GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
production of the sex cells through
● The life cycle of plants, such as bryophytes,
pteridophytes, and spermatophytes, is
characterized by the alternation of
generations. In this mechanism, a plant
alternates between the diploid sporophyte
and haploid gametophyte stages.
● In a generalized angiosperm life cycle, a plant
starts as a seed.
● The seed imbibes water for activation,
and it develops and forms a seedling.
● The seedling will reach an adult tree
that will bloom and produce flowers.
● The flowers contain the pollen from
the anther and ovule in the pistil that
is needed for fertilization.
● Fertilization happens one the pollen
penetrates the ovary of the flower.
● A fertilized ovule then develops to form a fruit
containing the seeds that must be dispersed
to produce new individuals, which will
sexually mature.
● The life cycle of an animal usually starts from
the fusion of the male (sperm) and the female
(egg cell) gametes during the fertilization
process.
● Metamorphosis is a biological feature in the
life cycle of some organisms. It can either be
complete or incomplete, depending on
whether a pupa stage is present.
● The fertilized egg will undergo active cell
division and cell differentiation to form the
developing embryo during embryogenesis.
● The embryo will undergo organogenesis,
where it starts to form several types of tissues
that will lead to the formation of the organs
and organ systems.
● Once an individual is formed, this will grow
and mature into an adult, which will be
capable of reproducing and forming another
generation of individuals.
● The human life cycle begins with fertilization
and is accompanied by a series of growth and
developmental events that allow the full
formation of the offspring.
● Human reproduction involves both the
gametogenesis and their fusion through the
fertilization process.
● After fertilization, the fertilized egg will travel
into the uterus, where it will be implanted.
This stage refers to the pre-implantation
embryonic development.
● During the second week of human
development in the uterus, the implanted
embryonic cells start to organize into layers
and form the extraembryonic membranes,
namely the amnion, the yolk sac, the
allantois, and the chorion.
● Human development can be divided into
embryonic and fetal periods.
● Development- involves formation of sex cells,
zygote formation, subsequent stages in one’s
life span. Development is terminated by
death.
● Haploid (n) condition- When a cell has only
half the chromosome number or only one set
of chromosomes
● Diploid (2n) condition- When a cell has the
full chromosome number or two sets of
chromosomes
● Totipotent cell- A cell that is capable of
differentiating to become any kind of cell
● Gametogenesis- Stage of development that
yields haploid gametes
● Fertilization- Stage of development that
results in a unicellular diploid zygote.
● Cleavage- Stage of development involving a
series of mitotic divisions to produce a
multicellular blastula from a unicellular zygote
● Gastrulation- Stage of development involving
morphogenetic movements of the cells to
produce a gastrula with distinct germ cell
layers; in vertebrates, this will result in three
layers: the outermost ectoderm; the inner
endoderm, and the middle layer, the
mesoderm
● Organogenesis- Stage of development where
the different germ layers differentiate into
specific organ systems
● Growth- Stage of development
characterized by an increase in size of an
individual
● Monozygotic twins- Also known as
identical twins; result from the union of a
sperm and egg to form a single zygote that
splits up during the first cleavage stage.
● Dizygotic twins - Also known as fraternal
twins; results from the development of
two or more separate fertilization events
where the resulting zygotes develop
almost simultaneously
● Testis- Where sperms are produced
● Epididymis- Where sperms are
temporarily stored
● Scrotal sac/scrotum - Supports the testis
and epididymis
● as deferens - Where the sperm passes
through from the testis before it joins the
urethra
● Urethra - Connected to the urethra and
the urinary bladder; serves as passageway
of both sperm and urine and terminates in
the external urinary meatus of the penis
● Seminal vesicle - Secretes fluid that forms
part of the semen; secretion gives the
semen its alkaline characteristic to
counteract the acidity of the vaginal tract
and therefore protect the sperm; the fluid
also contains sugars like fructose
● Prostate gland - Secretes fluid that also
provides alkalinity to the semen; it also
contains proteolytic enzymes, citric acid,
phosphatases, and lipids
● Bulbourethral glands- Paired glands that
produce clear, viscous secretion known as
pre-ejaculate that helps to lubricate the
urethra for sperm to pass through,
neutralizing traces of acidic urine in the
urethra, and helps flush out any residual
urine or foreign matter
● Clitoris- The homologue (equivalent) of
the penis in females
● Vagina- Main entrance to the female
reproductive tract; receives the penis
during sexual intercourse
● Cervix- Where the vagina ends; projection
