Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Reproduction in Organisms
Asexual Reproduction
● The period through which a certain organism lives is known
as its life span.
● Reproduction is the process by which every organism
ensures its continuity.
● It is the process through which organisms produce young
ones, which in turn mature to give rise to their young ones.
● Reproduction can be:
○ Asexual − Only one individual is involved
○ Sexual − Two individuals (male and female) are
involved
Asexual Reproduction
● In this type, a single parent can produce offspring.
● The produced offspring are clones of each other (i.e.,
identical to each other and to the parent).
● It is commonly seen in unicellular organisms belonging to
protista and monera.
● Here, the cell division itself is the mode of reproduction.
Means of Asexual Reproduction
● Binary Fission
− In this process, the cell divides into
halves, and each half develops into an adult (example:
Amoeba
,
Paramecium)
.
● Budding
− In this process, the cell divides unequally to
form buds, which remain attached to the parent initially, and
then detach and develop into a mature cell (example:
yeast).
● Formation of specialized structures
○ Conidia − (Example:
Penicillium)
○ Gemmules − (Example: Sponges)
○ Buds − (Example:
Hydra
)
○ Zoospores − Microscopic, motile spores (Example:
Algae)
● Vegetative propagation
− It means of asexual
reproduction in plants. Different structures are capable of
giving rise to new plants.
○ Runner − (Example: Gladiolus)
○ Rhizome − (Example: Ginger)
○ Sucker
○ Tuber − (Example: Potato)
○ Offset
○ Bulb − (Example: Onion)
Sexual Reproduction: PreFertilisation Events
● Sexual reproduction involves the formation of the male and
female gametes in either the same individual or two
individuals. These gametes fuse to form a zygote, which
develops into a new individual.
● Offspring are not identical to each other or to the parents.
So, sexual reproduction gives rise to diversity among living
organisms.
● All organisms pass through two stages.
○ Juvenile phase − Period of growth; non reproductive
○ Vegetative phase or reproductive phase
● In nonprimate mammals like rats, sheep, dogs, cows and
tigers, the cyclic change in the activities of the ovaries and
the oviduct is called the
oestrus cycle
; in primates like
monkeys, apes and humans, it is called the
menstrual
cycle
.
● Certain mammals are called
continuous breeders
since
they can reproduce throughout their reproductive phase,
while some are called
seasonal breeders
since they can
reproduce only in the favourable seasons.
Events in Sexual Reproduction
● Organisms reproducing sexually exhibit certain events.
These are:
○ Prefertilisation events
○ Fertilisation events
○ Postfertilisation events
PreFertilisation Events
● Events taking place before the fusion of the gametes
● Consist of:
○ Gametogenesis
○ Gamete transfer
Gametogenesis
● Process of formation of gametes (male and female)
● Gametes are haploid
● In some organisms (like algae), they are almost similar
(homo or isogametes), and cannot be categorised as male
and female gametes.
● In others, the two gametes are morphologically and
physiologically different (heterogametes), and are of two
types—antherozoid or sperm (male gamete) and egg or
ovum (female gamete).
● In some organisms both the sexes are present in the same
individual (monoecious or homothallic), and in others, they
are present in two individuals (dioecious or heterothallic).
In a unisexual flower, the male flower is called staminate and
the female flower is called pistillate.
● Gamete formation takes place by cell division.
In haploid parents, it is by mitosis; in diploid parents, it is by
meiosis, with specialised cells called meiocytes undergoing
meiosis.
.
Gamete Transfer
● For their fusion to take place, the gametes need to be
transferred.
● In most organisms, the male gametes are motile, while the
female gametes are nonmotile, and the male gametes need
a medium for their movement. A large number of male
gametes do not make it to the female gamete, and hence,
several thousands of male gametes are produced to
overcome this loss.
● In angiosperms, the pollen grain carries the male gamete
and the ovule carries the female gamete.
● Pollen grains are produced in the anther and need to be
transferred to the stigma for fertilisation to occur. This is
easy in monoecious plants as both the anther and the
stigma are present close by; in dioecious plants, it takes
place by pollination.
Sexual Reproduction: Fertilisation Events
● Fertilisation is the most important event in sexual
reproduction.
● This process is also called
syngamy
and leads to the
formation of the zygote.
● However, in some organisms, zygote formation takes place
without fertilisation, and is known as
parthenogenesis
(occurs in rotifers, honeybees and some lizards).
● In most aquatic organisms and amphibians, fertilisation
takes place outside their body (in the water), and is termed
as
external fertilization
.Their eggs and offspring are
highly vulnerable to predators and this threatens their
survival up to adulthood.
● In most terrestrial organisms, fertilisation is internal, i.e., it
takes place inside the female body. In this process, the male
gamete is motile and reaches the female gamete to fuse
with it, thereby forming zygote. Male gametes are produced
in large numbers.
Sexual Reproduction: PostFertilisation Events
● Events taking place after fertilisation are called
postfertilisation events.
Zygote
● The haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote in all
organisms.
● In external fertilisation, a zygote is formed in an external
medium, and in internal fertilisation, a zygote is formed
inside the individual.
● The development of a zygote depends upon the life cycle of
an organism and its surroundings. In some organisms, the
zygote does not develop immediately, and develops a thick
wall around itself. This wall is resistant to damage and
desiccation.
Embryogenesis
● It is the process of development of the embryo from the
zygote.
● The zygote undergoes cell division and differentiation.
● Cell division increases the number of cells of the embryo,
and cell differentiation helps the cells undergo modifications
to form specialised tissues and organs.
● Animals can be grouped into two categories based on how
and where the development of the zygote takes place. These
categories are:
○ Oviparous
− The fertilised egg is covered by a
calcareous shell and is released into the outside
environment. The development takes place inside the
egg and the young one hatches out (example: birds
and reptiles).
○ Viviparous
− The development of the zygote takes
place inside the female body, and the developed young
one is delivered outside (example: mammals, including
humans).
● In flowering plants, the zygote is formed inside the ovule.
○ Zygote Develops into
→ Embryo
→
○ Ovule Develops into
→ Seed
→
○ Ovary Develops into
→ Fruit
→ Contains
→ Seeds
→ →
Disperse and germinate to form new plants
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
PreFertilisation Events
● Several hormonal and structural changes result in the
development of a flower.
● Inflorescences bear the flower buds, and then the flowers.
● Flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant.
● In the flowers, the androecium (male reproductive part) and
the gynoecium (female reproductive part) develop.
Androecium
● The androecium consists of whorls of stamen.
● The stamen consists of the
filament
(long and slender
stalk) and
anther
(bilobed structure).
● Filament is attached to the thalamus or to the petal.
● Anther
:
○ A typical anther is bilobed and each lobe is dithecous
(consists of two theca).
○ Theca are separated by a longitudinal groove running
lengthwise.
○ The microsporangia are located at the corners, two in
each theca. They further develop to form pollen sacs,
which contain the pollen grains.
● Structure of microsporangium
○ The microsporangium is surrounded by four wall layers
(epidermis, endothecium, middle layers, and tapetum).
○ The outer three layers are protective and help in
dehiscence of anther to release the pollen grains. The
tapetum provides nourishment to the developing pollen
grains.
○ In the young anther, the sporogenous tissue forms the
centre of each microsporangium.
Microsporogenesis
● It is the process of formation of microspore from PMC (Pollen
Mother Cells).
● As development occurs in the anther, the sporogenous
tissue undergoes meiosis to form microspore tetrad.
● Each cell of sporogenous tissue has capacity to give rise to a
tetrad. Hence, each cell is a potential pollen or PMC.
● As the anther matures, the microspores get detached from
each other and develop into pollen grains.
Pollen grains
● Represent the male gamete and are spherical, having a
twolayered wall:
○ Exine (outer) − Hard layer made of sporopollenin,
which is extremely resistant and can withstand high
temperatures, acidic and alkaline conditions, and
enzymes
○ Intine (inner) − Thin and continuous layer made up of
cellulose and pectin
● Mature pollen grain contains two cells:
○ Vegetative cell − Large with irregular nucleus, contains
food reserves
○ Generative cell − Small and floats in the cytoplasm of
the vegetative cell
● In 60% of the angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at
2celled stage while in others generative cell undergoes
mitosis to form two male gametes (3celled stage).
● The viability of pollen grains after they are shed depends
upon temperature and humidity. It ranges from 30 minutes
to few months.
Gynoecium and Formation of Female Gametophyte
● The gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of a
flower.
● It may be monocarpellary (one pistil) or multicarpellary
(many pistils). In multicarpellary, the pistils may be fused
in one (syncarpous) or free (apocarpous).
● Each pistil consists of:
○ Stigma
− Receives the pollen grains
○ Style
− Elongated, slender part below the stigma
○ Ovary
− Bulged basal part containing the placenta,
which is located inside the ovarian locule (cavity)
○ The placenta contains the megasporangia or ovules.
Megasporangium
● The ovule is attached to the placenta by the
funicle
. The
junction of the ovule and the funicle is called
hilum
.
● Each ovule has one or two protective layers, called
integuments
, which cover the rest of the ovule, except for
a small opening called
micropyle
.
● The
chalaza
lying on the opposite side of the micropyle end
represents the basal part of the ovule.
● Nucellus
is present within the integuments and contains
reserved food. The
embryo sac
or female gametophyte is
located within the nucellus.
Megasporogenesis
● The
megaspore mother cell
(MMC) gets converted into
megaspores by the process of megasporogenesis.
● The MMC is large and contains a dense cytoplasm and a
prominent nucleus. It undergoes meiosis to produce four
megaspores.
Female Gametophyte
● In most flowering plants, only one megaspore is functional
while the other three degenerate.
● The single functional megaspore develops into the female
gametophyte. This kind of development is called monosporic
development.
● The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically
to form 2 nuclei, which move towards the opposite ends,
forming a 2nucleate embryo sac. Two more mitotic divisions
ensue, leading to the formation of 4nucleate and 8nucleate
embryo sacs.
● After the 8nucleate stage, the cell walls are laid down and
the typical female gametophyte (embryo sac) gets
organised.
● Six of the 8nuclei get surrounded by the cell wall and the
remaining two, called
polar nuclei
, are situated below the
egg apparatus in the large
central cell
.
● Three of the six cells are placed at the micropylar end and
constitute the
egg apparatus
(2
synergids
+ 1
egg cell
).
● The synergids have special thickenings at the micropylar
end. These are together called the
filiform apparatus
. It
helps in leading the pollen tubes into the synergids.
● Three cells are at the chalazal end, and are called
antipodal
cells
.
● A typical angiosperm female gametophyte is 7celled and
8nucleated at maturity.
Pollination
● It is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther
to the stigma.
● Depending on the source of pollen, pollination can be divided
as follows:
○ Autogamy
− It is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma of the same flower. Autogamy
requires the anther and the stigma to lie close. It also
requires synchrony in the pollen release and stigma
receptivity.
Plants like
Viola
,
Oxalis
, etc., produce two kinds of
flowers—
chasmogamous flowers
(with exposed
anther and stigma) and
cleistogamous flowers
(which do not open at all and only autogamy occurs).
○ Geitonogamy
− It is the transfer of pollens from the
anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower in
the same plant. Genetically, it is similar to autogamy,
but it requires pollinating agents.
○ Xenogamy
− It is the transfer of pollen grains from
the anther to the stigma of a different plant. Pollination
causes genetically different types of pollens to be
brought to a plant.
Agents of Pollination
● Plants use air, water (abiotic agents) and animals (biotic
agents) for pollination.
● Pollination by wind
○ It is the most common form of abiotic pollination.
○ Plants possess wellexposed stamens and large,
feathery stigma.
○ Pollens should be light and nonsticky to be carried
easily by winds.
○ Windpollinated flowers often have single ovule in the
ovary and numerous flowers packed in an
inflorescence.
○ It is common in grass.
● Pollination by water
○ It is rare in flowering plants, except for some aquatic
plants like
Vallisneria
and
Hydrilla.
○ In most waterpollinated plants, the pollen grains are
long and ribbonlike, and are protected from wetting by
mucilaginous covering.
○ In a majority of water plants like water hyacinth and
water lily, flowers emerge above the water level and
are pollinated by insects.
● Pollination by animals
○ Majority of flowering plants use butterflies, bees, wasps
etc., for pollination.
○ Most of the insectpollinated flowers are large,
colourful, fragrant, and contain nectar to attract the
animal pollinators. These are called floral rewards.
○ Floral reward can be in the form of providing safe
places to lay eggs (example: the tallest flower,
Amorphophallus
)
○ A symbiotic relationship exists between the plant,
Yucca
and its pollinator moth. The moth is dependent
on the plant since the moth deposits its eggs in the
locule of the ovary of the plant, and in return, the plant
is pollinated by the moth.
○ The pollen grains are sticky and get stuck to the body
of the pollinator.
Out Breeding Devices
● Repeated self pollination leads to inbreeding depression.
● Plants have developed methods to prevent self pollination.
Autogamy is prevented by following ways:
○ Pollen release and stigma receptivity not coordinated
○ Different positioning of the anther and the stigma
○ Production of unisexual flowers
● Ways to prevent both autogamy and geitonogamy:
○ Presence of male and female flowers on different
plants, such that each plant is either male or female
(dioecy).
○ This mechanism is present in several species of papaya.
Pollen−Pistil Interactions
● Pollination does not always ensure the transfer of compatible
pollens.
● Hence, the pistil has the ability to recognise the right type of
pollen to promote post pollination events.
● If the pollen is of the wrong type, the pistil prevents pollen
germination.
● This interaction is mediated by chemical components of the
pollen and the pistil.
● Pollen−pistil interaction is a dynamic process involving
pollen recognition, followed by promotion or inhibition of the
pollen.
● The pollen tube reaches the ovary and enters the ovule
through the micropyle. Then, through the filiform apparatus,
it reaches synergids. In this way, the pollen tube grows.
Artificial Hybridisation & Double Fertilisation
Artificial Hybridisation
● It is a method to improve crop yield.
● In this method, it is essential to ensure that the right kinds
of pollen grains are used, and the stigma is protected from
unwanted pollen grains. It is achieved by:
○ Emasculation − The anther is removed from the bud if
the female parent bears bisexual flowers.
○ Bagging − The emasculated flower is covered by a bag
so as not to allow contamination of the stigma by
unwanted pollen grains.
● When the stigma of the bagged flower becomes receptive,
the collected pollen grains are dusted onto the stigma, and
then the flower is rebagged.
● If the female parent is unisexual, emasculation is not
necessary. In this case, the female bud is directly bagged,
and when the stigma turns receptive, suitable pollen grains
are dusted onto it so as to allow germination.
Double Fertilisation
● When the pollen grains fall on the stigma, the pollen tube
enters one of the synergids and releases two male gametes.
● One of the male gametes moves towards the egg cell and
fuses with it to complete the
syngamy
to form the
zygote
.
● The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei and
forms triploid
primary endosperm nucleus (PEN)
. This is
termed as
triple fusion
.
● Since two kinds of fusion—syngamy and triple fusion—take
place, the process is known as double fertilisation, and is
characteristic of flowering plants.
● After triple fusion, the central cell becomes the primary
endosperm cell (PEC).
● The primary endosperm nucleus gives rise to the
endosperm, while the zygote develops into the embryo.
PostFertilisation Events
It includes development of endosperm and embryo, and
maturation of ovules into seeds and ovaries into fruits.
Formation of Endosperm
● The endosperm develops before the embryo because the
cells of the endosperm provide nutrition to the developing
embryo.
● The primary endosperm nucleus repeatedly divides to give
rise to free nuclei. This stage of development is called free
nuclear endosperm.
● Cell wall formation occurs next, resulting in a cellular
endosperm.
● The endosperm may be either fully consumed by the
growing embryo (as in pea and beans) or retained in the
mature seed (as in coconut and castor).
Development of Embryo
● The embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo
sac where the zygote is situated.
● The zygote gives rise first to the proembryo, and then to
the globular, heartshaped, mature embryo.
● A typical
dicot embryo
consists of an embryonal axis and
two cotyledons.
● The portion of the embryonal axis above the level of
cotyledons is called epicotyl. It contains the plumule (shoot
tip). The portion below the axis is called hypocotyl. It
contains the radicle (root tip). The root tip is covered by the
root cap.
● In a
monocot embryo
, there is only one cotyledon. In
grass, it is known as the scutellum, and is situated at one
side of the embryonal axis. At its lower end, the embryonal
axis has the radicle and the root cap enclosed in the
coleorrhiza.
● The epicotyl lies above the level of the scutellum, and has
the shoot apex and leaf primordia enclosed in hollow
structures called coleoptiles.
Seeds and Fruits
Development of Seeds
● It is the last stage of sexual reproduction in angiosperms.
● Seeds are the fertilised ovules that are developed inside a
fruit.
● A seed consists of:
○ Seed coat
○ Cotyledons
○ Embryonal axis
● Seeds may be
albuminous
(endosperm present; as in
wheat and maize) or
nonalbuminous
(endosperm absent;
since it is consumed by the growing embryo; as in pea and
beans).
● Some seeds such as black pepper and wheat have remnants
of nucellus known as
perisperm
.
● The integuments of ovules harden to form the seed coat,
and the micropyle facilitates the entry of oxygen and water
into the seed.
● As it loses moisture, the seed may enter dormancy, or if
favourable conditions exist, it germinates.
Development of Fruits
● The ovary of a flower develops into a fruit.
● The walls of the ovary transform into the walls of the fruit
(pericarp).
● Fruits may be fleshy, as in mango and orange, or can be
dry, as in groundnut and mustard.
● In some plants, floral parts other than the ovary take part in
fruit formation, as in apple and strawberry. In these, the
thalamus contributes to fruit formation. Such fruits are
called
false fruits
. Fruits that develop from the ovary are
called
true fruits
.
● Some fruits develop without fertilisation, and are known as
parthenocarpic fruits
(example: banana).
Apomixis and Polyembryony
● Some plants produce seeds without fertilisation. This process
of seed formation is known as apomixis.
● Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction mimicking sexual
reproduction.
● In some species, apomixis occurs as the diploid egg cell is
formed without meiosis, and develops into embryo without
fertilisation.
● In some varieties of citrus and mango, the nucellus cells
divide and protrude into the embryo sac to develop into
embryos. In such cases, each ovule may contain several
embryos and this condition is called polyembryony.
● Apomixis is important for producing hybrid varieties of fruits
and vegetables, and also for increasing crop yield multifold.
Human Reproduction
Male and Female Reproductive Systems
● Human beings reproduce sexually and are viviparous.
● In humans, the reproductive phase starts after puberty.
● It involves:
○ Gametogenesis
○ Insemination
○ Fertilisation
○ Implantation
○ Gestation
○ Parturition
The Male Reproductive System
● It is located in the pelvic region.
● It consists of:
○ A pair of testes
○ Accessory glands and ducts
○ External genitalia
Testes
● Situated within the
scrotum
, which protects the testes and
also helps in maintaining the temperature.
● Each testis is 4 to 5 cm in length, and 2 to 3 cm in width,
and has about 250 compartments called
testicular lobules
.
● Testicular lobules have
seminiferous tubules
which are the
sites of sperm formation.
● Seminiferous tubules are lined by two types of cells:
○ Male germ cells
− They undergo meiosis to form
sperms.
○ Sertoli cells
− They provide nourishment to the germ
cells.
● Region outside the seminiferous tubules is called the
interstitial space, which contains
Leydig cells
(interstitial
cells). The Leydig cells produce androgens.
