S2 0
 Normal dielect
ormal dielectric
substrate external
to ferrite

Fig 6.33 Three-port circulator: (a) waveguide type (b) stripline

type

1 the terminal planes are properly chosen to make the

phase angles of S13, Sz1
andS zero,

S13 S2=Sza = 1
So that
o 0 1
IS]= |1 0 0 (6.115)
0 1 0
The matching of the junction can be achieved by placing suitable tuning
elements in each arm.
Since in practice losses are always present, the performance is limited by
Ite i5olation and non-zero insertion loss. Typical characteristics can be repre-
sented by
nsertion loss < 1 dB
Isolation 30-40 dB
VSWR< 1.5

Example 6.17 Prove that it is impossible to construct a perfectly matched

lossless, eciprocal three-port junction.
Solution
Aperfectly matched threc-port junction has a scattering matrix:
0 Si2 Ss
IS] =S12 0 S3
S13 S23 0 o
For a lossiess Junc
S12 S12 +S13 S13
=

S12S12 +S23 S21

=

1
+S23 S23
=

S3 S3
0
S12 S13
=

S23 S12 S23

=

S
=

equation
from ove gives S,,s
abo Sa=0
the fourth
to cal losslee
IfS1 is not equal
this does not satisfy
zero,

the third equation.

Therefore, a reciprocal
lossless thre
matched.
Junction cannot be perfectly

an insertion loss of1I dE

three-port circulator has
Example 6.18 OA the S-matrix.
1.5. Find
tion 30 dB and VSWR
=

Solution
circulator is
The S-matrix of a three-port

Su S2 S13
S]=S21 S22 S23
S32 S33
Insertion loss =1 dB = - 20 log IS21

or, 1S= 10-2 =0.89

For the same insertion loss between ports 1 and 2, 2 and 3, 3 and 1, IS,l=
= IS1sl= 0.89.
The isolation between the ports is 30 dB = - 20 log IS3

or, IS= 10020 =10715= 0.032

= IS2= IS12
Since VSWR S= 1.5, reflection coefficient

S-1 15-1
S+1 15+1=0.2 =1S,
By placing relerence
1S2 =1S33 meterszen
planés suitably to make the phase of >-pau
0.200 0.032 0890
S= 0890 0.200
0.032
0.032 -0890 0.200
 B. Isolators which(produces
duces a min
device

An isolator is two-port,
non-reciprocal
highatten mum
tenuation to wav
a
propagation in one direction and
a
very
al source and
signal. ation im
inserted between
opposite directionThus When
transmitted to
the load
and any reflected
Jwer fre
be
nates 1nis eiminates var
àil the signal power can

generator output port. variations

the load is not fed back tothe due to changing loads.
and frequency pulling (a xb) Oner.
SOurce power output
in a rectangular waveguide
be constructed
An
obtained
isolator can
mode
dominantby
shown
establishing
as in Fig. 6.34. The non-reciprocal
characterie
a steady magnetic field Ho in the y direction d placi-
haracteristics
planes x X near and nd parall to
=
parallel
of the longitudinal ti
a ferrite slab at any field exhibits circular nolae
narrow waveguide wall,
where the magnetic lansali
This occurs at x = al4 or, 3a/4.
direction, direction of rotation of u
For the propagation of waves in +2
to each other. The non-recine
the planes at x = al4 and 3a14 are opposite proca
characteristic is achieved by placing a ferrite slab at any one of these two plan
The required steady state magnetic field Ho in the y-direction is establishedh
placing permanent magnetic poles between the two broad walls.