of the uterus into the vagina; leads to the
uterus
● Uterus- Also known as the womb; where
the embryo develops; with thick muscular
walls, blood vessels; and the endometrial
lining
● Endometrial lining/endometrium-
Innermost lining of the uterus where the
embryo implants and develop
● Fallopian tubes- Also known as oviducts;
paired tubes that are connected to the
uterus and terminate near the ovaries;
this is where fertilization takes place
● Ovaries- Female gonads that release the
oocytes during ovulation, which are then
caught by the fimbrae of the fallopian
tubes in order for the oocytes to pass on
to the fallopian tubes
● Morula- A human blastula made up of a
solid ball of cells
● Blastocyst- A human blastula composed
of the inner cell mass, which becomes the
embryo, and the trophoectoderm, which
becomes the placenta
● Implantation- Process where the
blastocyst implants itself in the
endometrium; this signals the start of
pregnancy
● Gestation- Carrying of the embryo inside
the female reproductive tract, specifically
the uterus; can last up to 9 months in
humans
● Human embryo- Corresponds to the first
two months of gestation
● Human fetus- Corresponds to the months
3-9 of human gestation
● Follicular phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of
the ovary in humans where the follicles begin
to mature; it is marked by secretions of the
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and the
leutinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior
pituitary gland and the estrogen by the
ovaries; both FSH and LH stimulate the
maturation of the oocytes while estrogen
stimulates uterine lining growth in preparation
for implantation of the embryo
● Luteal phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of
the ovary after the oocytes are released from
the follicles; the remains of the follicle
become the corpus luteum, which then
secretes progesterone, which stimulates the
uterus to undergo final maturational changes
that prepare it for gestation to house and
nourish an embryo
● Menstrual phase- Part of the menstrual cycle
of the uterus; also known as the “period”;
corresponds to the early part of the follicular
phase of the ovaries (days 1-5) when
endometrium degenerates and sloughs off,
producing the menstrual discharge
● Proliferative phase- Part of the menstrual
cycle of the uterus; corresponds to the latter
part of the follicular phase of the ovaries (days
8-14) when the endometrium heals and
begins to thicken as a consequence of
estrogen secretion
● Secretory phase- Part of the menstrual cycle
of the uterus; corresponds to the luteal phase
of the ovaries; the endometrium undergoes
final changes before it receives the embryo
during implantation
● Contraception- Process that blocks any one of
the following stages of reproduction in
humans: (1) release and transport of gametes;
(2) fertilization; (3) implantation; (4) actual
completion of development of the
embryo/fetus
● Ovulation-suppressing methods- Type of
contraception that prevents the oocyte to
mature
● Oral contraceptives- Type of contraception
taken in by women to prevent them from
ovulating
● Barrier methods- Type of contraception that
prevents fertilization
● Macronutrients refer to the materials needed by
the plants in larger amounts. ○ Carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.
● Micronutrients refer to the materials needed by
the plants in small amounts. ○ Boron, chlorine,
manganese, iron, zinc, copper, and molybdenum.
● Deficiency of the macro and micronutrients in
plants can lead to functional alteration that can
affect entire plant health.
● Vascular tissues consisting of xylem and phloem
are needed for the transportation of nutrients and
water in plants.
● Capillary action refers to the ability of the water
to flow through narrow spaces in the xylem and
phloem.
● Animals have basic biomolecule requirements to
sustain biological functions.
 ○ Carbohydrates are important
biomolecules needed by the animals as a
primary source of energy.
 ○ Proteins are another essential nutrient
needed by animals that serve diverse
functions such as being components of
enzymes and structural molecules.
 ○ Lipids are essential biomolecules
needed by animals to form cellular and
organelle membranes. They can also act
as energy storage molecules.
 ○ Nucleic acids are as much as important
as other biomolecules. Their monomers
are used in the synthesis of DNA, RNA,
and ATP.
 ○ Mineral refers to basic elements that
animals need for metabolic processes.
 ○ Vitamins are organic compounds that
are usually present in trace amounts in an
animal's diet.
● Animals have developed several mechanisms on
how to acquire food such as: ○ filter-feeding and bulk
transport in sponges;
 ○ trapping of food or prey by using tentacles
in hydra;
 ○ sucking of soil and nutrients in earthworms,
leeches, and mosquitoes; Homologous
structures are present in vertebrate limbs.
  picking through beaks in birds; and ions and abscisic acid. The figure on the next page
 ○use of jaws and teeth in most vertebrates. summarizes this mechanism.
 The digestive system acts on breaking down
● Once the stomata open, the concentration gradient