Accessory Ducts and Glands
● Accessory ducts include:
○ Rete testis
○ Vasa efferentia
○ Epididymis
○ Vas deferens
● The seminiferous tubules open into the vasa efferentia
through the
rete testis
.
● The vasa efferentia open into the
epididymis
, which leads
to the
vas deferens
. The vas deferens opens into the
urethra along with a duct from the seminal vesicle called the
ejaculatory duct
.
● The ejaculatory duct stores the sperms and transports them
to the outside
● The urethra starts from the urinary bladder, extends through
the penis and opens via the
urethral meatus
.
● Accessory glands include:
○ A pair of seminal vesicles
○ Prostate gland
○ A pair of bulbourethral glands
● The secretions of these glands make up the seminal plasma,
and provide nutrition and a medium of motility to the
sperms.
The Female Reproductive System
● It is located in the pelvic region:
● It includes:
○ A pair of ovaries
○ A pair of oviducts
○ Uterus
○ Cervix
○ Vagina
○ External genitalia
○ Mammary glands (not part of the reproductive system,
but aids in child care)
Ovaries
● They are the primary female sex organs. They produce the
ovum and other ovarian hormones.
● They are located in the lower abdomen, and are 2 to 4 cm in
length.
● They are connected by ligaments to the pelvic walls and to
the uterus.
● Each ovary is covered by epithelium, and contains the
ovarian stroma.
● The ovarian stroma is made up of:
○ Peripheral cortex
○ Inner medulla
Oviducts
● They are also called
fallopian tubes
.
● They are 10 to 12 cm long, and extend from the ovary to
the uterus.
● The part of each oviduct lying towards the ovary is funnel
shaped, and is called
infundibulum
. It has fingerlike
projections called
fimbriae
.
● The infundibulum leads to the ampulla, and then to the
isthmus, which has a narrow lumen opening into the uterus.
Uterus
● It is also called
womb
, and is
pear shaped
.
● It is connected to the pelvic walls by ligaments.
● The uterine wall consists of:
○ External perimetrium
○ Middle myometrium
○ Internal endometrium, which lines the uterine cavity
● The endometrium undergoes changes during the menstrual
cycle.
Cervix and Vagina
● The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina.
● The cervix and the vagina constitute the birth canal.
External Genitalia
● Consists of:
○ Mons pubis − Fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic
hair
○ Labia majora − Extends from mons pubis and
surrounds the vaginal opening
○ Labia minora − Fold of skin beneath the labia majora
○ Hymen − Partially covers the vaginal opening
○ Clitoris − Lies at the junction of labia minora
Mammary Glands
● Present in all female mammals
● It is
paired
and is
glandular
.
● Each breast contains 15 to 20 mammary lobes with
alveoli
which secrete milk.
● The alveoli open into the mammary tubules, which unite to
form a mammary duct.
● Many mammary ducts constitute the mammary ampulla,
which is connected to the
lactiferous duct
.
Gametogenesis
The testis and ovary produce the male and female gametes
respectively by gametogenesis (spermatogenesis in males and
oogenesis in females).
Spermatogenesis
● In males, sperms are produced by the
spermatogonia
(immature germ cells), which are present in the inner walls
of the seminiferous tubules.
● Spermatogonia increase in number by mitosis. These are
diploid.
● Some of the spermatogonia called
primary spermatocytes
periodically undergo meiosis.
● After the first meiotic division, two haploid and equal
secondary spermatocytes
are formed.
● These further undergo meiosis to give rise to four haploid
spermatids.
● These spermatids are converted into sperms by
spermiogenesis.
● The sperm head gets embedded in the Sertoli cells after
spermiogenesis and is released from the seminiferous
tubules by
spermiation.
● Spermatogenesis starts at puberty by the action of the
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), which in turn
causes the release of two gonadotropins called Luteinizing
Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
● LH acts on Leydig cells and causes them to release
androgens, which stimulate the process of spermatogenesis
while the FSH acts on the Sertoli cells, which help in
spermiogenesis.
Structure of a Sperm
● A mature sperm consists of:
○ Head
○ Neck
○ Middle piece
○ Tail
● The whole sperm is enclosed in a plasma membrane.
● The head consists of a haploid nucleus and a caplike
acrosome
, which contains enzymes that aid in fertilisation.
● The middle piece contains several mitochondria, which
produce energy for the motility of the sperm.
● Sperms released by the seminiferous tubules are
transported by the accessory ducts.
● Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and
prostate are essential for maturation and motility of sperms.
Oogenesis
● The ovum is formed by the process of oogenesis.
● It starts during embryonic growth and millions of gamete
mother cells (
oogonia
) are formed in the foetal ovary.
● These cells undergo meiosis, but get temporarily arrested at
the prophase and are called
primary oocytes
.
● Before reaching puberty, a large number of primary oocytes
degenerate and the remaining ones get surrounded by
layers of granulosa cells and new theca and are called
secondary follicles
.
● The secondary follicles are then converted into
tertiary
follicles
that have characteristic fluidfilled cavity called
antrum. At this stage, the primary oocyte present within the
tertiary follicle completes meiosis, which results in the
formation of haploid secondary oocyte and a tiny polar body.
● This tertiary follicle further changes into the
Graafian
follicle
. The secondary oocyte is surrounded by the zone
pellucida.
● Then the Graafian follicle ruptures to release the ovum by
ovulation.
Menstrual Cycle & Fertilisation
● Menstrual cycle is the reproductive cycle in all primates and
begins at puberty (menarche).
● In human females, menstruation occurs once in 28 to 29
days. The cycle of events starting from one menstruation till
the next one is called the
menstrual cycle
.
● During the middle of the menstrual cycle, one ovum is
released (ovulation).
● The cycle starts with the
menstrual flow
(3 to 5 days),
caused due to the breakdown of the endometrium of the
uterus. Blood vessels in liquid state are discharged, but this
occurs only when the ovum is not fertilised.
● It is followed by the
follicular phase
.In this phase, the
primary follicles mature into the Graffian follicles. This
causes the regeneration of the endometrium.
These changes are brought about by ovarian and pituitary
hormones. In this phase, the release of gonadotropins (LH
and FSH) increases. This causes follicular growth and the
growing follicles produce oestrogen.
● The LH and FSH are at their peak in the middle of the cycle
(14 day), and cause the rupture of the Graffian follicles to
th
release ovum. This phase is called the
ovulatory phase
.
● The remains of the Graffian follicles get converted into the
corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone for the
maintenance of the endometrium.
● In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum
degenerates, thereby causing the disintegration of the
endometrium and the start of a new cycle.
● In humans, the menstrual cycle ceases to operate at the age
of 50 years. This phase is known as the
menopause
.
Fertilisation and Implantation
● During coitus, the semen is released into the vagina, passes
through the cervix of the uterus and reaches the
ampullaryisthmic junction of the fallopian tube.
● The ovum is also released into the junction for fertilisation to
occur.
● The process of fusion of the sperm and the ovum is known
as fertilisation.
● During fertilisation, the sperm induces changes in the
zona
pellucida
and blocks the entry of other sperms. This
ensures that only one sperm fertilises an ovum.
● The enzymatic secretions of the acrosomes help the sperm
enter the cytoplasm of the ovum.
● This causes the completion of meiotic division of the
secondary oocyte, resulting in the formation of a haploid
ovum (ootid) and a secondary polar body.
● Then, the haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploid
nucleus of the ovum to form a diploid
zygote
.
● Mitosis starts as the zygote moves through the isthmus of
the oviduct (cleavage) and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells
called
blastomeres
.
● The 8−16 cell embryo is called a
morula
, which continues to
divide to form the
blastocyst
. The morula moves further
into the uterus.
● The cells in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer
trophoblast
and an
inner cell mass
.
● The trophoblast gets attached to the uterine endometrium,
and the process is called implantation. This leads to
pregnancy.
● The inner cell mass gets differentiated to form the embryo.
Pregnancy, Parturition and Lactation
Pregnancy
● After implantation, the trophoblast forms fingerlike
projections called chorionic villi, surrounded by the uterine
tissue and maternal blood.
● The chorionic villi and the uterine tissue get integrated to
form the
placenta
, which helps in supplying the developing
embryo with oxygen and nutrients, and is also involved in
the removal of wastes.
● The placenta is connected to the embryo by the
umbilical
cord
. The placenta acts as an endocrine gland, and
produces the human chorionic gonadotropins, human
placental lactogen, oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin
(later stages of pregnancy).
● These hormones support foetal growth and help in the
maintenance of pregnancy. Hormones like oestrogen,
progestogen, cortisol, prolactin, etc., are increased several
folds in the maternal blood.
● Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass
(embryo) gets differentiated into the ectoderm, mesoderm
and endoderm, which give rise to the different tissues. This
ability of the inner cell mass is due to the presence of
multipotent cells called
stem cells
.
● Most of the major organs are formed at the end of 12 weeks
of pregnancy; during the 5 month, the limbs and body hair
th
are formed; by the 24 week, the eyelids separate and
th
eyelashes are formed. At the end of nine months, the foetus
is fully formed.
Parturition and Lactation
● Human pregnancy has the duration of 9 months. This
duration is called the
gestation period
.
● At the end of this period, vigorous uterine contractions lead
to the delivery of the foetus. This process is called
parturition
.
● Parturition is a neuroendocrine mechanism, and is started
by the signals from the developed foetus and the placenta,
which produce the
foetal ejection reflex
.
● This causes the release of oxytocin from the pituitary, which
causes stronger uterine contractions.
● This leads to the expulsion of the baby along with the
placenta.
● During pregnancy, the mammary glands undergo
differentiation, and milk is produced during the end of
pregnancy.
● The milk produced during the first few days of lactation is
known as
colostrums
.It contains several antibodies that aid
the newborn to develop resistance.
WWW.NCRTSOLUTIONS.IN
INDIA WAS AMONG THE 1ST COUNTRIES TO INITIATE ACTIONS & PLANS TO ATTAIN TOTAL
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AS SOCIAL GOAL.
THESE PROGRAMMES ARE CALLED AS ‘ FAMILY PLANNING’
IMPROVED PROGRAMMES CURRENTLY IN OPERATION HAVE A POPULAR NAME
‘REPRODUCTIVE & CHILD HEALTH CARE PROGRAMMES’ (RCH).
AMNIOCENTESIS
IT IS A TECHNIQUE USED TO FIND OUT CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES IN DEVELOPING EMBRYO BY
USING AMNIOTIC FLUID.
A RAPID DECLINE IN DEATH RATE, MMR & IMR AS AN INCREASE IN NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN
REPRODUCIBLE AGE ARE THE REASON FOR THIS .
CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS:
CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS:
NATURAL METHODS
BARRIERS
IUD
ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES
INJECTABLE IMPLANTS
SURGICAL METHODS
1. NATURAL METHODS:
AVOIDS MEETING OF SPERM & OVUM.
2.BARRIER METHODS:
CONDOMS - THIN RUBBER USED TO COVER PENIS IN MALE OR VAGINA & CERVIX IN FEMALES.
DIAPHRAGMS, CERVICAL CAPS & VALUTS ARE ALL BARRIERS FOR FEMALES TO COVER CERVIX
DURING COITUS.
4. ORAL PILLS:
5. SURGICAL METHOD:
IN FEMALE, IT IS CALLED TUBECTOMY, WHERE A SMALL PART OF THE FALLOPIAN TUBE IS CUT
OR TIED UP.
THIS METHOD IS HIGHLY EFFECTIVE BUT THEIR REVERSIBILITY IS VERY POOR.
WHAT IS MTP?
INTENTIONAL OR VOLUNTARY TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY BEFORE FULL TERM IS CALLED MEDICAL
TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP) OR INDUCED ABORTION.
WHY MTP?
CHLAMYDIASIS
PREVENTION
STDS ARE A MAJOR THREAT TO A HEALTHY SOCIETY. THEREFORE EARLY DETECTION OR PREVENTION
AND CURE OF THESE DISEASES ARE GIVEN PRIME CONSIDERATION UNDER REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH-
CARE PROGRAMMES THOUGH ALL PERSON ARE VULNERABLE TO THESE INFECTIONS, THEIR INCIDENCES
ARE REPORTED TO BE VERY HIGH AMONG THE AGE GROUP OF 15-24YEARS.THESE INFECTIONS CAN BE
PREVENTED BY FOLLOWING A FEW SIMPLE RULES WHICH INCLUDE:
INFERTILITY
A LARGE NO OF COUPLES ALL OVER INDIA ARE INFERTILE, I.E., THEY ARE UNABLE TO PRODUCE
CHILDREN IN SPITE OF UNPROTECTED SEXUAL CO-HABITATION. THE REASONS FOR THIS COULD BE
MANY-PHYSICAL, CONGENITAL, DISEASES, DRUGS, IMMUNOLOGICAL OR EVEN PSYCHOLOGICAL.
ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES (ART) ARE SPECIAL TECHNIQUES THAT ASSIST COUPLES TO
HAVE CHILDREN.
VARIOUS TYPES OF ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES ( ART)INCLUDE:
· IN-VITRO FERTILISATION (IVF)
· ZYGOTE INTRA FALLOPIAN TRANSFER (ZIFT)
· INTRA CYTOPLASMIC SPERM INJECTION(ICSI)
· GAMETE INTRA FALLOPIAN TRANSFER(GIFT)
· ARTIFICAL INSEMINATION (AI)
IT IS THE FERTILIZATION OUTSIDE THE BODY IN ALMOST SIMILAR CONDITIONS AS THAT IN THE BODY. IN
THIS METHOD, POPULARLY KNOWN AS TEST TUBE BABY PROGRAMME, OVA FROM THE WIFE / DONOR
(FEMALE) AND SPERMS FROM THE HUSBAND / DONOR (MALE) ARE COLLECTED AND ARE INDUCED TO
FORM THE ZYGOTE UNDER SIMULATED CONDITIONS IN THE LAB. THE ZYGOTE OR EARLY EMBRYOS
COULD THEN BE TRANSFERRED INTO THE FALLOPIAN TUBE (ZIFT -ZYGOTE INTRA FALLOPIAN
TRANSFER)
IN THE TECHNIQUE, THE SEMEN COLLECTED EITHER FROM THE HUSBAND OR A HEALTHY DONOR IS
ARTIFICIALLY INTRODUCED INTO THE VAGINA OR INTO THE UTERUS (IUI - INTRA UTERINE
INSEMINATION) OF THE FEMALE.
Genetics
Genetics is a branch of biology dealing with inheritance and variation
of characters from parents of offspring.
Inheritance
Process by which characters are passed on from parent to progeny
Variation
Degree by which the progeny differs from its parents
Mendel’s Experiments
● Gregor Johann Mendel known as the father of genetics proposed the
laws of inheritance.
● He used garden pea as his sample.
● Large sampling size gave credibility to his collected data.
● Garden pea plant possessed certain completely opposite traits.
Example − tall and dwarf plants
● He worked on the following
seven
traits of garden pea:
● True breeding pea lines were obtained by continuous self pollination
for several generations.
● Fourteen true breeding pea lines were selected as pairs, which were
similar except for one character with contrasting traits.
● Artificial cross pollination (hybridisation) was performed on such
varieties to obtain first hybrid generation known as the first filial
progeny or F.
1
Inheritance of One Gene
● After hybridisation, the F generation so obtained resembled only one
1
of its parents (say, all tall; no dwarf).
● When 2 plants from F generation were self pollinated, the second filial
1
progeny or F generation was obtained.
2
● Revival of unexpressed trait (dwarf) was observed in some F progeny.
2
Both traits, tall and dwarf, were expressed in F in ratio 3:1.
2
● Mendel proposed that something is being passed unchanged from
generation to generation. He called these things as ‘factors’ (presently
called genes).
● Factors contain and carry hereditary information.
● Alleles − Slightly different form of same factor
Two alleles code for a pair of two contrasting traits. (e.g., tall and dwarf)
Monohybrid Cross
● Cross that considers only a single character (e.g., height of the part)
●
● Studying the cross:
○ TT, tt, and Tt are genotypes while the traits, tall and dwarf, are
phenotypes.
○ T stands for tall trait while t stands for dwarf trait.
○ Even if a single ‘T’ is present in the genotype, phenotype is ‘tall’.
When ‘T’ and ‘t’ are present together, ‘T’ dominates and
suppresses the expression of ‘t’. Therefore, T (for tallness) is
dominant trait while t (for dwarfness) is recessive trait.
○ TT and tt are homozygous while Tt is heterozygous.
○ From the cross, it can be found that alleles of parental pair
separate or segregate from each other and only one allele is
transmitted to the gamete.
○ Gametes of TT will have only T alleles; gametes of tt will have
only t alleles, but gametes of Tt will have both T and t alleles.
● Punnett square
○ Graphical representation to calculate the probability of all
possible genotypes of offsprings in a genetic cross
○ Possible gametes are written on two sides, usually at top row
and left columns, and combinations are represented in boxes.
○ With the help of Punnet square, genotypic ratio in F generation
2
can be found. From the above given Punnet square, it is evident
that genotypic ratio TT: Tt: tt is 1:2:1.
○ The ratio 1:2:1 or of TT: Tt: tt can be derived from
binomial expression (
ax
+
by
)2
.
○ Gametebearing genes are in equal frequency of .
○ Hence, the expression can be expanded as
Law of Dominance, Test Cross, Law of Segregation & Incomplete
Dominance
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
● Based on his experiments, Mendel proposed three laws or principles of
inheritance:
○ Law of Dominance
○ Law of Segregation
○ Law of Independent Assortment
● Law of dominance and law of segregation are based on monohybrid
cross while law of independent assortment is based on dihybrid cross.
Law of Dominance
● According to this law, characters are controlled by discrete units called
factors, which occur in pairs with one member of the pair dominating
over the other in a dissimilar pair.
● This law explains expression of only one of the parental character in F
1
generation and expression of both in F generation.
2
Test Cross
● Cross between F progeny and its homozygous recessive parent
2
● This cross determines whether the dominant character is coming from
homozygous dominant genotype or heterozygous genotype. (e.g.,
tallness coming from TT or Tt)
● When TT is crossed with tt, we obtain all Tt (tall) individuals in the
progeny. Whereas when Tt is crossed with tt, we obtain Tt (tall) and tt
(dwarf) individuals in the progeny.
● Therefore, if tallness is coming from TT, then we obtain all tall
progenies in test cross. We obtain both tall and dwarf varieties in test
cross, if tallness is coming from Tt.
Law of Segregation
● This law states that the two alleles of a pair segregate or separate
during gamete formation such that a gamete receives only one of the
two factors.
● In homozygous parents, all gametes produced are similar; while in
heterozygous parents, two kinds of gametes are produced in equal
proportions.
Incomplete Dominance
● In incomplete dominance, F generation has a phenotype that does not
1
resemble either of the two parents, but is a mixture of the two.
● Example − Flower colour in dog flower (snapdragon), where:
○ RR − Red flowers
○ rr − White flowers
○ Rr − Pink flowers
● Here, genotypic ratio remains same as in Mendelian crosses, but
phenotypic ratio changes since complete dominance is not shown by R
(hence, incomplete dominance).
● Phenotypic Ratio − 1:2:1 that denotes Red: Pink: White
● Genotypic Ratio − 1:2:1 that denotes RR: Rr: rr
What is Dominance?
● A diploid organism produces two copies of a gene, which need not be
identical and may have minor alterations.
● Suppose a normal gene produces a product P. Then, the altered
version of it must produce a nonfunctional product P′ or no product at
all.