X Ho
Ferrite
slabs

Fig. 6.34
It is known that Waveguide isolator
polarisation is very thelattenuation in ferrite for
Polarisatto is very small whereas for
pplarisatoT
the fermite slab is large
negative/clockWl
at and near the positive/counter clockwise ci
wise circulk

placed in such way resonance clockwi refore

circular polarisation
be equal to the
in the
a
reverse
that while frequency
transmission
cyf Jo The
f =fo.
it encoUn a
=
egarie

resonant value. The

direction. The steady gnetic field is setsel s
backward direction
irection and isolation
andaatransmicei nofof the order of R in magnetic
be achieved with a transmission loss of 0.5 dB in the
VSWR of the 20-30 d
Since the reverse powe is
order of 1.l. forw directio
rwarddirection
forward
aximum power handling absorbed in the ferrite
pacity of heat dissipation, capability
e a t ,h e

two ferrite
of an
isolator dissipated
and dissipated as
as
a n
is limited. To increa
T e a s et h e

one with a larger height. slabs of

smaller heightsare
are uusedin
 T h erequirelile
agieUC lield (10,000 OersiCu
drawback
a i n drav of waveguide resonance isolator at higher frequencies.
dthe

day Rotation Isolator

Faraday
arrotation isolator is a circular waveguide section axially loaded with a
rotation isolator

of smaller diameter
as shown in Fig.
A F a r a d a y

f e r r i t erood
6.35.
The ferrite rod is súbjected to a
Bo steady axial magnetic field H, of
Resistive
card
strength much smaler than the reso-
Ferriterod
nant intensity so that dissipative loss
in the ferrite is neglected. The domi-
4 5 °t w i s t nant TEu mode in the circular sec-
tion can be decomposed into two op-

45
positely rotating circularly polarised
45 waves of equal magnitude. These
waves encounter different permea-
bilities and _ for the clockwise
and anticlockwise directions of field
45°
45 rotation and exhibit changes in the
phase velocities. This will result in a
change in the plane of polarisation
of the main mode 7TE, which will

Fig. 6.35 Faraday

rotation experience gradual rotation 6 during
propagation to the other end. The
isolator
rotation angle 0is proportional to the
the direction of rotation
for the reverse wave
length of the ferrite rod. In this case characteristics of the ferrite.
remains the same confirming the non-reciprocal
The isolator input is a 45° twist where a tapered'
resistive card is mounted
The dominant TE10
parallel to the broad wall of the rectangular waveguide part. at 45° at the twist
transmission and is rotated
DOE does not get attenuated while

uplul and enters the circular waveguide through

rectangular to circular waveguide
rod is selected so as to
as the TE mode. The length of the ferrite
On and regain its original polarisation.
ain Faraday rotation =45° at the output wave from the
load is again rotated by
polarisation of the reflected
plane of the 45° twist becomes
same ang 6= 45° and at the emergence through
e angle plate and gets absorbed. Thus,
non-
aligned
ith with the surface
sui of the absorbing
insertion loss and isolation are
procal isolation
isolation ao
action lakes place. Typical
cal for these isolators. Isolators are
alapprox tely 1dB and 20-30 dB, respectively,
available in the coaxial and microstrip forms.
For an ideal lossless, matched isolator
(6.117-1)
0
Sayl= 1, ISl IS}l 1S,l
=
= =

1., o o (6.117-2)
Example 6.19 A matched isolator has
insertion loss of 0.5 JB and a
isolation of 25 dB. Find the scattering coefficients.
Solution
Insertion loss =0.5 dB = -

20 log IS2l
105/20 =
10-0025
or, S2 =

The isolation is 25 dB = -20 log IS,12

S12 102/20= 10-1.2
or,
Since there is no reflection, S, = S22 = 0. Therefore, the S-matrix for the :

is
isola
0 10-12
IS=10-0025 0
Microstrip Isolator
A microstrip isolator can be formed by match terminating one port of a 3-Dr
circulator. Several termination methods are described with the
help a
Fig. 6.36(a-d).
Method 1 A chromium layer is
deposited on ferrite
for adherence. A tapered Cr film of 0.6" initially in all circuit
long with a
surface impedence of 27
ohmtermination gives VSWR <1.2 over the frequency
range 5.5-11.0 GHz.