ingested food and absorbing nutrients for
between the environment and the leaf will facilitate
distribution to the cells of the body.
the movement of gases.
 Digestion or the process of breaking down
food through mechanical and chemical ● While some oxygen molecules generated in
means. photosynthesis are used in respiration, photosynthesis
 Its primary components are the digestive occurs at a relatively higher rate than respiration. This
tract and the accessory organs. event brings a net increase in oxygen production and a
 The digestive tract includes the mouth, net increase in carbon dioxide usage. Thus, overall,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large plants take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen.
intestine.
● At night when stomata are closed, a tiny gap is left
 The ingested food passes through this long
between the guard cells, enough for oxygen to diffuse
tube to subject to both mechanical and
into the leaf.
chemical digestion.
● Since all plant cells perform respiration, and the gas
● The accessory organs are the salivary glands,
transport into other plant organs is relatively slower
liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. These structures
than in other organisms, additional structures such as
support the digestive function by secreting
lenticels and root hairs supplement the gas exchange
enzymes that facilitate the chemical digestion.
in plants.
● Other animals have developed evolutionary
● The efficiency of gas exchange in animals depends
adaptations in food procurement and improve the
on two important factors: the size of the organism and
efficiency of digestion.
their habitat.
 Artiodactyl ruminants have developed a
○ Smaller animals already have a more efficient gas
four-chambered stomach that prolongs
exchange, whereas larger organisms need to have a
both mechanical and chemical digestion
specialized structure to increase the efficiency of their
of their cellulosic diet.
gas exchange.
● Diffusion is the movement of particles from regions
○ The structure of an animal’s gas exchange system
of higher concentration to regions of lower
depends on whether it lives on land or in water
concentration. It is the fundamental mechanism that
because this dictates where oxygen will come from.
governs gas exchange in organisms.
■ When the source of oxygen is water, oxygen
● Gas exchange in living systems occurs via diffusion
concentration varies with salinity and temperature. In
across a moist membrane. It provides a means for the
order to make up for this, the respiratory membrane
movement of gases between the cells and their
must always be in contact with water and the
environment.
exchange flow must be countercurrent.
● The rate of diffusion affects the efficiency of gas
● Countercurrent exchange flow occurs when the
exchange. This rate is influenced by four main factors
blood and water flow in opposite directions. This
described by Fick’s law. ○ The concentration gradient
ensures that as the blood flows, it encounters a
and surface area of the respiratory membrane have a
portion of water with a higher oxygen concentration
direct relationship with the diffusion rate. By contrast,
than it has.
membrane thickness and the distance covered by
particles have an inverse relationship with the ■ When the source of oxygen is air, less energy is
diffusion rate. needed for gas exchange because of high amounts of
oxygen in the air. But since the evaporation rate is
● Gas exchange in plants mainly occurs in epidermal
high, the respiratory structure must be kept inside the
openings called stomata. Each stoma is flanked by
body.
guard cells that regulate its aperture.
● Different groups of animals have evolved various gas
● The mechanism of stomatal opening and closing is
exchange systems based on their size and
triggered by blue light and mediated by potassium
environment to increase the efficiency of their gas
exchange. The table below summarizes the types and
characteristics of gas exchange systems in different
animal groups.
●The respiratory system aids in the respiration
process. It can be anatomically divided into the upper
and lower respiratory tracts.
● The respiratory system fulfills its roles through
pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, gas
transport, and internal respiration.
● Breathing refers to the movement of air between
the lungs and the environment. Breathing action is
possible due to the action of the respiratory muscles
and ribcage.
○ Inhalation decreases the air pressure within the
lungs. The resulting difference in air pressure between
the lungs and the atmosphere causes air to rush into
the lungs.
○ Exhalation increases in air pressure in the lungs. The
higher pressure in the lungs compared to that in the
atmosphere pushes air out of the lungs.
● Alveolar gas exchange is the actual process of gas
movement that happens in the alveoli of the lungs. It
is also called external respiration.
● The root system absorbs water and minerals from
the soil for the entire plant.
● The shoot system of a plant is composed of the
stem, the branches, and the leaves. The stem supports