● The altered version of the gene must not perform the functions that a
normal gene performs. It must affect the phenotype.
● The original gene is said to be dominant while the modified gene is
recessive.
Law of Segregation and Codominance
Codominance
● In codominance, the F progeny resembles both the parents.
1
● Example: ABO blood groups in human beings
● ABO blood groups are controlled by gene
I
. Gene
I
has three alleles,
I
,
A
I B
and
i
. A person possesses any two of the three alleles.
● IA
and
I B
dominate over
i
. But with each other,
IA
and
IB
are
codominant.
● IA
and
I B
contain A and B types of sugar, while
i
does not contain any
sugar.
Allele from Allele from Genotype of Blood type of
Parent 1 Parent 2 offspring offspring
I A
I A
I A
I
A
A
I A
I B
I A
I
B
AB
I A
i I A
i
A
I B
I A
I A
I
B
AB
I B
I B
I B
I
B
B
I B
i I B
i
B
i i i i O
● Multiple alleles: When more than two alleles control a character, as in
human blood groups
○ Multiple alleles are used in population studies.
Inheritance of Two Genes (Dihybrid Cross) & Law of Independent
Assortment
Inheritance of Two Genes (Dihybrid Cross)
● In dihybrid cross, we consider two characters. (e.g., seed colour and
seed shape)
● Yellow colour and round shape is dominant over green colour and
wrinkled shape.
● Phenotypic ratio − 9:3:3:1
Round yellow − 9
Round green − 3
Wrinkled yellow − 3
Wrinkled green −1
Law of independent Assortment
● When two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, one pair of
character segregates independent of the other pair of character.
● In a dihybrid cross between two plants having round yellow (RRYY)
and wrinkled green seeds (rryy), four types of gametes (RY, Ry, rY,
ry) are produced. Each of these segregate independent of each other,
each having a frequency of 25% of the total gametes produced.
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
Rediscovery of Mendel’s Work
● Mendel’s work remained unrecognised for several years because of the
following reasons.
○ Lack of communication and publicity
○ His concept of factors (genes) as discrete units that did not
blend with each other was not accepted in the light of variations
occurring continuously in nature.
○ Mendel’s approach to explain biological phenomenon with the
help of mathematics was also not accepted.
○ In 1990, three scientists Hugo deVries, Correns and Von
Tschermak independently rediscovered Mendel’s work.
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
● By 1900, due to the advancement in microscopy, chromosomes were
also discovered.
● Sutton and Bovery discovered that the behaviour of chromosomes was
parallel to the behaviour of genes.
● Chromosomes and genes both occur in pairs—two alleles of a gene
pair are located on
homologous sites of homologous
chromosomes
.
● Sutton and Bovery further proposed that it is the pairing and
separation of a pair of chromosomes that ultimately leads to
segregation of the pair of factors they carry.
● Union of knowledge of chromosomal segregation with Mendelian
principles constitutes chromosomal theory of inheritance.
Dihybrid Cross in Drosophila to Study Linkage and Recombination
Linkage and Recombination
● Thomas Hunt Morgan discovered the basis of variations that sexual
reproduction produced.
● He worked on fruit flies,
Drosophila melanogaster
. He chose
Drosophila
because of the following reasons:
○ They were suitable to grow on synthetic medium in laboratory.
○ Their life cycle is complete in two weeks.
○ Single mating produces many progeny flies.
○ Clear differentiation of sexes − Easily distinguishable male and
female
○ Hereditary variations clearly visible with low power microscopes
● Morgan’s experiment
○ Dihybrid cross was carried out on fruit flies. Yellow bodied, white
eyed females were crossed with brown bodied, red eyed males.
○ F progeny was obtained, which were intercrossed.
1
○ F progeny was obtained and F
2 ratio was observed.
2
○ F ratio was observed to be significantly different from 9:3:3:1
2
as observed in Mendelian dihybrid cross.
● Explanation of deviation from Mendelian ratio:
○ Genes involved are located on X chromosome.
○ When two genes are located on the same chromosome, the
proportions of parental gene combinations were much higher
than those of nonparental.
○ Linkage − Physical association of genes on a chromosome
○ Recombination − Nonparental gene combination
● Alfred Sturtevant utilised the knowledge of frequency of gene
recombination as a measure of physical distance between two genes
and to map their position on chromosomes.
● In this way, genetic maps were prepared, which are extensively used
today for genome sequencing projects as in human genome project.
Sex Determination in Various Animals Including HumansMale and
Female Heterogamety
Sex Determination
● Henking discovered the genetic/chromosomal basis of sex
determination by working on insects. He observed specific nuclear
structures during spermatogenesis in insects. He named these
structures as X bodies.
● He observed that after spermatogenesis, 50% of the sperm obtained
these structures, while 50% did not.
● Later on, it was found that the X body observed by Henking was
actually a chromosome and thus, this chromosome was named X
chromosome.
● Chromosomes involved in sex determination are called sex
chromosomes, while the other chromosomes are called autosomes.
● XO type of sex determination
○ Other than autosomes, at least one X chromosome is present in
all insects.
○ Some sperms contain X chromosomes, while some do not.
○ Eggs fertilised by sperms having X chromosomes become
females. So, females have two X chromosomes.
○ Eggs fertilised by sperms not having X chromosomes become
males. So, males have only one X chromosome.
○ Example of organisms with XO type of sex determination −
Insects
● XY type of sex determination
○ Males have X chromosome and its counterpart Y chromosome,
which is distinctly smaller. Hence, males are XY.
○ Females have a pair of X chromosomes. Hence, females are XX.
○ Example of organisms with XY type of sex determination −
Humans and
Drosophila
● Male heterogamety − XO and XY types of sex determination are
examples of male heterogamety.
○ In XO type, some gametes have X chromosomes, while some
gametes are without X chromosomes.
○ In XY type, some gametes have X chromosomes, while some
gametes have Y chromosomes.
● Female heterogamety − ZW type of sex determination is an example
of female heterogamety.
○ In ZW type, the female has one Z and one W chromosome, while
the male has a pair of Z chromosomes.
Mutation, Pedigree Analysis, & Genetic Disorders
Mutation
● Alteration of DNA sequence resulting in changes in genotype and
phenotype of organisms
● DNA helix runs in a chromatid, hence any change (insertion or
deletion) in the DNA sequence affects the chromosome.
● Point Mutation − Mutation arising due to change in single base pair of
DNA as in sickle cell anaemia
● Frameshift Mutation − Mutations arising due to deletion or insertion in
DNA sequence
● Mutagens − Chemical or physical agents that lead to mutations
Example − UV radiations
Pedigree Analysis
● Pedigree analysis is the analysis of inheritance of traits in several
generations of a family.
● A particular trait under study is represented in a family tree.
● By using pedigree analysis, inheritance of a specific trait, abnormality
or disease, can be traced.
● DNA is believed to be the carrier of genetic information, which passes
unaltered from generation to generation. Mutations occasionally alter
the genetic material and genetic diseases are believed to be associated
with these alterations only.
● Standard symbols in pedigree analysis are as follows:
● Pedigree chart is represented as follows:
Chart (a) represents inheritance of an autosomal dominant trait as in
muscular dystrophy.
Chart (b) represents inheritance of an autosomal recessive trait as in
sickle cell anaemia.
Genetic Disorders
● Include Mendelian disorders and chromosomal disorders
Mendelian Disorders
● Characterized by mutation in a single gene
● Their mode of inheritance follows the principles of Mendelian genetics.
● Mendelian disorders can be
○ autosomal dominant (muscular dystrophy)
○ autosomal recessive (sickle cell anaemia)
○ sex linked (haemophilia)
● Haemophilia
○ Sexlinked recessive disease
○ Transmission − From unaffected female (carrier) to male
progeny
○ Females act as carriers of disease, but rarely suffer from
haemophilia since for a female to become haemophilic, the
mother should be carrier and father should be haemophilic.
○ In this disease, protein involved in blood clotting is affected.
Therefore, even a simple cut results in uncontrolled bleeding.
● Sickle cell anaemia
○ Autosomal recessive disease
○ Transmission − From parent to offspring when both parents are
carriers of disease
○ Pair of alleles Hb and Hb
A
controls the expression of this
S
disease.
Hb and Hb
A
− Normal
A
Hb and Hb
A
− Carrier of disease
S
Hb and Hb
S
− Diseased
S
○ Cause of the disease − Change in gene causes the replacement
of GAG by GUG leading to the substitution of Glu by Val at sixth
position of beta globin chain of haemoglobin.
○ The mutant haemoglobin so formed polymerises at low oxygen
tension, resulting in change in shape of RBC to sicklelike.
● Phenylketonuria
○ Autosomal recessive disease
○ Phenylalanine Tyrosine
The enzyme responsible for this conversion gets mutated.
○ Phenylalanine accumulates. Then,
Phenylalanine
→ Phenylpyruvic acid
→ Accumulates in brain
→
Mental retardation
○ Phenylpyruvic acid also gets excreted through urine since
kidneys poorly reabsorb it.
Chromosomal Disorders
● Total number of chromosomes in humans = 46 (23 pairs)
● Total 23 pairs = Autosomes (22 pairs) + Sex chromosomes (1 pair)
● Monosomy − Lack of any one pair of chromosomes
● Trisomy − Inclusion of an additional copy of chromosomes
● Aneuploidy − Loss or gain of chromosomes due to failure of
segregation of chromatids during cell division
Chromosomal Disorders
● Total number of chromosomes in humans = 46 (23 pairs)
● Total 23 pairs = Autosomes (22 pairs) + Sex chromosomes (1 pair)
● Monosomy − Lack of any one pair of chromosomes
● Trisomy − Inclusion of an additional copy of chromosome
● Aneuploidy − Loss or gain of chromosomes due to the failure of
segregation of chromatids during cell division
● Down’s Syndrome
○ Cause: Presence of an additional copy of chromosome 21
(Trisomy of 21)
○ Affected individual has short stature, small, round head,
furrowed tongue, partially opened mouth, palm crease,
congenital heart disease and mental retardation.
● Klinefelter Syndrome
○ Cause: Additional copy of X chromosome, i.e., 47 chromosomes
(XXY)
○ Affected individual has an overall masculine development with
gynaecomastia; individual is sterile
● Turner’s Syndrome
○ Cause: Absence of one X chromosome, i.e., 45 chromosomes
(XO).
○ Affected females are sterile; have rudimentary ovaries;
secondary sexual characters are absent
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
DNA : Structure of Polynucleotide Chain
● DNA − Polymer of deoxyribonucleotides
● Nucleoside = Nitrogenous base + Pentose sugar (linked through
N −
glycosidic bond
)
Example − adenosine, deoxyadenosine, cytidine, etc.
● Nucleotide = Nucleoside + Phosphate group (linked through
phosphodiester bond
)
● Many nucleotides link together through 3′
−
5′
phosphodiester bond
to form polynucleotide chain (as in DNA and RNA).
● In course of formation of polynucleotide chain, a phosphate moiety
remains free at 5′ end of ribose sugar (5′ end of polymer chain) and
one OH group remains free at 3′ end of ribose (3′ end of polymer
chain).
Double Helix Model for the Structure of DNA
● Scientists involved
○ Friedrich Meischer
− First identified DNA as an acidic
substance present in nucleus and named it as ‘Nuclein’
○ Wilkins and Franklin
− Produced Xray diffraction data for
DNA structure
○ Watson and Crick
− Proposed double helix structure model for
DNA based on Xray diffraction data
○ Erwin Chargaff
− Proposed that in ds DNA, ratios A:T and C:G
remain same and are equal to one
Features of double helix structure of DNA:
● In a DNA, two polynucleotide chains are coiled to form a helix.
Sugarphosphate forms backbone of this helix while bases project in
wards to each other.
● Complementary bases pair with each other through hydrogen bond.
Purines always pair with their corresponding pyrimidines. Adenine
pairs with thymine through two hydrogen bonds while guanine pairs
with cytosine through three hydrogen bonds.
○ The helix is righthanded.
Pitch − 3.4 nm
10 bp in each turn
○ The plane of one base pair stacks over the other in a double
helix. This provides stability to the helix along with hydrogen
bonding.
Packaging of DNA Helix
Packaging of DNA Helix
● Distance between two consecutive base pairs in a DNA = 0.34 nm =
0.34 × 10 m
−9
● Total number of base pairs in a human DNA = 6.6 × 10 bp
9
● Total length of human DNA = 0.34 × 10 × 6.6 × 10
−9 9
= ~ 2.2 m
● 2.2 m is too large to be accommodated in the nucleus (10 m).
−6
● Organisation of DNA in prokaryotes:
○ They do not have nucleus. DNA is scattered.
○ In certain regions called nucleoids, DNA (negatively charged) is
organised in large loops and is held by some proteins (positively
charged).
● Organisation of DNA in eukaryotes:
○ They have positively charged basic proteins called histones
(positive and basic due to presence of positive and basic amino
acid residues, lysine and arginine).
○ Histone octamer − Unit of eight molecules of histone
○ DNA (negatively charged) winds around histone octamer
(positively charged) to form nucleosome.
○ 1 nucleosome has approx. 200 bp of DNA.
○ Nucleosomes in a chromatin resemble beads present on strings.
○ Beads on string structure in chromatin are further packaged to
form chromatin fibres, which further coil and condense to form
chromosomes during metaphase.
○ Nonhistone chromosomal proteins − Additional set of proteins
required for packaging of chromatin at higher level
Transforming principle, Hershey and Chase experiments, &
Properties of genetic material
Discovery of DNA as a Genetic Material
● Though principles of inheritance and discovery of chromosomes in
nucleus were achieved long time back, there was confusion about
which molecule acted as genetic material.
Transforming Principle
● Griffith performed experiments with the bacteria
Streptococcus
pneumoniae
. This bacterium has two strains − S strain and R strain.
S strain Bacteria R strain Bacteria
○ Produce smooth colonies on ○ Produce rough colonies on
culture plate culture plate
○ Have a polysaccharide coat ○ Do not have a
polysaccharide coat
○ Virulent (causes ○ Nonvirulent (does not cause
pneumonia) pneumonia)
● Griffith’s experiment
● Live R strain in the presence of heatkilled S strain produce virulence
because somehow R strain bacteria is transformed by heatkilled S
strain bacteria. Hence, it was concluded that there must be transfer of
genetic material.
Biochemical Nature of Transforming Material
● Avery, McLeod, and McCarthy worked to determine the biochemical
nature of genetic material responsible for transformation.
●
●
● This suggests that DNA has to be the genetic material.
Hershey and Chase Experiment to Confirm DNA as the Genetic
Material
● Hershey and Chase worked on bacteriophages (viruses that infect
bacteria).
● When a bacteriophage infects a bacterium, the viral genetic material
gets attached with the bacterial genetic material and bacteria then
treats the viral genetic material as its own to synthesise more viral
particles.
● Hershey and Chase worked to discover whether it was a protein or
DNA that entered the bacteria from virus.
● They labelled some phages with radioactive sulphur and the others
with radioactive phosphorus.
● These radioactive phages were used to infect
E. coli
.
● E.coli
was then blended and centrifuged to remove viral particles.
● It was observed that bacteria with radioactive DNA were radioactive
while those with radioactive proteins lost their radioactivity.
● This showed that it is the DNA that enters the bacteria from viruses
and not proteins. Hence, it was concluded that DNA is the genetic
material.
Properties of the Genetic Material
● It should be able to replicate (duplicate to produce its identical copy).
● It should be chemically and structurally stable.
● It should have scope for changes that are essential for evolution.
● It should follow the Mendelian principles of inheritance.
● Difference between DNA and RNA:
DNA RNA
○ Has deoxyribose ○ Has ribose sugar
sugar
○ 5methyl uracil ○ Uracil is present in place of
(thymine) is present. thymine.
○ Mostly DNA acts as ○ RNA acts as a messenger and
the genetic material. adaptor. It acts as a genetic
material in some viruses.
○ DNA is stable. ○ Presence of 2′ OH group at every
nucleotide makes RNA labile and
easily biodegradable.
○ Chemically less ○ Mutation in RNA is faster.
reactive, mutates
slowly
○ DNA requires RNA for ○ RNA directly codes for proteins.
protein synthesis.
DNA
→ RNA
→ Protein
Why DNA is more stable than RNA?
● In RNA, a 2′ OH group is present at every nucleotide. This makes RNA
unstable and degradable.
● Presence of thymine in place of uracil confers additional stability to
DNA.
● RNA being a biocatalyst is more reactive.
● DNA is doublestranded having complementary strand, which resists
the changes by repair mechanism.
DNA Replication with Experimental Proof Machinery and Enzymes
Involved
What is DNA Replication?
● DNA replication is the phenomenon in which a duplicate copy of DNA is
synthesised.
● In replication, two strands of the DNA helix separate and each strand
acts as a template for synthesising new complementary strands.
● After completion of replication, the two copies so produced will have
one parental and one newly synthesised strand. This scheme of
replication is called semiconservative replication.
Experiment to Prove That DNA Replicates SemiConservatively
● Performed by − Messelson and Stahl
● E.coli
was grown in a medium containing heavy isotope N as the
15
nitrogen source.
● N was incorporated into newly synthesised DNA as well and the DNA
15
became heavy DNA.
● Heavy DNA molecule can be differentiated from normal DNA by density
gradient centrifugation using cesium chloride as the gradient.
● Then, cells were again transferred into a medium with N as nitrogen
14
source. Samples were taken from this media and their DNA was
extracted.
● E .coli
divides every 20 minutes. Therefore, the DNA extracted after 20
minutes had a hybrid density.
● DNA extracted after 40 minutes had equal amount of hybrid and light
intensities.
● This implies that the newly synthesised DNA obtained one of its
strands from the parent. Thus, replication is semiconservative.
Mechanism of DNA Replication
● Replication occurs in S phase of cell cycle.
● Enzyme involved DNA polymerase (DNA dependent DNA polymerase)
● Replication requires energy.
Source of energy − Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (DNTPs)
● DNTPs have dual purpose − Act as substrates and provide energy also
● Replication initiates at specific regions in DNA called origin of
replication.
● DNA polymerase polymerises a large number of nucleotides in a very
short time.
● During the course of replication, two parent strands do not completely
open, but a small opening forms in which replication occurs. This small
opening forms a replication fork.
● DNA polymerase can polymerise only in one direction that is '
.
● Therefore, replication occurs smoothly at to end of DNA.
(continuous replication, but occurs discontinuously at to end)
● The discontinuous fragments so formed are joined by DNA ligase.
Transcription Unit Structure and its Relationship with a Gene
Transcription
● Transcription is the process of formation of RNA molecules from the
DNA.
● During transcription, only a segment of DNA from only one of the
strands participates.
● Both strands are not copied during transcription because:
○ If both strands get transcribed at the same time since the
sequences of amino acid would be different in both (due to
complementarity), then two RNA molecules with different
sequences will be formed, which in turn give rise to two different
proteins. Therefore, one DNA would end up giving rise to two
different proteins.
○ Two RNA molecules so formed will be complementary to each
other, hence would end up forming a doublestranded RNA
leaving the entire process of transcription futile.
Transcriptional Unit
● A transcriptional unit has primarily three regions:
○ Promoter − Marks the beginning of transcription; RNA
polymerase binds here
○ Structural gene − Part of the DNA that is actually transcribed
○ Terminator − Marks the end of transcription
Template Strand and Coding Strand
● Enzyme involved in transcription, RNA polymerase (DNA dependent
RNA polymerase), catalyses in only one direction i.e., 5′ to 3′.