50 ohms 377 377 ohms

-0.6
Fig. 6.36 (a)
Method 2 Initial Cr adheren
50 ohm square
1s done as Method 1. Then the Cr
Cr resistive film acts as a
lumped 50 ohm resis
which is terminated in a
qua
50 ohm line oc 1 wavelength open circuit impedenat
This arrangement provide VSWR:
o.055 1.2 over the angef.
6.0 GHz. frequency rang
Fig.6.36 (b) Method 3 edn
A 50 ohm
sistor shunt mounted across
lump
line and
An isolator iin MIC form terminated ya short
natch having a narrow on
ferrite substrate
O Territe end
The dc magnetic field isransverse plot and cornercan be des
applied
esigned with a 6.36
designed tringun
witn 36(0
perpendicular to thecutssubstshown as
strate nlane, For
For
X-ba
6.4.188 Directional Couplers
ivedevice
commonly used for coupling
A directional coupler is a four-port
known fraction of the microwave power to port
a (coupled port) in the aui
line from the input port to the output main
port in the main line
line. The
while flowing and matched terminated. There ar'he
are three
port is an ideally isolated port
maining aperture waveguide
is a multiple
the thirdype
directional couplers. One
basic types of and the
or microstrip line,
second one is a coupled coaxial,
of strip one third
the in Fig. O.38.
shown schematically
is branch line couplers as
A

Pa P
Pa P4
P
P
P 2
Pr
(b)
P2
1
(a)

Fig. 6.38 Directional couplers (a) Waveguide (b) Stripline

established by Bethe', using a
The theory of the waveguide coupler was first
single hole in the common broad wall of two rectangular waveguides, commonly
known as Bethe-hole directional coupler. Practical waveguide directional cou-
plers are multihole couplers in which the desired coupling response vs frequency
can be achieved by proper selection of the number of holes and size of the holes
Waveguide couplerS are forward couplers since the coupled power in the anct
lary guide flows in the same direction as the input power in the main gudk.
the
whereas coaxial, strip and microstrip
cause the coupled energy travels in the
couplers are
backward couplers be
flow.
opposite direction of the input encg
The performance of a directional
coupler is measured in terms of four bu
parameters, 1.e., coupling (C), transmission loss (T).
return loss (R) when all the directivity (D), anu
ports are matched. These are defined as
C(dB) =
10
log P,/Pa (6.119
T dB) 10 =
log P,/P2
DdB) 10 log PalP3
=
(6.119)

R
where P's are (dB)=
10 log
P,/P, (6.120)

the powers at the ports shown

Waveguide Directional Coupler Fig. 6.38.
A
in
waveguide directional
together through one coupler commonly consists of
(Bethe-hole) of two
two waveguides
coupled

common broad wall

as shown in
or a number
Fia
of
6
waveguhole)
small openings
10 m
in® 2ole)in a
 d
2r0
3

2
(a)

P
C C_C2 C2 C3 C3 Cn-2 Cn-2 Cn-1 C1Cn C
CR
YY

Matched terminated

(b)

Bethe-hole coupler
Fig. 6.39 Waveguide directional couplers: (a)
(b) Multihole coupler

hole broad
A.Bethe-hole coupler The Bethe-hole coupler is a single
waveguide coupler, where the hole is located at the centre
al aperture coupled
inclined at an angle 6, or at an offset
a Common broad wall of two waveguides the aperture is
d of waveguides as shown in Fig. 6.39(a). If
Pon two parallel
be considered as an electric dipole
Compared to the wavelength, it can
moment proportional to the normal compo-
the aperture with dipole
ent electric field in the main guide at the aperture, plus magnetic
a dipole
ininthe
the moment proportional to the tangential
plane of the aperture with dipole The coupling to the
Componern of the exciting magnetic field at the aperture.
these dipoles. The electric dipole radiates
guide is due to radiation from radiates
the directions longitudinally. But the magnetic dipole
mDOth directions. By varying the angle 0
between the
mmetrically
waveguides, longitudinal
wO wCally in
the distance d, powers in Port 3 and Port 4 can
be Co ides, or by adjusting whereas that at
Port3
ontrolled.t Ideal
maxid. Ideally, poweratianal
S maximum at Port4 can be zero (isolated)
cqunling
 Microwave Filters