leaves in a way that exposes each one to as much
sunlight as possible.
● The leaves are part of a plant that generally carries
on the majority of photosynthesis and receives water
from the root system by way of the stem.
● There are two types of vascular tissues: the xylem
which transports the xylem sap, and the phloem
which transports sucrose and other organic
compounds.
● A mineral is an inorganic substance usually
containing two or more elements.
● Soil is defined as a mixture of mineral particles,
decaying organic material, living organisms, air, and
water, which together support the growth of plants.
● Water can enter travel through the xylem through
intracellular and extracellular routes.
● Translocation is the movement of organic molecules
through the phloem where molecules flow from a
source to a sink.
The circulatory system is responsible for the
movement of fluids between various parts of the
body. It transports oxygen and nutrients, such as
glucose and amino acids, to their cells. It also removes
wastes, which are later excreted from the body by the
lungs or kidneys.
● Invertebrates without circulatory systems have a
gastrovascular cavity that is lined with specialized
cells.
● Invertebrates with circulatory systems can either
have an open circulatory system where the
hemolymph is distributed to all other tissues. While in
a closed circulatory system, the body distributes blood
to the pulmonary and systemic circulatory circuits.
● The heart is a cone-shaped, muscular organ about
the size of a fist. It is located between the lungs
directly behind the sternum (breastbone) and is tilted
so that the apex.
● Blood is considered a connective tissue with a fluid
matrix. It has numerous functions in the body. It is
composed of plasma and formed elements such as
RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.
● Capillary exchange happens between a systemic ○ Ethylene is responsible for promoting the ripening of
capillary and tissue fluid, the fluid between the body’s the fruits and wilting of flowers. It is also the primary
cells. Two forces primarily control the movement of hormone that regulates the abscission of leaves.
fluid through the capillary wall: (1) osmotic pressure
● Plant responses to environmental stimuli also rely
and (2) blood pressure.
on the action of various hormones.
● Osmoregulation is the balancing of the levels of
○ Phototropism refers to the movement of plant parts
water and salts in the body.
toward or away from light. Responses of plants to the
● Most invertebrates have tubular excretory organs presence of light rely on phototropin and auxins.
that regulate the water-salt balance of the body and
○ Seed germination in plants can either be triggered
excrete metabolic wastes into the environment.
by light or the activation of gibberellin through water
● In most vertebrates, the kidneys are the most imbibition. Both pathways stimulate amylase function
important organs involved in osmoregulation. to initiate starch breakdown into simple sugars. These
simple sugars are important in promoting seed
● Often the osmoregulatory system of an animal also
germination.
removes metabolic wastes from the body, a process
called excretion. ○ Gravitropism refers to the movement and direction
of growth of plant parts relative to the direction of the
● The breakdown of nitrogen-containing molecules,
pull of gravity. The auxin may inhibit or stimulate cell
such as amino acids and nucleic acids, results in excess
growth depending on the type of tissue.
nitrogen that must be excreted. Depending on the
species, this excess nitrogen may be excreted in the ○ Stomatal movement is also influenced by hormones.
form of ammonia, urea, or uric acid. During drought or in the absence of light, abscisic acid
triggers stomatal closure to prevent excessive
● The kidneys are the ultimate regulators of blood
evapotranspiration.
composition because they can remove various
unwanted products from the body. ○ Thigmotropism refers to the movement of plants in
response to touch. Slow thigmotropic responses rely
● Urine production requires three distinct processes,
on auxin, while fast thigmotropic responses rely on
and, as you can see, the entire tubule portion of a
electrical signals.
nephron participates in the last two steps in urine
formation: (1) glomerular filtration at the glomerular
capsule; (2) tubular reabsorption at the convoluted
tubules; and (3) tubular secretion at the convoluted
tubules.

● Plant hormones are chemical messengers that

regulate various biological processes in the plant body,
such as growth, development, and stress response.

○ Auxin is the primary hormone that regulates plant

growth by controlling pathways that initiate cell
elongation in stems and leaves.

○ Cytokinins are plant hormones that are mostly

responsible for the regulation of cell division, which
influences the growth through the root and shoots
meristems.

○ Gibberellins are a large group of plant hormones

that control shoot elongation, seed germination, and
the maturation of fruits and flowers.

○ Abscisic acid is the primary hormone that promotes

stomatal closure and triggers responses associated
with stress.