● Therefore, the strand with polarity 3′
→ 5′ acts as a template
(Template Strand).
● The strand with polarity 5′
→ 3′ acts as coding strand (which is a
misnomer since it does not code for anything). Coding strand has
sequence similar to RNA formed after transcription except for the
change that thymine is present instead of uracil.
Gene
● The DNA sequence which codes for tRNA or rRNA molecule defines a
gene.
● Cistron − Segment of DNA that contains the genetic code for a single
polypeptide
● The structural genes could be of two types:
○ Monocistronic (mostly in eukaryotes)
○ Polycistronic (mostly in prokaryotes)
● Monocistronic genes have two parts:
○ Exon − Sequences that code for a particular character and is
expressed in a matured and processed mRNA
○ Intron − Interrupting sequences that do not appear in a mature
and processed mRNA
● Regulatory genes − Sequences that do not code for anything, but have
regulatory functions
Types of RNA & Transcription Process
Types of RNA
● mRNA (messenger RNA) − It serves as a template for protein
synthesis. DNA is transcribed to form an mRNA, which in turn is
translated to form protein. [Central dogma of molecular biology]
● tRNA (transfer RNA) − It brings amino acids during translation and
reads the genetic code.
● rRNA (ribosomal RNA) − These are the work benches of translation.
They play a structural and catalytic role during translation.
Transcription Process
● Transcription has three steps − initiation, elongation, and termination.
● Initiation:
○ RNA polymerase binds with the promoter to initiate the process
of transcription.
○ Association with initiation factor (σ) alters the specificity of RNA
polymerase to initiate the transcription.
● Elongation
:
○ RNA polymerase uses nucleotide triphosphate as substrate, and
polymerisation occurs according to complementarity.
● Termination:
○ Termination occurs when termination factor (P) alters the
specificity of RNA polymerase to terminate the transcription.
● As the RNA polymerase proceeds to perform elongation, a short
stretch of RNA remains bound to the enzyme. As the enzyme
reaches the termination region, this nascent RNA falls off and
transcription is
○ terminated.
Complexities Associated with Transcription
● In prokaryotes:
○ There is no clear demarcation between cytosol and nucleus.
Therefore, translation can begin even before transcription is
completed. Thus, in prokaryotes, transcription and translation
are coupled.
● In eukaryotes:
○ Three different kinds of RNA polymerases are present.
RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNA.
RNA polymerase II transcribes hnRNA (mRNA precursor).
RNA polymerase III transcribes tRNA, snRNA, and srRNA.
○ The precursor of mRNA, i.e. hnRNA, contains both introns and
exons. Introns are removed and exons are joined by a process
called splicing.
○ Capping − In this, methyl guanosine triphosphate is added to
the 5′ end of hnRNA.
○ Tailing − In this, adenylate residues are added to the 3′ end of
hnRNA.
○ When hnRNA is fully processed, it is known as mRNA, which is
transported out of the nucleus to get translated.
Genetic Code and Study of Mutations
Genetic Code
● Genetic code directs the sequence of amino acids during the synthesis
of proteins.
● George Gamow proposed that if 20 amino acids are to be coded by 4
bases, then the code should be made up of three nucleotides. 4 = 64
3
(4 = 16), which is less than 20; so, the codon was proposed to be
2
triplet.
● Har Gobind Khorana developed a chemical method to synthesise RNA
molecules with defined combination of bases.
● Nirenberg developed cellfree systems for protein synthesis, which
helped the code to be deciphered.
● The enzyme known as Severo Ochoa enzyme (polynucleotide
phosphorylase) helped to polymerise RNA with defined sequences in a
template independent manner.
● It finally gave rise to the checkerboard for genetic code.
● Salient features of genetic code:
○ Codon is triplet. 4 = 64 (61 codons code for amino acids while 3
3
are stop codons)
○ One codon codes for a single specific amino acid. Codons are
unambiguous.
○ Codons are degenerate since some amino acids are coded by
more than one codon.
○ Genetic code is universal. 1 codon codes for same amino acid in
all species.
○ Codons are read continuous. They lack punctuations.
○ AUG has dual functions − Codes for Methionine and acts as a
start codon
Effects of Mutations on Genetic Code
● Mutations include insertions, deletions, and rearrangements.
● Mutation results in changed phenotype and diseases such as sickle cell
anaemia. (Change Glu
→ Val in gene coding for beta globin chain of
haemoglobin) Such mutations are called
joint mutations
.
● Insertion or deletion of a single base pair disturbs the entire reading
frame in mRNA. Such mutations are called
frameshift mutations
.
● Frameshift mutations hold the proof of the fact that codon is triplet
because if we insert three or multiple of three bases followed by the
deletion of same number of bases, then the reading frame will remain
unaltered.
Structure of tRNA; Process of Translation; Regulation of Gene
Expression
tRNA
● tRNA is an adapter molecule. On one hand, it reads the genetic code
and on the other hand, it binds to specific amino acids.
● tRNA has an
anticodon loop
that has bases complementary to the
mRNA code and an
amino acid acceptor end
where it binds to the
corresponding amino acid.
● Initiation tRNA − This tRNA is essential for initiation of translation and
has AUG in anticodon loop and Met in amino acid acceptor end.
● There are no tRNAs for stop codons.
Translation
● The mRNA contains the genetic information, which is translated into
the amino acid sequence with help of tRNA. Amino acids are
polymerised to form a polypeptide.
● Amino acids are joined by peptide bond.
● First of all, charging of tRNA (aminoacylation of tRNA) takes place. In
this, amino acids are activated in the presence of ATP and are linked to
their corresponding tRNA.
● Ribosomes are the workbenches for translation. Ribosomes have 2
subunits: a large subunit and a small subunit.
● Smaller subunit comes in contact with mRNA to initiate the process of
translation.
● Translational unit in an mRNA is the region flanked by start codon and
stop codon.
● Untranslated regions (UTR) are the regions on mRNA that are not
themselves translated, but are required for efficient translation
process. They may be present before start codon (5′ UTR) or after
stop codon (3′ UTR).
● Initiator tRNA recognises the start codon. (Initiation)
● Then tRNAamino acid complexes bind to their corresponding codon
on the mRNA and base pairing occurs between codon on mRNA and
tRNA anticodon.
● tRNA moves from codon to codon on the mRNA and amino acids are
added one by one. (Elongation)
● Release factor binds to stop codon to terminate the translation.
(Termination)
Regulation of Gene Expression
● Regulation of gene expression could be exerted at following levels.
○ Transcriptional level (following of primary transcripts)
○ Processing level (splicing)
○ Transport of mRNA from nucleus to cytoplasm
○ Translational level
● In addition, metabolic, physiological, or environmental conditions
regulate the expression of genes.
● Expression of genes coding for enzymes is required only when
substrate for that enzyme is available.
For example:
Lactose Glucose + Galactose
E.coli
synthesises betagalactosidase, only when lactose is available.
● Regulation in prokaryotes
○ Gene expression is regulated by controlling the rate of
transcriptional initiation.
○ The activity of RNA polymerase at a given promoter is regulated
by accessory proteins. The accessory proteins affect the ability of
a promoter to recognise start sites.
○ A regulatory protein could be activator or repressor.
○ Accessibility of promoter is also affected by operators. Operator
is the region located adjacent to promoter.
○ Each operon has a specific operator and a specific repressor.
○ Usually operator binds to a repressor protein.
Regulation of Lac Operon
Lac
Operon
● Operon − An arrangement where a polycistronic gene is regulated by a
common promoter and regulatory genes
● Lac
operon,
trp
operon,
his
operon,
val
operon are the examples of
such systems.
● The elucidation of
lac
operon as a transcriptionally active system was
first done by geneticist Jacob and biochemist Monod.
● Genes constituting
lac
operon:
i
gene Inhibitor It codes for repressor of
lac
operon.
z Structural It codes for βgalactosidase.
gene
Lactose Galactose + Glucose
y Structural It codes for permease, which increases the
gene permeability of cell to βgalactosidase.
a Structural It codes for transacetylase.
gene
● All genes involved in
lac
operon are required for metabolism of lactose.
● Inducer
− Lactose acts as an inducer for
lac
operon since it regulates
the switching on and off of the operon.
● If lactose is provided to the growth media of bacteria in absence of any
other carbon source, then it is transported inside the cells by
permease.
● For permease to be present and lactose to enter inside the cells, low
level of expression of
lac
operon must be present all the time.
Regulation in Absence of Inducer
● In absence of inducer,
i
gene transcribes to synthesise repressor
mRNA, which translates to form repressor.
● This repressor binds with the operator region of operon and prevents
RNA polymerase to transcribe genes −
z
,
y
, and
a
(negative
regulation).
● Therefore, in absence of the products of these genes, metabolism of
lactose ceases.
Regulation in Presence of Inducer
● Inducer binds with the protein product of gene
i
(repressor) and
inactivates it.
● This inactivated repressor is unable to inactivate RNA polymerase
enzyme and
z
,
y
, and
a
genes synthesise their respective mRNA, which
in turn gets translated to form βgalactosidase, permease, and
transacetylase.
● In presence of all these enzymes, the metabolism of lactose proceeds
in a normal manner.
Human Genome Project (HGP)
● Joint venture of US department of energy and National Institute of
Health (NIH); later joined by Welcome Trust (UK)
● Launched in 1990, completed in 2003
● This project worked towards the determination of complete DNA
sequence of humans.
● DNA is the storehouse of genetic information and determining its
sequence of base pairs can solve many medical, agricultural,
environmental, and evolutionary mysteries.
Relationship of HGP with Bioinformatics
● Human genome (genome refers to the totality of genes that are
present in a human being) contains 3 × 10 base pairs.
9
● Cost of sequencing 1 bp = US $ 3
Cost of sequencing 3 × 10 bp = US $ 9 billion
9
● Enormous sequence data so generated would have required 3300
books containing 1000 pages each just for a human genome.
● Hence, for storing, retrieving, and analysing this enormous data, a
new branch of biology has been developed known as bioinformatics.
● Genomes of many nonhuman models such as bacteria, yeast,
Caenorhabditis elegans
,
Drosophila
, plants (rice and
Arabidopsis
) have
also been sequenced.
Methods to Identify Genes
● Two methods − identifying ESTs (Expressed sequence Tags) and
sequence annotation
● ESTs − As the name suggests, this refers to the part of DNA that is
expressed, i.e. transcribed, as mRNA and translated into proteins
thereafter. It basically focuses on sequencing the part denoting a
gene.
● Annotation − In this approach, entire genome (coding + noncoding)
is sequenced and later on function is assigned to each region in the
genome.
Genome Sequencing
● DNA from the cells is isolated and is randomly broken into fragments
of smaller sizes.
● These fragments are cloned into suitable host using vectors.
● Cloned fragments amplify in the host. Amplification facilitates an easy
sequencing.
● Common vectors used − BAC (Bacterial artificial chromosomes) and
YAC (Yeast artificial chromosomes)
● Common hosts − Bacteria and yeasts
● Automated sequencers are used to sequence these smaller fragments
(Sanger sequencing).
● The sequences so obtained are arranged based on overlapping regions
within them (alignment).
● Alignment of the sequences is also done automatically by computer
programs.
● Then these sequences are annotated and assigned to each
chromosome.
Preparation of Genetic and physical maps on Genome
● 2 methods are used − restriction polymorphism and microsatellites
● Restriction polymorphism − Specialized enzymes called restriction
endonucleases are used to cut the genome at specialized sites called
restriction endonuclease recognition site and maps are prepared based
on it.
● Microsatellites − These are repetitive DNA sequences.
Observations from HGP
● Human genome contains 3 × 10 (3164.7 million) nucleotide bases.
9
● An average gene consists of 3000 bases. However, the size of genes
varies. Largest gene is dystrophin (2.4 m bases).
● Total number of genes in human genome − 30,000
● Over 50% of the discovered genes have unknown functions.
● Less than 2% of genome is coding.
● Large portion of genome consists of repeating sequences.
● Repetitive sequences have no coding function. They are repeated over
hundred to thousand times. They may have a role in evolution,
chromosome structure, and dynamics.
● Chromosome with most genes − Chromosome 1 (2968)
Chromosome with fewest genes − Chromosomes Y (231)
● SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphism) occur at about 1.4 million
locations in human DNA. They are believed to have significance in
explaining diseases and evolutionary history of human beings.
DNA Fingerprinting
Introduction
● DNA fingerprinting is a method for comparing the DNA sequences of
any two individuals.
● 99.9% of the base sequences in all human beings are identical. It is
the remaining 0.1% that makes every individual unique.
● It is a really difficult and timeconsuming task to sequence and
compare all 3 × 10 bases in two individuals. So, instead of
9
considering the entire genome, certain specific regions called repetitive
DNA sequences are used for comparative study.
Basis of DNA Fingerprinting
● Repetitive DNA is separated from bulk genomic DNA since it appears
as a distinct peak during density gradient centrifugation.
● Major peak: Formed by bulk DNA
Smaller peak: Satellite DNA
● Satellites are of two types—microsatellites and mini satellites,
depending upon the base composition, length of segment and the
number of repetitive units.
● Satellites do not code for proteins, but have a major role to play in
DNA fingerprinting.
● Polymorphism is actually a result of mutation. A germ cell mutation
(which can pass on to the next generation through sexual
reproduction) gives rise to polymorphism in populations.
● In other words, an inheritable mutation if observed in higher
frequencies in a population is known as polymorphism.
● Polymorphisms arise normally in noncoding sequences because
mutations in noncoding sequences do not affect an individual’s
reproductive ability.
Methodology of DNA fingerprinting
● VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats) are satellite DNAs that
show high degree of polymorphism.
● VNTRs are used as probes in DNA fingerprinting.
● First of all, DNA from an individual is isolated and cut with restriction
endonucleases.
● Fragments are separated according to their size and molecular weight
on gel electrophoresis.
● Fragments separated on electrophoresis gel are blotted (immobilised)
on a synthetic membrane such as nylon or nitrocellulose.
● Immobilised fragments are hybridised with a VNTR probe.
● Hybridised DNA fragments can be detected by autoradiography.
● VNTRs vary in size from 0.1 to 20 kb.
● Hence, in the autoradiogram, band of different sizes will be obtained.
● These bands are characteristic for an individual. They are different in
each individual, except identical twins.
Applications of DNA Fingerprinting
● DNA fingerprinting is widely used in forensics since every DNA of every
tissue from an individual has the same degree of polymorphism.
● DNA fingerprinting forms the basis of paternity testing since a child
inherits polymorphism from both its parents.
● It can be used for studying genetic diversity in a population and
evolution.
Evolution
Origin of Life
Urey and Miller experiment
● Primitive atmosphere had high temperature, volcanic storms, and
reducing atmosphere, containing CH NH
4, H
3, etc.
2,
● Urey and Miller took the same compounds in a closed flask along with
water vapour at 800C and created an electric discharge.
º
● Formation of biomolecules such as amino acids, simple sugars, fats,
etc. was observed in the flask.
Theories of Evolution
● The theory of special creation or divine intervention was challenged by
Charles Darwin.
● He made observations on his seatrip around the world aboard H.M.S.
Beagle and concluded that all existing living forms share similarities among
themselves and also with other life forms, which existed millions of years
ago of which many are extinct.
● The evolution of life forms has been gradual and those life forms
better fit in environments that leave more progeny. This is called
natural selection and is a mechanism of evolution.
● Alfred Wallace working in the Malay Archepelago also came to the
same conclusion.
Evidences of Evolution
● Fossils
− They represent plants and animals that lived millions of
years ago and are now extinct. Different aged rock sediments contain
fossils of different lifeforms, which probably died during the formation
of the particular sediment.
● Comparative anatomy and morphology
− It shows evidences of
the similarities and differences between living forms of today and that
of the prehistoric times. Some of the examples of comparative
anatomy and morphology are:
● Homologous organs
− All mammals share the same pattern of
forelimbs. Though they perform different functions, they are
anatomically similar. This is called
divergent evolution
and the
structures are called homologous structures (common ancestors).
● Analogous organs
− The pair of organs is not anatomically similar,
but performs the same function (e.g., the wings of butterflies and
birds). This is called
convergent evolution
.
● Adaptive melanism
− In England, it was noted that before industrial
revolution, the number of whitewinged moths was more than that of
dark melanised moth. However, after industrialisation, there were
more of dark melanised moths. The explanation was that after
industrialization, the tree trunks became darker with deposits of soot
and smoke and hence, the number of dark moths increased in order to
protect themselves from predators while the whitewinged ones were
easily picked up by the predators.
● Similarly, the herbicide and pesticide resistant plants and animals and
antibiotic resistant bacteria are some of the evidences that point
towards evolution.
Adaptive Radiation
● During his exploration of the Galapagos Islands, Darwin noticed that
there were many varieties of finches in the same island.
● They varied from normal seed eating varieties to those that ate
insects.
● This process of evolution starting from a single point and radiating in
different directions is called adaptive radiation.
● The other example for this is the evolution of the Australian marsupials
from a single ancestor. Placental mammals also exhibit similarities to
their corresponding marsupial. Example: placental wolf and the
Tasmanian wolf
● When more than one adaptive radiation occurs in an isolated
geographical area, the phenomenon is called convergent evolution.
Biological Evolution & Mechanism of Evolution
● According to Darwin, evolution took place by natural selection.
● The number of life forms depends upon their ability to multiply and
their life span.
● Another aspect of natural selection is the survival of the fittest, where
nature selects the individuals, which are most fit, to adapt to their
environment.
● Branching descent
and
natural selection
are the two important
concepts of Darwin’s theory of evolution.
● The French naturalist Lamarck observed that evolution occurs due to
the use or disuse of particular organs or body parts. For example,
giraffe have developed long necks as a result of attempts to eat leaves
high up on trees.
● Darwin also observed that variations are inheritable and the species fit
to survive the most, leaves more offsprings. Hence, the population’s
characteristics change, giving rise to the evolution of new life forms.
Mechanism of Evolution
● Darwin did not quite explain how evolution gave rise to different
species of the same organism.
● Mendel mentioned about inheritable factors, which influenced the
phenotype of an organism.
● Hugo de Vries based on his work on evening primrose suggested that
variations occurred due to mutations.
● Mutations are random and directionless while the variations that
Darwin talked about were small and directional. Hugo de Vries gave
the name
saltation
(single step large mutation) to the mutations
which brought about speciation.
HardyWeinberg Principle
● The frequency of occurrence of alleles of a gene in a population
remains constant through generations unless disturbances such as
mutations, nonrandom mating, etc. are introduced.
● Genetic equilibrium (gene pool remains constant) is a state which
provides a baseline to measure genetic change.
● Sum total of all allelic frequencies is 1.
● Individual frequencies are represented as p and q such as in a diploid,
where p and q represent the frequency of allele
A
and
a
.
The frequency of
AA
is p, that of
2
aa
is q, and that of
2
Aa
is 2pq.
● Hence, p + 2pq + q
2
= 1, which is the expansion of (p + q)
2
.
2
● When the frequency measured is different from that expected, it is
indicative of evolutionary change.
● HardyWeinberg equilibrium is affected by
● gene flow or gene migration
● genetic drift (changes occurring by chance)
● mutation
● genetic recombination
● natural selection
● Sometimes, the change in allele frequency is so prominent in the new
sample of population that they become a different species and the
original drifted population becomes the founder. This effect is called
founder effect.
● The advantageous mutations that help in natural selection over the
generations give rise to new phenotypes and result in speciation.
Evolution of Plants and Animals
Evolution of Plants
● Cellular life forms occurred on earth about 2000 million years ago.