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Microwave filters are two-port, reciprocal, passive, linear
devices which ch attenu
ate heavily the unwanted
signal freaquencies while permitting
itting transmissi
transmission
wanted frequencies. There are three of
types construction of filters-a reflee of
filter which consists of capacitive and inductive elements filters-a reflective
reflection loss in the pass band and producing ideallu-
very high attenuation in the stop
sorptivefilters which dissipate the unwanted band o
signal, and a lossy signal internally and pass the wante
filter
which uses lossy material in the filter to produce
loss in the
rejected signal but low loss to the wanted heavy
scribes mainly the reflective
microwave
signal. This chapter de.
elements. The practical filters have filters constructed from purely reactive
a small
and a small
signal output in the attenuationnon-zero
or
attenuation in the pass band
resistive losses in reactive stop band due to the
elements and presence of
ter is
in most
designed to operate between resistivepropagating medium. A microwave fil-
source and load
microwave systems. impedances of 50 ohm
filter is assumed to be Mostly reactive elements L and C are used and the
lossless with its nominal
R For basic filter characteristic resistive impedanne
Here, some special theory the readers may refer
features and design are fundamental books on Til
8.2 FILTER PARAMETERS described.
In
designing filter, the
a
. Pass-band width following important parameters are red.
2.
Stop-band attenuation and generally col
3.
Input and
4. Return Jossoutput
5. Insertion loss
impedancesfrequencies
6. Group delay
The most
given in termsimportant
of parameters among
a basic block the insertion loss vs the aboveC1S
is the
the amplitude
r e s p o n s e

diagram of filter fed frequency ampi sho

characteristicS.
8.1 shows
a
haracteristics. Figu
byy a generator
and termina oy aa l0a0
lo
terminatea by
 incident power at the tiler input, P, is the reflected power, P IS
theincident
,p.be o n to the
on to
the loa
load. The insertion loss of the filter is then defined by.
on
to
sed
p a s s e d

Ower m a t c h
condition (R,
=
R),
AT.load Pi

Generator
Filter Load

PL
P-P
A filter between a generator and a load
Fig. 8.1

10 log- = 10 log =
10log (8.1)
IL(dB) =
1-
P-P
reflection coefficient
the filter is lossless and Tis voltage
the
P-P,ifthe
P=P-P,
P=
here
ll T=P/P:
grenby of the filter is defined by
he return loss
10 log
(8.2)
RL (dB) = 10 log =

the input port.

the of impedance matching at
amount
to de-
hich quantifies the multi-frequency or pulsed signals
is important for
The group delay from delay over a constant group
or deviation
LEmine the frequency dispersion
band and is defined by
ien frequency
(8.3)
Ta 2T df
d o ,

Iere o, is the transmission phase. band-

microwave filters
are the low-pass, high-pass,
Ine most commonly used of these filters along
The electrical equivalent circuits
Pass and band-stop filters. characteristics are
shown in Fig. 8.2.
typical insertion loss response

TTTTEI

L IL
IL IL

(b) (c) (d)

(a)
circuits of filters and
Fig. 8.2 Electrical equivalent
their
(a) low-pass (b)
responses: high-pass (c) band
pass (d) band-stop
eYuency CIlalt banas
e filters are synthesised or designed most preferably.
satisnwav
f ei l
Irom Wnicn Une

5 . 1P r o
ototype Low-pass Design by Insertion Loss
rototype

Method

off
RasCGesigno microwave filters of
types low-pass, band-pass and band-stop,
erating
a la r b i arbitrary
arbitrary frequency
frequen bands and between arbitrary resistive loads, are
prototype low-pass design through some frequency transformation,
e T
kment
normalis: alisation and the simulation of these elements by means of sections
nent
microwave t r a n s ; ve transmission line. In this method, a physically realisable network
mised that
n t
that will give the desired insertion loss vs frequency characteris-
h e s i s e d

s consists of the following steps:

Thismethod
Design of a prototype low-pass filter with the desired pass band charac-
teristics.
, Transformation of this prototype network to the required type (low-pass,
hich-pass,
band-pass, or band-stop) filter with the specified centre and
band-edge frequencies.
3.Realisation of the network in microwave form by using sections of micro-
wave transmission lines whose reactances correspond to those of distrib-
uted circuit elements.
where the element values are
Figure 8.5 shows a prototype low-pass circuit such as Butterworth
diesigned from standard low-pass response approximations
or Maximally flat or binomial) pass
band response and Chebyshev (or equal
filter derived from these
ipple) pass-band response. In the basic prototype termination resistance r
and
approximations, the angular cut-off frequency o,
Te both normalised to unity. The Butterworth
and Chebyshev response charac-
enistics are shown in Fig. 8.6 and are described in the following paragraphs.
gn-2 In
g2 94 gn-1