● Some of these cells had the ability to produce oxygen through
reactions similar to photosynthesis.
● Slowly, singlecelled organisms became multicellular.
● Seaweeds and some plants probably existed around 320 million years
ago.
Evolution of Animals
● Animals evolved about 500 million years ago. The first of them to
evolve were invertebrates.
● Jawless fishes evolved around 350 million years ago.
● Some of the fishes could go on land, and then come back to water.
These were the first amphibians. In 1938, a fish Coelacanth, which
was thought to be extinct, was caught in South Africa. This variety of
fish, called lobefins, is believed to have evolved into the first
amphibians.
● Amphibians evolved into reptiles. In the next 200 million years,
reptiles of different sizes dominated the earth. However, about 65
million years ago, some of them such as dinosaurs disappeared.
● The first among the mammals were small shrewlike mammals.
● During continental drift when North America joined South America,
primitive mammals suffered, but pouched mammals of Australia
survived the same drift because of lack of competition from other
mammals.
Origin and Evolution of Man
Year Evolution Characteristics
15 million Dryopithecus
(apelike) and Hairy and walked similar to
years ago Ramapithecus
(manlike) chimpanzees
2 million Australopithecines
, also called Used stone weapons and ate
years ago Homo habilis
,lived in East fruits;
Africa
humanlike with brain
capacity of 650 − 800 cc; not
meat eaters
1.5 million Homo erectus Brain capacity of about 900
years ago cc; were meat eaters
75, 000 − Homo sapiens
10, 000
years ago
When we compare the skulls of an adult human being, baby chimpanzee,
and adult chimpanzee, we observe that skull of baby chimpanzee resembles
human being more as compared to adult chimpanzee.
Common Diseases in Humans
What is Health?
● Health is the state of complete physical, mental, and social well being.
● Health increases productivity and ensures longevity.
Ways to Ensure Good Health
● Balanced diet
● Personal hygiene
● Exercise
● Awareness about prevention and control of diseases
● Proper waste disposal and control of vectors
● Vaccination
Why do Diseases Occur?
● Genetic reasons − Innate deficiencies and inheritable defects
● Infections
● Sedentary life style − Junk food, consumption of alcohols/drugs, lack
of exercise
Pathogenic Diseases
● Pathogens are the parasites that enter the human body through
various means, then multiply, and interfere with normal vital activities.
Bacterial Diseases
● Typhoid
○ Pathogen −
Salmonella typhi
○ Spreads through − Contaminated food and water
○ Site of infection − Small intestine
○ Symptoms − High fever, stomach pain, headache, loss of
appetite, constipation, and intestinal perforations in severe cases
○ Confirmatory test − Widal test
● Pneumonia
○ Pathogens −
Streptococcus pneumoniae
and
Haemophilus
influenzae
○ Spreads through − Droplets/aerosols released from infected
person, sharing of glasses or utensils
○ Site of infection − Alveoli (gets filled with fluid, difficulty in
breathing)
○ Symptoms − Fever, chills, cough, headache, lips and nails
become grey in severe cases
Viral Diseases
● Common cold
○ Pathogen − Rhino viruses
○ Site of infection − Nose and respiratory passage
○ Spreads through − Droplets released from coughing or sneezing,
or contaminated objects
○ Symptoms − Nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat,
cough, headache, tiredness
Protozoan Diseases
● Malaria
○ Pathogen −
Plasmodium
sps. (
P.vivax, P. falciparum, P. malaria
)
○ Vector − Female
Anopheles
mosquito
○ Symptoms − High grade fever, chills
● Amoebiasis
○ Pathogen −
Entamoeba histolytica
○ Vector − Housefly
○ Site of infection − Large intestine
○ Symptoms − Constipation, abdominal pain, cramps, stools with
mucous, and blood clots
Fungal Diseases
● Ringworms
○ Pathogens − Genera
Microsporum
,
Trichophyton
, and
Epidermophyton
○ Spreads through − Towels, clothes, comb (Fungus is acquired
from soil)
○ Symptoms − Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various body
parts with intense itching
Diseases Caused by Worms
● Ascariasis
○ Pathogen − Round worm,
Ascaris
○ Spreads through − Water, vegetables, fruits contaminated by
faeces of infected person
○ Symptoms − Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia,
blockage of intestinal passage
● Elephantiasis
(filariasis)
○ Pathogen −
Wuchereria
(
W.malayi
and
W.bancrofti
)
○ Spreads through − Bite of female mosquito vector
○ Symptom − Chronic inflammation of the organs, usually the
lymphatic vessels of lower limb
Life Cycle of
Plasmodium
● Plasmodium
requires two hosts to complete its life cycle.
● When female
Anopheles
mosquito bites a healthy human being, it
releases
Plasmodium
, which lives in its body as sporozoite (infectious
form).
● The parasites multiply (asexual reproduction) in the liver cells and
finally burst the liver cells. Sporozoites are released in blood.
● Parasites enter RBCs and further multiply (asexual reproduction) here
and finally burst RBCs also.
● Bursting of RBCs is accompanied by release of a toxic substance called
haemozoin (associated with fever and chills).
● In the RBCs, only sporozoites change into gametocytes (sexual stage).
Gametocytes multiply.
● When the diseased person is bitten by a female
Anopheles
mosquito,
gametocytes are introduced into the mosquito.
● Gametocytes fertilise and develop inside the intestine of mosquito to
form sporozoites.
● Sporozoites are stored in the salivary glands of mosquito and are
released into the healthy person who is bitten by this mosquito.
Immunity
What is immunity
?
● The ability of body to fight the diseasecausing organisms is called
immunity.
Types of immunity
● Immunity is of two types − innate immunity and acquired immunity.
● Innate immunity
− It is present from the time of birth. It is
nonspecific. It consists of 4 kinds of barriers.
○ Physical barriers − Skin and mucus coating of respiratory,
gastrointestinal, and urogenital tract prevent entry of microbes
into body.
○ Physiological barriers − Acid in stomach, saliva in mouth, tears
from eyes
○ Cellular barriers − Blood has leukocytes such as polymorpho
nuclear leukocytes, monocytes, etc. and tissue has macrophages
which phagocytose the microbes.
○ Cytokine barriers − Special proteins called interferons are
secreted by virusinfected cells that prevent the further spread
of viral infection.
● Acquired immunity
− It is acquired, which means that it is produced
in response to an encounter with a pathogen based on memory. It is
pathogen specific.
○ When a pathogen for the first time infects a person, low intensity
immune response is generated (primary response).
○ When the same pathogen attacks again, intensified immune
response in generated, thereby preventing the occurrence of
disease (secondary response).
○ Acquired immunity involves two types of cells − Blymphocytes
and T lymphocytes.
○ Blymphocytes − Secrete proteins called antibodies in response
to pathogens
Antibodies
are specialized proteins with 4 peptide
chains (2 light and 2 heavy), hence denoted as HL
2 . IgA IgM,
2
IgE, etc. are examples of some of the antibodies. They generate
humoral immune response
(found in blood).
○ Tlymphocytes − They help Bcells to produce antibodies. They
generate
cell mediated immune response
. This response
helps the body to differentiate between ‘self’ and ‘nonself’ as
occurs in case of graft rejection.
Difference between active immunity and passive immunity
● Active Immunity
○ This is the naturally acquired immunity produced in the host
body in response to an antigen.
○ Immunization and body naturally getting immune to a microbe
that had caused infection previously are examples of active
immunity.
● Passive immunity
○ When readymade antibodies are provided to an individual to
protect against foreign agents
○ Colostrums present in mother’s milk contain IgA. Also, the foetus
gets antibodies from mother through placenta.
How does vaccination help?
● Vaccines are nothing but inactivated pathogens.
● These inactivated pathogens when introduced in the body produce a
primary immune response and antibodies are produced against the
pathogen.
● Memory B and Tcells are produced.
● Now when the pathogen again attacks the person, memory B and
Tcells generate a massive immune response and the pathogen is
killed.
Problems of immune system
● Allergies
○ Exaggerated immune response to certain antigens present in
environment
○ Allergens − Substances in response to which allergy is produced
E.g., dust, pollen, etc.
○ Antibodies involved − IgE type
○ During allergic reactions, chemicals such as histamines and
serotonins are released.
○ Symptoms − Sneezing, watery eyes, difficulty in breathing, etc.
○ Allergy test − Patient is injected with small doses of allergens to
monitor his response.
○ Antihistamines, adrenalins, and steroids may be given so that
the symptoms of allergy subside.
● Autoimmunity
○ In autoimmunity, body generates immune response against its
own cells.
○ Reasons − Genetic and other unknown reasons
○ Example − Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease.
Human immune system
● Lymphoid organs are of two types − primary lymphoid organs and
secondary lymphoid organs.
● Primary lymphoid organs consist of bone marrow and thymus. Here,
immature lymphocytes are differentiated to form antigensensitive
lymphocytes.
○ Bone marrow − Here, all blood cells including lymphocytes are
produced.
○ Thymus − It is responsible for maturation of Tlymphocytes. This
lobed organ is situated near the heart and keeps on reducing in
size as the age increases.
● Secondary lymphoid organs − Lymphocytes migrate here after
attaining maturity. It includes spleen, lymph nodes tonsils, Peyer’s
patches, and appendix.
○ Spleen − Large beanshaped organ containing lymphocytes and
phagocytes, which acts as a filter for blood
○ Lymph nodes − Located at different points throughout the
immune system, they trap the antigens present in lymph or
tissue fluid, and these antigens cause activation of lymphocytes
and generation of immune response.
● MALT (Mucosalassociated lymphoid tissue) − Lines major tracts
(respiratory, digestive, urogenital, etc); constitutes 50% of lymphoid
tissue in body
AIDS & Cancer
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)
● Caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) [HIV is a retrovirus
(RNA virus)]
● Transmission of HIV occurs through:
○ Sexual contact with infected person
○ Sharing infected needles (as in case of intravenous drug
abusers)
○ Transfusion of contaminated blood
○ Infected mother to child through placenta
● Time lag between infection and appearance of symptoms − Few
months to many years (510 years)
● How does AIDS infection spread?
○ Virus enters the body of a person and enters macrophages.
○ Here, virus replicates (viral RNA reverse transcribes to viral DNA,
which gets incorporated into hosts DNA and subsequently new
viral particles are produced).
○ Macrophages become a virtual HIV factory.
○ Thereafter, HIV enters helper Tlymphocytes, replicates, and produces
progenies.
○ As the progenies are released, they attack other Tlymphocytes.
○ Therefore, Tlymphocytes start decreasing in number and immune
response of the person becomes weak.
○ Even infections which could be overcome easily start aggravating.
● Diagnosis of AIDS −
By ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent
Assay)
● Treatment −
No permanent cure; antiretroviral therapies can prolong
the life of patient
● Prevention of AIDS
○ Ensuring use of disposable syringes
○ Screeningblood from blood banks
○ Advocating safe sex
○ NACO (National AIDS Control Organization) and many NGOs are
doing a lot to create awareness among people.
Cancer
● The process of development of cancer is called
oncogenic
transformation.
● Normal cells have the property of contact inhibition (stoppage of
growth on coming in contact with other cells), but cancer cells lose this
property.
● As a result, cancer cells divide continuously to give rise to mass of
cells (tumours).
● Tumours are of 2 types − benign and malignant.
● Benign tumours − Remain confined to their original location and do not
spread
● Malignant tumours− These exhibit
metastasis
i.e., the cells sloughed
from such tumours reach distant sites and wherever they reach, new
tumour is formed.
● Malignant tumours actually represent cancer. The cells actively divide,
grow, and starve the normal cells of vital nutrients.
● Causes of cancer
○ Carcinogens −
Physical, chemical, and biological agents that
cause cancer Example ionizing radiations (Xrays and gamma
rays), nonionizing radiations (UV)
○ Oncogenic (cancercausing) viruses
− They have viral
oncogenes (cancercausing genes).
○ Sometimes normal genes in our body called protooncogenes get
converted into cellular oncogenes that cause cancer.
● Diagnosing cancer
○ Biopsy and histopathological studies
○ Biopsy
− Suspected tissue is cut into thin sections and
examined microscopically
○ Radiography
, CT scan (computed tomography), and MRI
(Magnetic resonance imaging) are techniques of diagnosing
cancers.
○ C T Scan
− 3D imaging of internals of an organ is generated by
Xrays.
○ MRI Scan
− Pathological and physiological changes in a living
tissue are detected by using magnetic fields and nonionising
radiations.
○ Immunological and molecular biological diagnostic techniques
can all be used to detect cancers.
○ Identifying certain genes, which make an individual susceptible
to cancers, can help to prevent cancers.
● Treatment of cancer
○ Radiotherapy
− Tumour cells are irradiated to death. Also,
proper care is taken for protecting surrounding normal tissues.
○ Chemotherapy
− Drugs specific for particular tumours are used
to kill cancer cells. They have side effects such as hair loss,
anaemia, etc.
○ Immunotherapy
− Biological response modifiers such as α
interferons are used. They activate the immune system of
patient and helps in destroying the tumour.
Commonly Abused Drugs
Opioids (Heroin)
● Source: Acetylation of morphine extracted from the latex of poppy
plants (
Papaver somniferum
)
● Consumed by: Snorting or injection
● Properties: White, bitter and odourless
● Mode of action: Binds to opioid receptors present in the CNS and GI
tract
● Effect: It is a depressant; slows down body functions
Cannabinoids
● Source: Inflorescences of the plant
Cannabis sativa
● Consumed by: Inhalation or oral ingestion
● Mode of action: Binds to cannabinoid receptors present in the brain
● Effect: Affects the cardiovascular system
Cocaine
● Source: Coca plant
Erythroxylum coca
, found in South America
● Consumed by: Snorting
● Mode of action: Interference with transfer of neurotransmitter,
dopamine
● Effect: Stimulates the CNS, producing a sense of euphoria and
increased energy; excessive dosages cause hallucination
Drugs Normally Used as Medicines
● Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, LSD
(Lysergic acid diethyl amides) are used as medicines to help patients
with mental illness and insomnia.
● Morphine: It is a pain killer which is used for patients who have
undergone surgery, but it is also abused.
Nicotine
● Present in tobacco, which is smoked, chewed or snuffed
● Mode of action: Stimulates the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and
noradrenaline
● Effect: Increases blood pressure and heart rate
Ill Effects of Smoking
● Increased risk of diseases like bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart
disease, gastric ulcer and cancer (throat, lung and urinary bladder)
● Increased carbon monoxide levels in blood, leading to oxygen
deficiency
Alcohol / Drug Abuse
Causes of alcohol/ Drug Abuse
● Alcohol / drug abuse normally starts in adolescence (period between
1218 yrs − transition phase between childhood and adulthood).
● Many adolescents are motivated towards drugs/ alcohol due to
curiosity and experimentation.
● Peer pressure, academic stress, unstable family structure further
incline youth towards alcohol/ drug abuse.
● Perception of consuming alcohol / drug being cool and progressive and
use of alcohol/drug in television, movies, etc. further promote this
habit.
Alcohol/ Drug Addiction
● When a person uses alcohol/ drug repeatedly, he becomes addicted.
● Addiction refers to psychological attachment to certain effects such as
euphoria and temporary feeling of wellbeing associated with use of
alcohol or drugs.
● In addiction, tolerance level of receptors present in our body increases
towards the drug.
● This drives the person to use them even when they are not required or
when they tend to harm his health / family life.
● Subsequently, the user runs into a vicious circle of addiction and
subsequent dependence.
● Dependence leads to manifestation of withdrawal syndrome on
discontinuation of use.
● Withdrawal syndrome − Anxiety, nausea, sweating, shakiness, and
sometimes may be lethal
Effects of Alcohol/ Drug Abuse
● Immediate effect − Vandalism, violence, and reckless behaviour
● Drop in academic performance, lack of interest in personal hygiene,
rebellious behaviour, and change in eating and sleeping patterns,
weight and appetite fluctuations
● Mental, psychological, and financial loss not only to the user, but also
to his family
● Those who take drugs intravenously have a high risk of acquiring
deadly diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis B.
● Damage to nervous system and liver (cirrhosis)
● Use of anabolic steroids by sportsperson have adverse effects:
○ In females − Increase of masculinity, aggressiveness,
depression, abnormal menstrual cycle, facial hair growth,
enlargement of clitoris, and deepening of voice
○ In males − Acne, aggressiveness, depression, reduction in size
of testicles, decreased sperm production, enlargement of
prostate gland, breast enlargement, premature baldness
● Ultimately, prolonged use of alcohol/drugs leads to coma and death.
Preventing Alcohol/ Drug Abuse
● It is better to prevent the inclination of an individual towards alcohol/
drugs right from adolescence. Some of the ways of prevention are:
○ Avoid peer pressure − Understand the unique personality and
capabilities of a child
○ Education and counselling − A child must be taught to accept
success and failure equally. Especially during adolescence, he
must be inclined towards constructive activities such as music,
yoga, sports, reading based on his interest.
○ Help from parents and peers − This includes proper guidance,
advice, and trust to overcome problems such as stress and guilt.
○ Identifying danger signals − If any sign of symptom of alcohol /
drug abuse is seen in the adolescent by family or friends, then it
should not be ignored because prevention is better than cure.
● Seeking medical help − Psychologists and rehabilitation programs
surely help an addict. Medical help should be sought to prevent further
damage.
Strategies For Enhancement In Food
Production
Animal Husbandry
Introduction
● The practice of breeding and raising livestock is called animal husbandry.
● It includes breeding of livestock (cows, buffaloes, pigs, etc.), poultry farming,
and fisheries.
Farm Management
● Dairy Farm Management
○ Milk yield is dependent upon the quality of breed selected. Quality
encompasses yielding potential and disease resistance.
○ Care of cattle − Proper accommodation, adequate water, feeding in a
scientific manner (quality of fodder), hygiene, visits by a veterinary
doctor
○ All these processes nowadays have become mechanised and proper
record keeping is followed.
● Dairy Farm Management
○ Poultry includes meat from birds such as chicken, ducks, and turkey.
○ The main emphasis in poultry farming is selection of a diseasefree
and healthy breed.
○ Safe farm conditions, proper feed, water, and hygiene are also
necessary.
Animal Breeding
● Breed − A group of animals related by descent and similar in most characters
such as general appearance, features, size, etc.
● Aims of breeding:
○ To increase yield of animals
○ To improve desirable qualities in produce
● Breeding is of two types − inbreeding and outbreeding.
● Inbreeding
○ Mating of more closely related individuals of same breed for four
generations
○ Superior females and superior males are identified and mated.
○ Superior females − Produce more milk per lactation
○ Superior males − Give rise to a superior progeny
○ Inbreeding increases homozygosity. It evolves a pure line.
○ It accumulates superior genes, but also threatens to accumulate
harmful recessive genes
●
○ Continuous inbreeding may reduce fertility and productivity. This
problem is called inbreeding depression.
○ Outbreeding provides a solution to inbreeding depression.
● Outbreeding − It includes outcrossing, crossbreeding, and interspecific
hybridisation.
○ Outcrossing
− It is the mating between animals of same breed, but
not having common ancestors for 4 − 5 generations. It is usually used
for animals, which have below average productivity and growth rate.
○ Crossbreeding
− It is the mating between superior male of one
breed with superior female of another breed. Superior qualities of both
the breeds combine and this is known as hybrid vigour. The progeny
so formed is called hybrid. A hybrid may be used as it is or may be
further subjected to inbreeding.
Example:
Hisardale
sheep is a hybrid of Bikaneri ewes and Marino
rams.
○ Interspecific Hybridization
− Males and females of different, but
related species are mated. Progeny has desirable features of both the
species.
Example − Mule is an interspecific hybrid of donkey and horse.
Controlled Breeding Techniques
● Artificial Insemination
Semen is collected from the male and injected into the reproductive tract of
the female.
Semen can be frozen for later use or used immediately.
● Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer (MOET) Technology
○ Cow is administered with FSHlike hormone, which induces follicular
maturity and super ovulation.
○ In super ovulation, instead of one egg/cycle, 6 − 8 eggs are produced
per cycle.
○ The cow is either naturally mated with a superior bull or artificially
inseminated.
○ Fertilized egg is recovered at 8 − 32 cell stages nonsurgically and
transferred to a surrogate mother.
○ Using this technique, high milkyielding breeds of females and lean
meatyielding bulls have been bred successfully.
Apiculture
● Apiculture is the practice of beekeeping. It includes maintenance of beehives
for production of honey.
● Uses of apiculture:
○ Honey has a high nutritive value and medicinal value.
○ Honeybees also produce beeswax that is used in preparation of
polishes and cosmetics.
○ Most commonly reared species of honeybee is
Apis indica.
● Beekeeping is not labour intensive. It is relatively easy, but requires some
specialized knowledge about
○ nature and habits of bees
○ selection of suitable location for keeping beehives
○ catching and hiving of swarms
○ beehive management during different seasons
○ handling and collection of honey and beeswax
Fisheries
● Include catching, processing, and selling of fishes, shellfishes, and other
aquatic animals (prawn, crab, lobster, etc.)
● Edible freshwater fishes −
Catla
and
Rohu
● Edible Marine fishes −
Hilsa,
pomfrets, and sardines
● Aquaculture and pisciculture are the technologies to commercially rear fishes.
● The fisheries industry is flourishing in our country and ‘Blue Revolution’ is on
the verge of being implemented.
Plant Breeding
What is Plant Breeding?
● It is the purposeful manipulation of plant species in order to create desired
plant types which are better suited for cultivation, give better yields, and are
disease resistant.
● Classical plant breeding
: It includes crossing of superior pure lines and
selection of plants with desired characteristics.
● Modern plant breeding
: It includes the use of molecular biology and
genetics.
● Desirable plant traits wished to be incorporated by plant breeding −
○ Increased crop yield
○ Improved quality
○ Tolerance to environmental stresses
○ Pathogen resistance
○ Tolerance to insects and pests
Steps Involved in Breeding a New Genetic Variety of a Crop
● Collection of genetic variability
○ Genetic variability is availed from the wild relatives of the crop.
○ Hence, all the wild varieties and relatives of the crop are collected and
preserved.
○ The natural genes available in a population are utilised by this method.
○ Entire collection of plants/seeds (wild types/relatives) of the given
crop, which has all the diverse alleles for all genes, is called
germplasm collection.
● Evaluation and selection of parents
○ From the available genetic variability, the germplasm is analysed and
evaluated to identify the plants with desirable traits.
● Crop hybridisation among selected parents
○ Two selected parents are crossed (hybridised). This facilitates the
combination of desired traits from two different plants.
○ Pollen grains from one plant are dusted over the stigma of the other
plant.
● Selection of superior recombinants
○ Among the hybrid progeny, those plants are selected which have the
desired character combination.
○ Careful scientific evaluation of progeny is required for selection.
○ This step yields the plant that is superior to both the parents.
● Testing, release and commercialisation
○ Selected yields are evaluated for traits like quality, disease resistance,
insect resistance, etc.
○ These crops are grown in research fields and their performance is
recorded under ideal conditions.
○ This crop is then grown by farmers at several locations, for at least
three growing seasons.
○ The crop is evaluated by comparing with the best available local crop
cultivar (which acts as a reference).
Indian Hybrid Crops
Wheat and Rice
● In 1960s, wheat and rice production increased tremendously.
● Norman E. Borlang developed semidwarf varieties of wheat.
● Sonalika
and
Kalyan sona
are two of the hybrid wheat varieties grown in
India.
● Semidwarf wheat varieties were taken from IR−86 (International Rice
Research Institute) and Taichung native−I (from Taiwan).
● Jaya
and
Ratna
are the betteryielding, semidwarf rice varieties that were
later introduced.
Sugarcane
● Saccharum barberi
is a native of North India and
S. officinarum
belongs to
South India.
● S. officinarum
has thicker stems and higher sugar content, but it does not
grow well in North India.
● These two varieties were crossed to get the desirable qualities of both
(Higher sugar content, thicker stems and the ability to grow in North India).
Millets
● Hybrid maize,
jowar
and
bajra
have been successfully developed in India.
● These varieties are high yielding and resistant to water stress.
Applications of Plant Breeding
● If resistance to a particular disease is already present in a plant, it reduces
the dependence of the plant on fungicides and bacteriocides.
● Before breeding, one must know the causative agent of a disease, and its
mode of transmission.
● Some common diseases:
○ Fungal − brown rust of wheat, red rot of sugarcane and late blight of
potato
○ Bacterial − black rot of crucifers
○ Viral − tobacco mosaic
● Disease resistance can be provided by conventional breeding, mutational
breeding or genetic engineering.
● Conventional breeding
: It includes the basic steps of screening,
germplasm, hybridisation, selection, testing and release.
○ Example − wheat variety,
Himgiri
(resistant to leaf/stripe rust and hill
bunt) and
Brassica v
ariety,
Pusa swarnim
(resistant to white rust) are
bred by conventional breeding.
○ One limitation of this method is that the genes for disease resistance
are limited in number.
● Mutational breeding
:In this method, genetic variations are created, which
then result in the creation of traits not found in the parental type.
○ Mutations are induced with the help of mutagens (like chemicals) or
irradiation.
○ The plants in which the desired character (in this case, the desired
resistance) has come through mutation are selected.
● Genetic engineering
:
○ Certain wild varieties have diseaseresistant characteristics, but they
are low yielding.
○ Diseaseresistant genes from such varieties are introduced in
highyielding varieties through recombinant DNA technology.
○ Example − resistance to the yellow mosaic virus in
bhindi
was
transferred from a wild species to produce a new diseaseresistant
variety of
bhindi
,
Parbhani Kranti.
PestResistant Crops
● Certain morphological characters (like hairy leaves, solid stems of wheat)
naturally provide resistance from insects and pests.
● Similarly, biochemical characters provide resistance from insects and pests.
For example, the high aspartic acid and low nitrogen and sugar content in
maize lead to resistance against maize stem borers.
● Such varieties are bred with nonresistant varieties to produce pestresistant
hybrids.
● Example −
Pusa Gaurav
variety of
Brassica
is resistant to aphids.
Improvement in Food Quality
● A large number of people all over the world suffer from micronutrient, protein
and vitamin deficiencies (hidden hunger) since they cannot afford to buy food
rich in these nutrients.
● Such deficiencies lead to diseases, mental retardation and reduced lifespan.
● An alternative to this problem is to breed crops that are rich in nutrients.
● This approach is called biofortification of crops. Objectives of biofortification
are to improve −
○ Protein content and quality
○ Oil content and quality
○ Vitamin content
○ Micronutrient and mineral content
● Examples −
○ Maize hybrids developed in the year 2000 have twice the amount of
lysine and tryptophan compared to other maize hybrids.
○ Atlas 66 (a wheat variety having higher protein content)
SingleCell Protein & Tissue Culture
SingleCell Protein (SCP)
● Singlecell protein means that microbes are used as a source of protein.
● Microorganisms, despite being very small, are capable of producing tonnes of
proteins due to their higher rates of biomass production.
● Just like mushroom culture, it is expected that microbes will soon be
accepted as a source of food.
● Presently,
Spirulina
, an alga is widely accepted as a source of SCP. It is
economical and ecofriendly as well.
● It can be grown on economical substrates like waste water from potato
processing plant, straw, molasses or even sewage.
Tissue Culture
● Tissue culture is the process of developing a complete plant from a part of a
plant. The plant part is called an explant.
● Explants can be grown in sterile conditions in special nutrient media to
regenerate complete plants.
● Nutrient media contain a carbon source (such as sucrose), organic salts,
vitamins, amino acids and phytohormones.
● Hence, propagation is achieved for a large number of plants in a short
duration. This process is called micropropagation.
● Somaclones
− All the plants obtained by tissue culture are called
somaclones since they are genetically identical to each other as well as the
parent plant.
● Somatic hybridisation
− It refers to the hybridisation of the somatic parts
of two plants. Protoplasts are isolated and fused to get a hybrid protoplast,
which grows further to form a new plant. This new plant is called a somatic
hybrid.
E.g., protoplasts of potato and tomato have been actually fused to form a
Pomato, but this plant is not commercially viable.
● Applications of tissue culture
○ Many important plants like apple, banana and tomato have been
grown on laboratory scale by using this method.
○ This method can be used to recover a healthy plant from a diseased
plant. Example − a plant inflicted with virus may not have virus in its
apical and axillary meristems. Hence, these parts can be cultured to
obtain a healthy plant.
WWW.NCRTSOLUTIONS.IN
a) Fermented Beverages:
The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae used for bread making and commonly called
brewer’s yeast, is used for fermenting malted cereals and fruit juices to produce ethanol. Wine
and beer are produced without distillation whereas whisky, brandy and rum are produced by
distillation of the fermented broth.
b) Antibiotics:
Antibiotics are chemical substances, which are produced by some microbes and can kill
or retard the growth of other disease causing microbes.
Pencillin was the first antibiotic to be discovered and it was a chance
discovery. Alexander Fleming while working on Staphylococci bacteria, once observed a mould
growing in one of his unwashed culture plates around which Staphylococci could not grow. He
found out that it was due to a chemical produced by the mould and he named it Pencillin after
the mould Pencillium notatum. Later, Ernest Chain and Howard Florey made its full potential
effective antibiotic.
Enzymes:
Bioactive molecules:
All solids that settle form the primary sludge, and the supernatant forms the effluent.
The effluent from the primary settling tank is taken for secondary treatment.
The primary effluent is passed into large aeration tanks, this allows vigorous growth of
aerobic microbes into flocs. While growing, these microbes consume the major part of
the organic matter in the effluent. This significantly reduces the BOD (biochemical
oxygen demand) of the effluent. BOD is a measure of the organic matter present in the
water. The greater the BOD of waste water, more is its polluting potential.
Once the BOD of sewage water is reduced significantly, the effluent is then passed into a
settling tank where the bacterial ‘flocs’ are allowed to sediment. This sediment is called
Activated sludge.
A small part of this sludge is pumped back into the aeration tank to serve as the
inoculum.
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The remaining major part of the sludge is pumped into large tanks called anaerobic
sludge digesters.
During this digestion, bacteria produce a mixture of gases such as methane, hydrogen
sulphide and carbon dioxide. These gases form biogas.
The effluent from the secondary treatment plant is generally released into natural water
bodies like rivers and streams.
These bacteria are also present in the rumen of cattle. A lot of cellulosic material
present in the food of cattle is also present in the rumen. In rumen, these bacteria help in the
breakdown of cellulose and play an important role in the nutrition of cattle. Thus, the excreta
(dung) of cattle, commonly called Gobar, is rich in these bacteria. Dung can be used for
generation of biogas commonly called gobar gas.
Biogas Plant:
The technology of biogas production was developed in India mainly due to the efforts of
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and Khadi and Village Industries Commission
(KVIC).
The biogas plant consists of a concrete tank in which bio-wastes are collected and slurry
of dung is fed.
A floating cover is placed over the slurry, which keeps on rising as the gas is produced in
the tank due to the microbial activity.
The biogas plant has an outlet, which is connected to a pipe to supply biogas to nearby
houses.
The spent slurry is removed through another outlet and may be used as fertilizer.
The biogas thus produced is used for cooking and lighting.
Microbes as Biofertilisers: Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the
soil. The main sources of biofertilisers are bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.
Bacteria:
Fungi:
Symbiosis – Mycorrhiza with root system of genus Glomus and absorb phosphorus and
water from the soil for the plant growth.
Cyanobacteria:
● Biotechnology refers to the technology using biology, which has
applications in agriculture, food processing industry, medicine
diagnostics, bioremediation, waste treatment, and energy production.
● The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) defines biotechnology
as “the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts
thereof and molecular analogues for products and services”.
Basis of Modern Biotechnology
● Genetic engineering −
Introduction of foreign genetic material
(DNA/RNA) into the host’s genome and altering its phenotype
● Aseptic techniques −
Involves maintenance of contaminationfree
ambience in chemical engineering processes for manufacture of
products such as antibiotics, vaccines, etc.This is done so as to enable
the growth of only desired microbes responsible for a bioprocess.
Genetic Engineering
● Asexual reproduction preserves the genetic information while sexual
reproduction preserves variations.
● Plant and animal hybridization procedures often result in introduction
of undesirable genes along with desirable ones.
● Genetic engineering overcomes this limitation.
● Genetic engineering includes:
○ Creation of recombinant DNA
○ Gene cloning
○ Gene transfer into host organism
● The introduced piece of DNA does not replicate in the host unless it is
integrated with the chromosome of host.
● For getting replicated, the foreign DNA must integrate into the host
DNA sequence having ‘origin of replication’. When this integration
occurs, foreign DNA is replicated and many copies are formed. This
process is called
cloning
(the process of formation of multiple identical
copies of DNA).
Construction of a Recombinant DNA
● Plasmid (autonomously replicating, circular, extrachromosomal DNA)
is isolated.
● Plasmid DNA acts asa
vector
since it is used to transfer the piece of
DNA attached to it to the host.
● Plasmid DNA also contains genes responsible for providing antibiotic
resistance to the bacteria.
● Plasmid DNA was cut with a specific restriction enzyme (‘molecular
scissors’ − that cut a DNA at specific locations).
● The DNA of interest (to be inserted) was also cut with the same
restriction enzyme.
● The DNA of interest is hybridised with the plasmid with the help of
DNA ligase to form a
Recombinant DNA
.
● Recombinant DNA is then transferred to a host such as E.coli
, where it
replicates by using the host’s replicating machinery.
● When E.coli
is cultured in a medium containing antibiotic, only cells
containing recombinant DNA will be able to survive due to antibiotic
resistance genes and one will be able to isolate the recombinants.
Restriction Enzymes as Tools of RDT
● Restriction enzymes are specialised enzymes that recognise and cut a
particular sequence of DNA.
● Nucleases are of two types:
○ Endonucleases − Cut the DNA at specific positions within the
DNA
○ Exonucleases − Cut the DNA at the ends (Remove the
nucleotides at the ends of the DNA)
● Every restriction enzyme identifies different sequences (Recognition
sequences). Over 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated, all of
which recognise different sequences.
● Recognition sequences are
pallindromic
Pallindromes are the
sequence of base pairs that read same both backwards and forwards
● Restriction enzymes cut a little away from the centre of pallindrome
site, but between the same two bases on the opposite strands.
● As a result, overhangs (called sticky ends) are generated on each
strand.
● Sticky ends form hydrogen bonds with their complementary
counterparts with help of DNA ligases.
● All these processes form the basis of RDT.
● Naming restriction enzyme
○ I letter − Genus of the organism from which the enzyme is
st
derived
○ II and III
nd
letters − Species of the organism
rd
○ IV letter − Name of the strain
th
○ Roman number − Order of isolation
E.g., In EcoRI − Derived from
E.coli
, strain R.
It is the I to be discovered.
st
Gel Electrophoresis
● The fragments obtained after cutting with restriction enzymes are
separated by using gel electrophoresis.
● Electric field is applied to the electrophoresis matrix (commonly
agarose gel) and negatively charged DNA fragments move towards the
anode.
● Fragments separate according to their size by the sieving properties of
agarose gel. Smaller the fragment, farther it moves.
● Staining dyes such as ethidium bromide followed by exposure to UV
radiations are used to visualise the DNA fragments.
● DNA fragments are visible as bright orange coloured bands in the
agarose matrix.
● These bands are cut from the agarose gel and extracted from the gel
piece (elution).
● DNA fragments are purified and these purified DNA fragments are used
in constructing recombinant DNAs.
Cloning vectors & host as tools of RDT
Cloning Vectors
● Plasmids and bacteriophages are commonly used as cloning vectors.
● Both of these have the ability to replicate within the bacterial cells
independent of the chromosomal DNA.
● Bacteriophages − Have high copy number (of genome) within the
bacterial cell
● Plasmids − May have 1 − 2 copy number to 15 − 100 copy number
per cell
● If foreign DNA is linked to these vectors, then it is multiplied to the
number equal to the copy number of vector.
● Features present in the vector itself help in the easy isolation of
recombinants from the nonrecombinants.
Components of a plasmid cloning vector
● Origin of replication (
ori
)
○ Replication starts from
ori
. Any fragment of DNA when linked to
ori
can be made to replicate.
○ With the help of this, the genetic engineer may control copy
number of the recombinant DNA. To recover a high number,
suitable origin of replication must be chosen.
● Selectable marker
○ These genes help to select recombinants over nonrecombinants.
○ Antibiotic resistance genes such as amp (ampicillin resistant),
R
tet (tetracycline resistant) serve as selectable markers usually.
R
● Cloning sites
○ These sites refer to the recognition sites for restriction enzymes
(such as EcoRI, Hind III, PvuI , BamHI, etc.)
○ These are the sites where restriction enzymes cut the DNA.
○ Cloning process becomes completed when more than one
recognition sites are present.
○ Therefore, ligation is carried out only at the restriction sites
present on the antibiotic resistance genes.
How antibiotic resistance genes help in selecting recombinants?
● Suppose tet gene has Bam HI recognition site.
R
● When BamHI is used for restriction, foreign DNA fragment is inserted
within the tet gene.
R
● Hence, tetracycline resistance is not present in the recombinants.
● Recombinants will grow on the media containing ampicillin, but will die
on media containing tetracycline.
● On the other hand, nonrecombinants will grow on medium containing
ampicillin as well as on medium containing tetracycline.
● In this way, antibiotic resistance gene helps in selecting transformants.
Alternate selectable marker
● Other than antibiotic resistance genes, alternative markers can be
used.
● One of them is gene coding for galactosidase.
● When foreign gene is inserted within galactosidase gene, the
enzyme galactosidase gets inactivated (insertional inactivation).
● Then the bacteria are grown on a chromogenic substrate.
● Nonrecombinants will produce bluecoloured colonies.
● Recombinants will produce colourless colonies.
Cloning vectors for plants and animals
● Ti plasmid (tumourinducing plasmid) refers to the plasmid of
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
.
○ A. tumefaciens
is a plant pathogen. It produces tumours in the
plants it infects.
○ Ti plasmid can be modified into a cloning vector by removing the
genes responsible for pathogenicity.
● Retrovirus − These are the viruses that infect animals. They produce
cancers in animals.
○ Retroviruses can be disarmed to be used as a cloning vector.
Competent host
● Competent host refers to the bacterial cells that have the ability to
take up the vector (containing Recombinant DNA).
● Methods to introduce recombinant DNA into competent host:
○ Cells are treated with divalent cations (e.g. Ca ). Then, these
2+
cells are incubated with recombinant DNA on ice, followed by
heat shock (at 42º), and then putting them back on ice. By this,
bacteria are able to take up recombinant DNA.
○ Microinjection
− Recombinant DNA is directly injected into the
nucleus of animal cell.
○ Biolistics (Gene Gun)
− Cells are bombarded with high velocity
micro particles of gold or tungsten.