9n+1
gn+1 gn-1T
goz 91 93 95

n-even
n-odd

Fig. 8.5 Prototype low-pass filter

Butterworth response Insertion loss approximation for a low-pass

Bututterworth
s filter prototype is expressed by
IL = 1 +a " ; o = olo, (8.12)
t h e pass band ranges from = 0 10 0= 0. Butterworth approximation
AnDits a flat response in the pass-band and a monotonically increasing attenua-
n n the stop band. The maximum insertion loss in the pass band is 3 dB at o
nat a= 1. The rate of increase of the insertion loss for w> o, depends on the
Aponent 2n, which in turn is related to the number of filter sections used in a
filter network or n reacuve elemens,
Lx ICpresents an insertin
frequency , = 0/o, in the stop band. ertion loss at
Chebyshev Response gi a

The approximation for a

low-pass Chebyshev prototype
type is exXnr
IL 1+am T (o); 0=
where denotes the degree of
n
=
olo expressed by
and a, is the ripple factor.
approximation (1.e., num
number of reans:
T, () is the Chebyshev polynomial
amial of cive elemer
of deproen
T1)=x, degree
degreenn

T,(x) =2-1, gigivvenen

Tx) = 4x' -3x,
Tx) =8x-8+1

T,)=2T)-7,-2)
=
(n cos x) for xSlports and
cos

cosh (n cosh x) for

=

where x= ø. x>I stop band

The insertion loss oscillates between I and 1+ain 8.14
becomes 1+aat the
cut-off
cut-off (stop band w> 1) at a frequency a, and increases
the pass-ban
filter. L,
much faster rate as monotonically
compared with the Buterbeve
represents insertion loss at a frequency
ILA
=
0/o in the stop banrwont
ILA
---
Lx
1+a
1+am
(a) = 1
(b)
Fig. 8.6 Butterworth and
(a) Butterworth Chebyshev IL responses:
The element (b) Chebyshev
values of
Chebyshev responses for
low-pass ladder
the network
derived from
and load resistance normalised values Butterwortn
r
unity, can be calculatedof cut-off angular frequency o-
=

Butterworth prototype element from the following

equau
values
8 1= 8n+1 for n
all
8A= 2 sin [(2k- 1) t/2n], k
Chebyshev prototype element 1, 2, =
n (8.15
values ..,

8,I for all n

82p,/sinh (B/2n)
8 4Pk- P k
8k-j K=2,3, 4,.. n
k-i
8n+11 for nodd
=
coth (B/4) for evenn 810
 P=Sin (2k-1 k= 1,2,3, ..r
Were;
2n n

a, =
sinh(B/2n) + sin-(kr/n), k =1,2,..
B In [coth (A,/17.37)1; A in dB
(8.17)
Here,A,,i s:the
the rippleheig
ripple height ar The values of g, can be obtained from tables
=

below
w.
gaven
as
d
Table .1
.. 8.1 Values of gk for Butterworth filter (IL = 3 dB ato'= 1)
n

2 3 4 5 6 7
1
2.0 1.414 1.0 0.7654 0.618 0.5176 0.445
1.0 1.414 2.0 1.8480 1.618 1.4140 1.247
1.000 1.0 1.8480 2.000 1.9320 1.802
1.0 0.7654 1.618 1.9320 2.000
1.0000 0.618 1.4140 1.802
1.000 0.5176 1.247
1.0000 0.445

Values of g for Chebyshev filter 0.1 dB ripple

Table 8.2
n

4 6 7
2 3
1.1468 1.1681 1.1811
0.8430 1.0315 1.1468
0.3052 1.4228
1.3061 1.3712 1.4039
1.0000 0.6220 1.1474
1.0315 1.7703 1.9750 2.0562 2.0966
1.3554
1.0000 0.8180 1.3712 1.5170 1.5733
1.3554 1.1468 1.9029 2.0966
1.0000 0.8618 1.4228
1.3554 1.1811