○ Disarmed vector as in case of
A. tumefaciens
and retrovirus
Processes of RDT
Isolation of Genetic Material (DNA)
● For the processes of RDT, DNA must be available in its pure form.
● First of all, cells are treated with specific chemicals to break open the
cell to release cellular components such as DNA, RNA, proteins, etc.
This is done by enzymes such as lysozymes (bacterial cell), cellulase
(plant cell), and chitinase (fungal cell).
● Contaminants such as RNA and proteins are digested with the help of
ribonucleases and proteases respectively.
● Addition of chilled ethanol ultimately precipitates out the purified DNA,
which can be seen as collection of fine threads in the suspension.
Cutting of DNA at Specific Locations
● DNA is cut into fragments with the help of restriction enzymes.
● Fragments generated after restriction are isolated with the help of gel
electrophoresis.
● Recombinant DNA is obtained by hybridising ‘gene of interest’ with
vector, with the help of enzyme DNA ligase.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
● Recombinant DNA can be amplified by PCR. Several identical copies of
it can be synthesised in vitro.
● Two sets of
primers
(chemically synthesised oligonucleotide stretches
that are complementary to a region of DNA), enzyme
DNA
polymerase
,and deoxynucleotides are added.
● PCR consists of 3 steps:
○ Denaturation
− Double helical DNA is denatured by providing
high temperature. DNA polymerase does not get degraded in
such high temperatures since the DNA polymerase used in this
reaction is thermostable as it is isolated from thermophilic
bacteria,
Thermus aquaticus
(
Taq
).
○ Extension
− Replication of DNA occurs in vitro.
○ This cycle is repeated several times to generate up to 1 billion
identical copies of the DNA.
Insertion of Recombinant DNA into Competent Cells
● Insertion of recombinant DNA into host is done by several methods:
○ Transformation in case of bacteria
○ Disarmed vectors, biolistics, and microinjections in case of plant
and animal cells
○ The cells bearing recombinant DNA are selected because the
recombinants exclusively have selectable marker present in
them (similar to antibiotic resistance).
Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product
● This is the stage for which the recombinant DNA was produced.
● The cell containing recombinant DNA will produce a novel protein
product (desirable product/Recombinant protein).
● For large scale production of the desirable product (antibiotics,
vaccines, enzymes), optimum conditions are to be provided.
● Continuous culture − Used culture media is drained from one side and
fresh culture media is added from the other side.
○ Cells are kept throughout in their log/exponential phase.
○ Larger biomass is produced by this method leading to higher
yield.
● Bioreactors − Large vessels in which large volumes (100 − 1000 litres)
of culture can be produced
○ Optimal growth conditions for microbes are present
(temperature, pH, substrate, salts, vitamins, etc.).
○
●
○ A bioreactor has the following components agitator system,
oxygen delivery system, foam control system, temperature and
pH control system, sampling ports.
Downstream Processing
● Biosynthesis of many compounds such as enzymes, alcohols, and
antibiotics take place within the bioreactor.
● The products so obtained are crude and require separation,
purification, and finishing, which is done under downstream processing
(DSP).
● DSP makes a crude bio product marketable.
● After proper separation and purification, preservatives are added and
the finished product is made to undergo clinical trials and quality
checks before being sent to market.
Biotechnology and its Applications
Genetically Engineered Crops
● Genetically engineered crops have desirable genes (as of insect/pest
resistance, giving better yield) incorporated in them.
● Genetically modified crops have
○ more tolerance to abiotic stresses such as cold, drought, salinity,
heat, etc.
○ insect/pest resistance
○ reduced postharvest losses
○ efficient mineral usage by plants
○ enhanced nutritional value (e.g., Vitamin A rich rice)
Bt
Cotton
● Bacillus thuringiensis
is a bacterium that produces proteins to kill
certain insects such as lepidopterans (armyworm), coleopterans
(beetles), and dipterans (flies/ mosquitoes).
B. thuringiensis
produces
a protein crystal containing a toxic protein (inactivated state).
● Inactivated toxin Activated toxin (gut of insect)
● Activated toxin binds to the epithelial cells in the midgut of insect and
creates pores that cause lyses and swelling and eventually death of
insect.
● This toxin is encoded by a gene called
Cry
in the bacterium. Genes
encoded by
Cry IAc
and
Cry II
Ab
control cotton bollworms and those
encoded by
Cry IAb
control corn borer.
● Cry genes are introduced into the cotton plants to produce
Bt
cotton,
which is an insect resistant variety of cotton.
RNA Interference (RNAi
)
● RNAi is a method adopted to prevent infestation of roots of tobacco
plants by a nematode
Meloidegyne incognitia
.
● In RNAi, a complementary RNA binds to mRNA to form a ds RNA,
which cannot translate and hence, its expression is blocked
(Silencing).
● This complementary mRNA may come from
○ infection by RNA viruses
○ transposons (mobile genetic elements)
● RNAi exists naturally in eukaryotes as a method of cellular defence.
● Nematode specific genes (DNA) were introduced in the host plant.
● The introduced DNA forms both sense and antisense RNA.
● Two strands being complementary to each other bend and form ds
RNA, leading to RNAi.
● mRNA of nematode is silenced and the parasite cannot survive in the
transgenic host.
Applications of Biotechnology in Medicine
Recombinant Therapeutics
● With the help of RDT, mass production of efficient therapeutic drugs
can be accomplished.
● These are safe and do not induce unwanted immunological response.
Genetically Engineered Insulin
● Insulin is in great demand due to increase in number of patients with
adult onset diabetes.
● Insulin extracted from animal source (example, slaughtered cattle and
pigs) induce allergy in humans.
● Insulin as a proenzyme consists of 3 peptide chains − A, B, and C.
● Proenzyme insulin Mature insulin
● Mature insulin consists of only two peptide chains − A and B. Both
these chains were separately isolated and introduced in plasmids of
E.
coli
to produce insulin chains.
● Separately produced chains A and B were extracted and combined by
creating a disulphide bond to form mature human insulin.
Gene Therapy
● Gene therapy is an attempt to deal with genetic or congenital diseases.
● This aims at correction of a genetic defect by delivery of a normal gene
into an individual or embryo to take over or compensate the function
for a nonfunctional gene.
● The first disease to have a gene therapy is ADA (Adenosine
deaminase) deficiency. In this, the gene coding for enzyme ADA gets
deleted leading to deficiency of ADA and problems in immune system.
● ADA deficiency can also be treated with:
○ Bone marrow transplantation
○ Enzyme replacement therapy
● Gene therapy for ADA deficiency:
○ Lymphocytes isolated from patient’s blood are cultured invitro.
○ Functional ADA cDNA are then introduced into the cultured
lymphocytes.
○ These lymphocytes are returned back to the patient’s body.
● Lymphocytes are not immortal. Therefore, repeated infusion of
genetically engineered lymphocytes is required.
● Permanent cure − Introduction of gene isolated from bone marrow
cells producing ADA into cells at early embryonic stages
Molecular Diagnosis
● Recombinant DNA technologies, PCR, ELISA (enzyme linked immuno
sorbent assay) are some of the technologies of molecular diagnosis.
● Early diagnosis of bacteria and virus in body, when the concentration
is extremely low, can be done by PCR since it amplifies the DNA
several folds.
● PCR is used to detect HIV virus in suspected AIDS patients and
mutations in genes in suspected cancer patients.
● ELISA is based on antigenantibody interactions. In the presence of an
antigen, the antibody produced against it can be detected.
● Hybridisation with a radioactive probe − In this approach, gene is
hybridized with a radioactive probe and autoradiography is used for
detection. The regions where mutation is present in the gene will not
appear in the photographic film since probe will not be able to bind
with that part.
Transgenic Animals & Biopiracy
Transgenic Animals
● Animals that have their DNA manipulated to possess or express an
extra gene are called transgenic animals.
● Till date, transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows, and fish have
been produced.
Reasons for Producing Transgenic Animals
● Study of normal physiology
○ Transgenic animals serve as models to study genetics, regulation
and down regulation of genes, and their corresponding effects on
physiology.
○ They give information about the biological role of a particular
factor in the body.
● Study of diseases
○ They act as models to study genetic basis of diseases.
○ These studies aid in finding possible treatments of diseases.
○ Transgenic models exist of various human diseases such as
cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer’s, etc.
● Biological products
○ Treatment of diseases often requires certain products that are
expensive to make.
○ Transgenic animals can be produced that have genes, coding for
that particular product.
○ Example − Human protein α1antitrypsim used to treat
emphysema is isolated by this method.
○ In 1997, first transgenic cow Rosie produced human
proteinenriched milk, which contained αlactalbumin and was
nutritionally more suitable for human babies.
● Vaccine safety tests
○ Transgenic mice are used to test vaccines for their safety before
they are used for humans.
○ Example − Transgenic mice are used to check polio vaccines.
● Chemical safety testing
○ Transgenic animals contain genes that make them more
sensitive to toxic substances than nontransgenic.
○ Toxicity testing in such animals helps us to obtain results in less
time.
Ethical Issues Associated with Transgenic Animals
● Indian government has set up an organization GEAC (Genetic
Engineering Approval Committee), which makes decisions regarding
validity of GM research and its use for public utility.
● Modification which may result in the loss of biological significance of
animals cannot go beyond regulation.
● Unpredictable results may be observed, if these organisms are
introduced in natural ecosystem.
● Patents for transgenic varieties also create problems as many
indigenous varieties are claimed by multinational companies as their
own inventions.
● For example − A new variety of Basmati was claimed by an American
company through patenting. This new variety was actually derived by
Indian farmers by crossing Indian Basmati with semidwarf varieties.
● Similarly Neem and turmeric, which have been used for ages in Indian
medicines, are also matters of dispute for patent rights.
Biopiracy
● Use of bioresources by MNCs and other organisations without proper
authorisation from countries and people concerned without
compensatory payment
● Industrialized and developed nations are economically rich, but poor in
biodiversity while opposite prevails for developing nations. Therefore,
developed countries exploit traditional knowledge and resources of
poor countries for commercialisation.
● This is a matter of injustice since inadequate compensation and benefit
sharing is given to poor countries in return. Therefore, steps should be
taken by developing countries to prevent this exploitation.
● The Indian parliament has recently introduced second amendment of
Indian patents bill to deal with these issues.
Organisms and Environment
● Ecology deals with interactions among different organisms and their
environment.
● Organisms get adapted to their environment for their survival and
reproduction.
● The rotation of the earth about its axis brings about changes in the
environment, leading to different seasons. This leads to the formation
of various biomes such as desert, grassland, etc.
● Life not only exists in favourable habitats, but also in harsh and
extreme conditions.
● The environment of an organism can be divided into:
○ Abiotic factors
○ Biotic factors
Abiotic Factors
● Some of the major abiotic factors that interact with the organisms are:
○ Temperature
− It is the most relevant abiotic factor since all
organisms require an optimum temperature for their metabolism
and other body functions. Depending upon their ability to
tolerate temperature range, organisms are of two types
stenothermal (restricted to a narrow range of temperature) and
eurythermal (can tolerate a wide range of temperature).
○ Water − Water also is a major influencing factor. Life on earth is
impossible without water as it forms the major constituent of all
living cells. In oceans where quantity of water is not a limitation,
the quality of water becomes one. Depending upon the ability to
tolerate salinity, organisms can be stenohaline (restricted to
narrow range of salinity) and euryhaline (tolerant to wider range
of salinity).
○ Soil − The nature and composition of soil differs from one place
to another depending upon the climate, weathering process, and
soil development method. The characteristic features such as soil
composition, grain size, percolation, water holding capacity, etc.
determine the native of the organisms it can support.
○ Light
− The major source of light on earth is the Sun. Light is
essential for plants to perform photosynthesis. Certain plants
become adapted to perform photosynthesis under very low light
since they are constantly overshadowed by tall trees. Many
plants also depend on light for their flowering (photoperiodism).
The availability of light on land is comparatively higher than that
in water.
Responses to Abiotic Factors
● All organisms in order to sustain maximum functionality maintain a
constant internal environment (homeostasis). An organism may adopt
one of the following strategies for homeostasis:
○ Regulate
− Certain animals have the ability to maintain a
constant temperature and a constant osmolarity to keep up their
homeostasis. Mammals have a constant body temperature
(37°C) irrespective of the outside temperature. In summers, to
maintain the temperature, we sweat and in winters we shiver,
which produces heat.
○ Conform
− Animals and plants except mammals do not have a
constant body temperature and their body temperature changes
in accordance with the outside temperature. Such organisms are
called conformers. Conformers have not evolved. They have
become regulators since regulation is energetically more
expensive.
○ Migrate
− The organism can move temporarily from stressful
habitats to more hospitable areas and return once the period
changes. Birds can migrate from cold regions to relatively
warmer regions during winter and viceversa during summers.
○ Suspend
− Some organisms cease to be metabolically active
during stressful period. They suspend all activity and enter a
period of dormancy. For example − Spores in bacteria and lower
plants; and hibernation (winter sleep) and aestivation (summer
sleep) in animals Similarly, zooplankton enter diapause, a stage
of suspended development during unfavourable conditions.
Adaptations
● Adaptations are certain characteristics that organisms develop in order
to survive and reproduce better in their habitat.
● These adaptations can be physiological, behavioural, or morphological.
● Some of the adaptations are:
○ Desert plants
have thick cuticle on their leaf surface and
stomata arranged in deep pits to reduce water loss. Their special
photosynthetic pathway CAM enables their stomata to remain
closed during day time. Their leaves are reduced to spines and
photosynthesis is carried out by flattened stems.
○ Animals of colder regions
have shorter limbs and ears to
minimise heat loss (Allen’s rule) and the body is covered by thick
fur to reduce the heat loss. Their body has a thick layer of fat
(blubber) below their skin that acts as an insulator to minimise
heat loss.
○ People living in high altitudes
have high RBC production and
increased breathing rates.
○ Some
desert animals
are capable of burrowing in order to
escape the heat. In addition, some desert animals such as
kangaroo rat are able to meet their water requirement through
internal fat oxidation. They also have ability to concentrate their
urine.
Population
● It is a group of similar individuals living in a geographical area, sharing
similar resources, and capable of interbreeding.
● Population has certain attributes, which individual organisms do not
possess:
○ Birth rate
per capita
births
○ Death rate
per capita
deaths
○ Sex ratio − Ratio of number of males to females in a population
● Age distribution
○ A population can be composed of individuals of different age
groups.
○ Age distribution plot for a given population is given by the age
pyramid.
○ The structure of the age pyramid determines the growth status
of the population, whether it is growing, stable, or declining.
● Population size, more technically, is referred to as population density
(N), which indicates the number of individuals inhabiting a particular
niche.
● If the population is huge, then relative density is measured instead of
absolute density whose measurement is timeconsuming.
Population Growth
● The size of a population is an everchanging aspect since it depends
upon availability of food, predation, weather conditions, etc.
● This gives us an idea whether a certain population is growing or
declining.
● Some of the reasons for the increase or decrease in population:
○ Natality (B) − Number of births during a given period in the
given population
○ Mortality (D) − Number of deaths during a given period in the
given population
○ Immigration (I) − Number of individuals of the same species
who have come into the habitat from elsewhere during a given
period
○ Emigration (E) − Number of individuals of the same species who
have left the habitat and gone elsewhere during a given period
● If N is the population at time t, then its density at t + 1 is
N = N
t + 1 + [(B + I) − (D + E)]
t
Growth Models
● Exponential Growth
− When the resources are unlimited, population
tends to grow in an exponential pattern.
○ If the population size is N and the birth and death rates (not
per
capita
) are b and d respectively, then increase or decrease in N
at t (time period) is given by,
dN /dt = (b − d) × N
If (b − d) = r, then
dN/ dt = rN
r is the “intrinsic rate of natural increase”.
Or,
N = N
t e
0
rt
Where,
N − Population density at time t
t
N − Population density at time 0
0
r − Intrinsic rate of natural increase
e − Base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
● Logistic growth
− When the resources are limited leading to
competition between individuals and survival of the fittest, the
population tends to grow in a logistic manner.
○ In this kind of growth, there is an initial lag phase followed by
acceleration or deceleration phases and finally asymptote, when
it reaches its carrying capacity (K).
○ When N in relation to t is plotted, it results in a sigmoid curve
called the Verhulst − Pearl Logistic growth given by,
N − Population density at time t
r − Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K − Carrying capacity
Life History Variations
● Populations tend to increase their reproductive fitness in order to
survive better. This is known as Darwinian fitness (high r value).
● Some of the trends they follow in course of achieving this:
○ Some organisms breed only once in their lifetime. Example
Salmon, Bamboo
○ Some breed many times. Example Birds, mammals
○ Some produce a large number of smallsized offsprings. Example
Oyster
○ Some produce small number of largesized offsprings. Example
Birds, Mammals
Population Interactions
● A natural habitat consists of many organisms living together and these
organisms communicate and interact with each other. For example,
plants depend on insects for pollination.
● Interspecific interactions are interactions between two different species
of organisms. They can be either beneficial or harmful to one or both
partners.
Interspecific interactions
● Predation
− It is beneficial to the predator while the prey is harmed.
○ It acts as a means of transfer of energy to the next higher
trophic level and of maintaining balance in the ecosystem.
○ For plants, herbivores are predators and some plants produce
secondary metabolites, thorns, or poisonous chemicals to ward
off predators.
○ Similarly, animals also camouflage themselves to protect
themselves from predators. Some preys are poisonous or
distasteful (Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful because of a
special chemical it acquires during its caterpillar stage by feeding
on poisonous weeds) so as to avoid predators.
● Competition
− It occurs only in closely related species wherein they
share the same type of habitat and food resources.
○ However, for competition to take place resources need not be
always scarce and competition does not necessarily take place
between same species.
○ In competition, the fitness of one species is significantly lower in
presence of another species and survival of fittest ultimately
takes place.
○ Gause’s
Competitive Exclusion Principle
states that two closely
related species competing for the same resource cannot coexist
indefinitely and the competitively inferior will be eliminated
eventually.
●
○ Moreover, some species may develop mechanisms to facilitate
their coexistence.
● Parasitism
− In this interaction, one of the partners is benefited
because it resides outside or inside the body of the host and gets free
accommodation and food while the host is affected due to loss of
nutrients.
○ Parasites in nature have developed a wide variety of adaptations
such as hooks and suckers for attachment, loss of digestive
system, high reproducing capacity, etc.
○ Parasites can live either outside (ectoparasites) or inside
(endoparasites) the body of the host organisms.
○ Brood parasitism is seen in birds in which the parasitic bird lays
its egg in the nest of the unassuming host bird, which takes care
of them until they hatch. For example, Koel lays its eggs in the
nest of the crow.
● Commensalism
− In this interaction, one of the partners is benefited
while the other is neither benefited nor harmed.
For example, an orchid growing as an epiphyte on the mango tree
The orchid gets support while the mango tree is unaffected.
● Mutualism or symbiosis
− In this interaction, both the partners are
benefited.
For example, lichens, interaction of algae and fungi, where both are
benefited
The fungi give support to the algae while the algae prepare the food for
the fungi.
Ecosystem
● Ecosystem is the interaction of living things among themselves and
with their surrounding environment.
● There are two basic ecosystems − terrestrial and aquatic.
Structure of Ecosystem
● The interactions between the various biotic and abiotic factors of an
ecosystem lead to the maintenance of the ecosystem.
● Stratification is the vertical distribution of the different species
occupying the different levels. For example, trees occur at a higher
level then shrubs.
● The various aspects taken into consideration to study the functioning
of ecosystem are:
○ Productivity
○ Decomposition
○ Energy flow
○ Nutrient cycling
Productivity
● A constant supply of sunlight is required for the proper functioning of
any ecosystem.
● The amount of biomass produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis is defined as the
primary productivity
.
● It is expressed as weight (g ) or energy (Kcal m
−2
).
−2
● Productivity can be mainly divided into gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). GPP is the rate of
production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
NPP = GPP − Respiratory losses (R)
● Secondary productivity
is defined as the rate of formation of new
organic matter by consumers.
● Primary productivity depends upon
○ type of plant species inhabiting a particular area
○ photosynthetic capacity of plants
○ nutrient availability
● Annual net productivity for whole biosphere is about 170 b tons of
organic matter.
Decomposition
● It is the process of breakdown of complex organic matter into
inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, water, nutrients, etc.
● Fragmentation
− Breaking down of detritus (dead plant and animal
remains, faecal matter) into smaller particles by detritivores
(decomposers)
● Leaching
Process by which these inorganic matters enter the soil
● Catabolism
− Process by which detritus is degraded into simpler
inorganic substances by bacterial and fungal enzymes
● Humification
− Accumulation of humus in the soil.
Humus is resistant to microbial action and decomposes at an
extremely slow rate. It acts as a reservoir of nutrients.
● Mineralization
− Process by which humus further degrades to release
minerals into the soil
● It is an oxygen consuming process and is controlled by the chemical
composition of detritus and climatic conditions.
Energy Flow
● Sun is the sole source of energy for all ecosystems on the earth.
● Plants and other photosynthetic organisms utilize less than 50% of the
solar radiation known as the
photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR)
.
● In an ecosystem, plants are called
producers
and all animals depend
upon the plants directly or indirectly for their food. Hence, they are
known as consumers or heterotrophs.
● The consumers can be further divided into primary consumers
(herbivores), secondary consumers (primary carnivores), and tertiary
consumers (secondary carnivores).
● Food chain
− The energy flow among the various constituent animals
is known as the food chain.
● Food web
− The interconnection of the various food chains is called
the food web.
● Trophic level
− Every organism occupies a specific level in their food
chain known as the trophic level.
● Standing crop
− Each trophic level contains a certain amount of
living material at a certain time known as the standing crop.
● The number of trophic levels in a food chain is restricted since the
energy transfer follows the 10 percent law i.e., only 10% of the energy
is transferred from a lower trophic level to a higher one.
Ecological Pyramids
● The energy relationship between the different trophic levels is
represented by the ecological pyramids.
● Their base represents the producers or the first trophic level while the
apex represents the tertiary or top level consumer.
● Ecological pyramids are of 3 types:
○ Pyramid of number
○ Pyramid of biomass
○ Pyramid of energy
● In most ecosystems, the three pyramids are upright except in some
cases:
○ The pyramid of biomass is inverted in an ocean ecosystem since
a small standing crop of phytoplankton supports a large number
of zooplankton.
○ The pyramid of number can be inverted when, say, a large tree
is eaten by small insects.
○ However, the pyramid of energy is always upright.
● A trophic level represents a functional level and not a single species as
such. Also, a single species may become a part of more than one
trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time depending upon
the role it plays in the ecosystem.
● Limitations of ecological pyramids:
○ The ecological pyramids do not take into account the same
species belonging to more than one trophic level.
○ It assumes a simple food chain that almost never exists in
nature. It does not explain food webs.
○ Saprophytes are not given a place in ecological pyramids even
though they play a vital role in ecosystem.
Ecological Succession
● The composition of all ecosystems keeps on changing with change in
their environment. These changes finally lead to the climax
community.
● Climax community
− It is the community which is in equilibrium with
its environment. Gradual and fairly predictable change in the species’
composition of a given area is called ecological succession.
● Sere(s)
− It is the sequence of communities that successively change
in a given environment. The transitional communities are called seral
stages or seral communities.
● Succession happens in areas where no life forms ever existed as in
bare rocks, cool lava, etc. (
primary succession
), or in areas which
have lost all life forms due to destructions and floods (
secondary
succession
).
● Primary succession takes hundreds to thousands of years as
developing soil on bare rocks is a slow process. Secondary succession
is faster than primary succession since the nature does not have to
start from scratch.
● During succession, any disturbances (natural/manmade) can convert
a particular seral stage to an earlier one.
● Hydrarch succession
− It takes place in wet areas and converts
hydric conditions to mesic.
● Xerarch succession
− It takes place in dry areas and converts xeric
conditions to mesic.
● Pioneer species
− These are the species that first invade a bare
area. On land, these could be lichens that secrete enzymes to dissolve
the rock surfaces for soil formation while in water, pioneer species
could be phytoplanktons.
● The ultimate result of all successions is a climax community, a mesic.
Nutrient Cycling
● The amount of nutrients present in the soil at a given time is known as
the standing state.
● Nutrients are never lost from the ecosystem. They are only recycled
from one state to another.
● The movement of nutrients through the various components of the
ecosystem is called nutrient cycling or biogeochemical cycles. They are
of two types:
○ Gaseous
− Reservoir for these types of cycles exist in the
atmosphere.
○ Sedimentary
− Reservoir for these types of cycles exist in the
earth’s crust.
Carbon Cycle
● About 49% of the dry weight of living organisms is made up of carbon.
● The ocean reserves and fossil fuels regulate the amount of CO in the
2
atmosphere.
● Plants absorb CO from the atmosphere for photosynthesis, of which a
2
certain amount is released back through respiratory activities.
● A major amount of CO is contributed by the decomposers who
2
contribute to the CO pool by processing dead and decaying matter.
2
● The amount of CO in the atmosphere has been increased considerably
2
by human activities such as burning of fossil fuels, deforestation.
Phosphorus Cycle
● Phosphorus is an important constituent of cell membranes, nucleic
acids, and cellular energy transfer systems.
● Rocks contain phosphorus in the form of phosphate.
● When rocks are weathered, some of the phosphate gets dissolved in
the soil solution and is absorbed by plants.
● The consumers get their phosphorus from the plants.
● Phosphorus returns back to the soil by the action of
phosphatesolubilising bacteria on dead organisms.
Biodiversity and Conservation
● Biodiversity occurs not only in the species level, but also in the
macromolecular levels.
● Biodiversity as described by Edward Wilson is the combined diversity
at all levels of biological organisation.
● The most important forms of biodiversity are:
○ Genetic diversity
(diversity at the genetic level)
○ Species diversity
(diversity at the species level)
○ Ecological diversity
(diversity at the ecosystem level)
● There are close to 1.5 million plants and animals that have to be
discovered and described. More species have been discovered in
temperate regions as compared to tropics.
● According to an estimate made by Robert May, global species
biodiversity is about 7 million.
● Of the total species discovered so far, 70% are animals and 22% are
plants. Of the animals, 70% are insects.
● India has 2.4% of the world’s land and 8.1% of the total species
diversity. According to May’s estimate, 78% of the biodiversity is still
to be discovered.
● Applying this to India’s biodiversity figures, there still is a scope for
discovery of over 1 lakh species of plants and 3 lakh species of
animals.
Patterns of Biodiversity
● Latitudinal gradients
− The plants and animals are not distributed
evenly worldwide. The diversity of living forms decreases as we go
from the equator towards the poles. A huge amount of plants and
animals are concentrated in the tropical region because of the
following reasons.
● Tropical environment is less seasonal and almost constant and
predictable as compared to temperate environment.
● Tropics receive the major part of the solar energy, which contributes
to great productivity.
● Speciation is dependent upon time. Tropical areas have remained
undisturbed for millions of years unlike temperate regions, which have
experienced frequent glaciations in the past.
● SpeciesArea relationships
− Alexander von Humboldt observed
that biodiversity increases with increase in explored area. This
relationship can be given by,
log S = log C + Z log A
Where,
S = Species richness
A = Area
Z = Slope of the line (regression coefficient)
C = Yintercept
Value of Z is found to lie in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 for comparatively
smaller areas such as countries while for very large areas such as entire
continents, the slope of the line is much steeper with Z value lying from
0.6 to 1.2.
Importance of biodiversity & Loss of
Biodiversity
What is the importance of biodiversity on the Earth?
● There is no exact answer to this question, but experiments conducted
by many ecologists have demonstrated that a system with greater
biodiversity is more stable and has greater productivity.
● In the long run, biodiversity is related with overall health of our
ecosystem and survival of human race on the earth.
● Characteristics of a stable community:
○ It should not show much variation in productivity from year to
year.
○ It must be either resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances.
○ It must be resistant to invasion by alien species.
Loss of Biodiversity
● Due to human activities, the natural wealth is getting lost rapidly.
● The last 20 years have seen the loss of 27 species.
● Some of the causes of this loss are:
○ Habitat loss and fragmentation
− This is the major cause for
loss of biodiversity. Habitat destruction is caused by human
activities such as deforestation and increasing pollution, leading
to the loss of many plants and animals.
○ Overexploitation
− Humans due to their greed and increased
exploitation of natural resources have contributed to the
endangerment of commercially important species of plants and
animals. Example − Species such as Steller’s sea cow and
passenger pigeon have been extinct due to over exploitation by
humans.
○ Alienspecies invasion
− The unintentional or deliberate
introduction of alien species causes the declination of the
indigenous species. Example − Nile perch introduced in Lake
Victoria led to the extinction of more than 200 species of cichlid
fish in the lake.
○ Coextinction
− When a plant or animal becomes extinct,
another plant or animal which is dependent on it in an obligatory
way also becomes extinct. Example − In case of plantpollinator
mutualism, the extinction of one partner will eventually lead to
the extinction of other also.
Biodiversity Conservation
● Biodiversity conservation is necessary because of the following
reasons:
○ Many commercially important products are obtained by nature
such as food, fibre, wood, and countless industrial products.
○ Certain activities and products cannot be accomplished without
the help of nature such as production of oxygen and pollination.
○ Intangible benefits such as aesthetic pleasure are derived from
nature.
○ Conserving the species we share our planet with and passing the
rich legacy of biodiversity to our future generations is our ethical
duty.
● Biodiversity can be conserved by:
○ Insitu conservation
In order to conserve biodiversity better,
some of the world’s biodiversity hotspots (with high degree of
biodiversity and endemism) have been identified and are
protected. In India, biosphere reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, and
national parks are built for this purpose.
○ Exsitu conservation
The threatened species of plants and
animals are taken out of their habitats and are kept in special
settings as in zoological parks, botanical gardens, and wildlife
parks.
Nowadays, the gametes of endangered species can be preserved
viable by methods such as cryopreservation and can be fertilized
invitro followed by propagation through tissue culture methods.
Similarly, seeds can be preserved in seed banks.
Environmental Issues
Pollution is the undesirable change brought about by chemical, particulate
matter, or biological materials to air, water, or soil.
Air Pollution
● Air is a complex, dynamic natural entity, which is essential for
supporting life on earth.
● Air pollutant is a substance that causes harm to the humans and other
living organisms.
● Some of the common pollutants of air:
○ Nitrogen dioxide
○ Sulphur dioxide
○ Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
○ Volatile organic compounds
○ Particulate matter
Control of Air Pollution
● Air pollution causes severe respiratory disorders in humans and other
animals and also affects plants. It can be controlled by the following
ways:
○ Fitting smokestacks and smelters, with
filters
to separate
pollutants from the harmless gases
○ Particulate matter can be removed by using an
electrostatic
precipitator
. It contains electrode wires maintained at several
thousand volts, which produce electrons. These electrons cling
on to dust particles and give them a net negative charge and are
attracted by collecting plates, which are grounded. The velocity
of air passing through the plates should be low enough to allow
the dust to fall.
○ A
scrubber
can be used to remove gases such as SO wherein
2
the exhaust passes through a spray of water or lime.
○ Vehicular pollution can be reduced by using less polluting fuels
such as
CNG
, which is more efficient and less costly as
compared to petrol or diesel. In 2002, all the buses were
switched to CNG in Delhi and this has indeed led to a fall in
pollution levels in the city.
○ Vehicles can be fitted with
catalytic converters
that have
metals such as platinum, palladium, and rhodium as catalysts.
These catalysts carry out the following conversions:
Unburnt hydrocarbons
→ CO and H
2 O
2
Carbon monoxide
→ Carbon dioxide
Nitric oxide
→ Nitrogen gas
Unleaded petrol
must be used with catalytic converters as presence of lead
in the petrol inactivates the catalyst.
Greenhouse Effect
● It is a natural phenomenon that keeps the earth’s atmosphere warm.
○ Without this phenomenon, the temperature of the earth would
become too cold for living beings to survive.
○ The greenhouse gases (CO, methane, etc.) absorb the heat of
2
sun and the earth and emit it back to the earth’s surface.
○ Thus, these gases prevent a part of heat rays from escaping into
atmosphere.
○ This cycle is repeated many times to maintain the earth’s
temperature to an optimum 15ºC.
● The concentration of these gases has increased due to increased
industrialisation, leading to the heating up of the earth’s surface
(global warming).
● This has increased the overall temperature of the earth, resulting in
changes in the earth’s climate. During the last century, the
temperature of earth has increased by 0.6ºC.
● This increase in temperature is ultimately believed to cause the
melting of polar ice caps, rise in the sea level, and submerging of the
coastal areas.
● Greenhouse effect can be controlled by reducing the use of fossil fuels,
which produce greenhouse gases on burning, afforestation, efficient
energy usage, etc.
Water Pollution
● Water is very essential for the maintenance of life on earth.
● Due to human activities, water bodies have become polluted all over
the world.
● Some of the common pollutants and their sources are:
○ Domestic sewage
− It mainly contains organic matter, which is
biodegradable. Microorganisms involved in their degradation
consume a lot of oxygen and the BOD of the water body
increases leading to the death of fishes and other aquatic life.
Sewage also contains many pathogenic microbes, which may
cause the outbreak of many diseases such as typhoid, jaundice,
etc.
○ Industrial Effluents
− Industrial effluents contain inorganic
toxic substances, which may undergo
biomagnification
(increase in concentration of a toxin at successive trophic
levels). The toxin gets accumulated in the body of an organism
and is passed on to the next level. For example, DDT and other
heavy metals such as mercury, cadmium, etc.
○ Thermal wastewater discharge
− Heated water flowing out of
the thermal power plants increase the temperature of the water
body. It eliminates the cold water species and promotes the
warm water species. In the long run, it causes damage to the
indigenous biodiversity of the water body.
● Eutrophication
○ It is the ageing of a water body due to nutrient enrichment of its
water. It can be natural or artificial.
○ The natural process takes thousands of years, but due to human
activities, this process has got accelerated (accelerated/cultural
eutrophication).
○ Release of nutrient rich sewage and industrial effluents lead to
introduction of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus and
increase in temperature and BOD of the water body, causing
increased biological activity, thereby leading to algal blooms.
This results in the loss of indigenous flora and fauna.
○ In some cases, large masses of floating plants (bog) develop,
finally converting the water body into land.
Control of Water Pollution
● Raw sewage can be treated using biological and other means to
remove the solid, suspended, and inorganic materials before it is
released back into the environment.
● Nitrogenous fertilizers can be denitrified using microbes, which can
convert nitrate and nitrite into gaseous nitrogen by a process called
denitrification.
● Integrated wastewater management
as practiced in Arcata,
California In this approach, the water is first treated by conventional
means such as filtration, sedimentation, and chlorine treatment,
followed by bioremediation. (Marshes having appropriate plants,
bacteria, fungi, and algae were seeded, which assimilate dangerous
pollutants such as heavy metals)
Solid Waste
● Consists of all the unwanted undesired materials thrown into the
dustbin
● It may be composed of biodegradable or nonbiodegradable wastes.
● Open dumps used for disposing solid waste serves as breeding ground
for rats and flies. Therefore, sanitary landfills are used as a substitute
for these.
● Biodegradable wastes can be either aerobically on anaerobically
broken down using microbes. The nonbiodegradable waste can be
recycled, reused, or dumped in landfills.
● Hospital wastes also contain hazardous materials, which have to be
disposed properly. Hospital wastes are generally incinerated.
● Irreparable computers and other electronic goods make up ewastes,
which are either dumped in land fills or are incinerated. Ewaste can
be recycled also to recover metals such as copper, iron, silicon, gold,
etc.
● To use the plastic waste in an efficient way,
polyblend
, a fine powder
of recycled modified plastic, has been developed. When polyblend is
mixed with bitumen, it can be used to lay roads with greater water
repellent capacity and greater life.
Agrochemicals and Radioactive Wastes
Agrochemicals
● The increased use of pesticides, fertilizers for increasing the produce
has led to eutrophication and biomagnifications in water sources.
● In order to check this, the concept of organic farming is increasingly
becoming popular. In this technique, instead of using chemical
fertilizers and pesticides, natural materials and techniques such as
organic manure (cow dung manure), compost, biological pest control,
and crop rotation are used. This leads to a balanced soil, which does
not cause soil infertility, but causes the rejuvenation of the soil.
Radioactive Wastes
● Nuclear energy is a nonpolluting energy except the threats posed by
accidental leakage and difficult disposal of radioactive waste.
● Radioactive substances cause severe damages such as mutations and
cancer in lower doses and higher doses can be lethal.
● Radioactive wastes should be suitably pretreated in shielded
containers buried under rock surfaces about 500 m under the earth’s
surface.
Improper Utilisation of Resources
● Natural resources can get degraded by their improper use.
○ Soil erosion and desertification
− Overcultivation,
overgrazing, deforestation, and poor irrigation techniques lead to
soil erosion and desertification.
○ Water logging and soil salinity
Lack of proper drainage
leads to water logging, which affects the crops and also leads to
increase in the salinity of the soil.
Ozone Depletion and Deforestation
Ozone Depletion
● The ozone layer is found in the upper part of the stratosphere.
● It protects the earth from the harmful UV rays of the Sun. High energy
UV rays break the bonds within the molecules such as DNA and
proteins.
● Ozone is formed by the action of UV rays on oxygen molecule and its
thickness is measured in
Dobson units (DU)
.
● The ozone layer is getting depleted by the action of
chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) found in refrigerants and perfumes.
● The CFCs are acted upon by UV rays in the stratosphere, liberating the
Cl atoms, which act as catalysts to degrade ozone into molecular
oxygen.
● The ozone depletion is particularly greater in Antarctica, resulting in
the formation of a large thinned ozone layer commonly known as
ozone hole
.
● The UV rays of shorter wavelength cause skin cancers, mutations in
the cellular DNA, snowblindness, cataract, etc.
● To check this ozone depletion,
Montreal Protocol
was passed in 1987
to control the use of substances that cause ozone depletion.
Deforestation
● It is the unlimited cutting of trees and conversion of forests into
cultivable land.
● In the beginning of 20 century, India had 30% of its area under
th
forests, which was reduced to just 19.4% by the end of 20 century.
th
● Deforestation is a result of a number of human activities such as
increased population and the demand for land.
● Trees are cut for timber, fuel, and also for
Slash and burn
agriculture
, also called Jhum cultivation. In this, trees are cut and
plant remains in the forest are burned since the ash acts as a fertilizer.
● Some of the major effects of deforestation are the increase in
carbondioxide levels, loss of habitat for wild animals, soil erosion, and
consequent desertification.
● Deforestation can be controlled by reforestation and afforestation.
● In 1980s, the concept of
Joint Forest Management
was introduced
by the government of India. In this, support of local communities was
taken for conservation of forests and in return, the local people were
free to use the products obtained from the forests.