0.2 dB ripple

6 7
4
2 3
1.3598 1.3722
3028 1.3394
0.4342 1.0378 1.2275 1.3370 1.3632 1.3781
1.2844
1.0000 0.6745 1.1525 2.2756
1.5386 1.2275 2.9761
2.1660 2.2934
1.5001
1.3370 1.4555
1.0000 0.8468 2.2756
1.3394 2.0974
1.5386
0.8838
1.3761
1.0000
1.3722
1.5386
 4 5
k 2 3 6
1.4029 1.5963 1.6703 1.7058 1.7254
0.6986 1.1926 1.2296 1.2479
1.0000 0.7071 1.0969
1.5963 2.3661 2.5408
1.9841 2.6064
1.0000 0.8419 1.2296 1.3137
4 1.9841 1.7058 2.4758
1.0000 0.8696 2.16
1.9841 .25
7 1.730
Transformations from Protot
8.5.2 Filter
high-pass, band-pass and band-ctom e
In order to design actual low-pass,
prototype filters with normalised cut-off
filters,
transformations of the low-pass

having the source and load

resistance of l ohm are rmoe
nto te
requen
= and with required source and load impedanc
1 type
desired using frequency
and i
This procedure is described below.
pedance transformations.
Low-pass Filters
For the design of a loss-pass filter from the low-pass prototype response n
param
eters, frequency scaling is required to change the normalised cut-off frequene
absolute cut-off frequency o, by dividing all inductances and capacitances bye
without altering the resistances. Impedance scaling is done by changing the soura
and load resistances from1 to R, (with R = Rg), multiplying all resistancesg
inductances by R, and dividing all capacitances by R. The above two scalins
are done simultaneously. Thus, the actual low-pass filter element values are

C
C 8k farad (8.18
21 fe ZL
L= henry (8.19

High-pass Filters
The low-pass prototype network is transformed into a
forming series inductances into series high-pass filter Dy tran Lnt
shunt inductances capacitances and shunt capacia
using the frequency transformation
(8.20

where @, and oare the band

filter. The element values edge and variable angular frequenciesO the highu
are

1
C 8& Z
(8200

(627
KandpasSs prototype to a
prototy

(8.23)
l o w - p a s s

onsormatiothe
s f o m a t i o n

n
i s u s e d :

-f
bandwidth,
and
variable frequency
centre frequency,
h ofandf- are band limits.
are the
frequency inductances and shunt ca
and/ to series
t oely, and/j
s p e c i u
v e l ya n

frequency
d
t r a n s t o r m a t i o n

p p l y i n g
the prototype gives
llow-pass
ow

APe of the
the
oft
(8.24)
27- 2
d series elements
plcitances

Pries-tune
C
LSk 21 (f2 - f)

ed shunt elements (8.25)

Shunt-tuned.

L = 2
27( - f Z . C 27- f Z
(8.26)

where, LC by
Band-stop F i l t e r s is given
prototype
to band-stop
from low-pass (8.27)
transformation
The
Joflfo-fols)
filter. Here
o8.27 are
- defined as in
a band-pass
values
element
used in Eq. circuit with
quantities
where all the
shunt-tuned
into
inductance is
mapped
a
(8.28)
series Jo
2T(f-f) Z2
8
values
series-tuned
circuit with element
and shunt
capacitance
into a (8.29)
1
C, 27(f2-f)8
2

a summarized
8.3.
in Table
are
The above results Filter element values
Table 8.3
Band-pass Band-stop
Low-pasSS
High-pass
filter filter
Proto- filter elements elements
filter elements
ype elements L L(@2-o)
element
8kL C 8 ZL L (@2 0 )
Series arm 8k
wS
C w2-0 C.Z 8 S& Z (02 @ )

Z
Sk
Shunt arm gk C Z 8k

C. = k{02 -@ Z
wZ L 8k2-01)