European History Copy 2019 - by Mr-1

EUROPEANHISTORY,1789-1970
EUROPEAN HISTORY 1789 - 1970 Page 1

TABLEOFCONTENTS
EUROPEBEFORE178
9..............................................................................................................................1
THEFRENCHREVOLUTIONOF1789………………………………………………………………………2
NAPOLEONBONAPARTEI,1769-1821.........................................................................56
THEVIENNACONGRESSORSETTLEMENT(1814-1815).................................................81
THECONGRESSSYSTEMORTHECONCERTOFEUROPE,1818-1830.................................87
FRANCEUNDERTHERESTOREDBOURBONMONARCHY,1815–1830.............................100
THE1830REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE.........................................................................114
THEORLEANSMONARCHYINFRANCE,1830-1848......................................................132
THEAUSTRIANEMPIREINEUROPE,1814–1848..........................................................145
THE1848REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE.........................................................................154
THESECONDFRENCHREPUBLIC(1848-1852)ANDTHESECONDFRENCHEMPIRE(1852-
1870)...................................................................................................................165
THEUNIFICATIONOFITALY,1815-1870....................................................................173
THEUNIFICATIONOFGERMANY,1815-1871..............................................................193
GERMANYUNDEROTTOVONBISMARK,1871–1890....................................................216
THEEASTERNQUESTIONORTHEHISTORYOFTHEhiOTTOMANORTURKISHEMPIRE,1815-
1913.....................................................................................................................234
WORLDWARI,1914–1918.......................................................................................283
THEVERSAILLESPEACETREATYOF1919...................................................................302
THELEAGUEOFNATIONS(1920-1945)......................................................................322
THERUSSIANREVOLUTIONSOF1917.......................................................................337
THEWEIMARREPUBLICINGERMANY(1919–1933).....................................................346
NAZISMINGERMANY,1933-1945.............................................................................355
FASCISMINITALYANDTHERISEOFBENITOMUSSOLINI,1922-1943.............................363
THEGREATECONOMICDEPRESSION,1929-1935.......................................................372
THESPANISHCIVILWAR,1936-1939.........................................................................382
WORLDWARII(1939-1945).....................................................................................389
THEWAR-TIMECONFERENCES................................................................................406
THEUNITEDNATIONSORGANISATION(UNO)1945-1970...........................................411
THENORTHATLANTICTREATYORGANISATION(NATO),1949-1970.............................440
THEWARSAWPACT,1955-1970...............................................................................446
THEEUROPEANECONOMICCOMMUNITY(EEC),1957–1970........................................452
EUROPEAN HISTORY 1789 - 1970 Page i

EUROPEAN HISTORY 1789 - 1970
EUROPEAN HISTORY 1789 - 1970 Page ii

EUROPEBEFORE1789
Inthe18thcentury,Europewasdividedintotworegionsi.e.WesternandEasternEurope.Someof
theEuropeanstatesincludedGreatBritain,HapsburgorAustrianEmpire,Hungary,partsoftheO
ttomanEmpire,Russia,theHolyRomanEmpire,France,Poland,Spain,PrussiaandPortugal.Bef
ore1789,mostpartsofEuropewerecharacterizedbysimilaritiesintheirpolitical,economicands
ocialsetup.ThesefeatureswerecommontomostoftheEuropeancountriesexceptBritainwhich
hadaconstitutionalmonarchywithabettersystemofgovernment.Themostremarkablefeature
sinEuropeincluded;
POLITICALCONDITIONS
Politically,thereexisteddespoticgovernmentsormonarchsinmostpartswherethekingshadab
solutepowerswiththeirdecisionsbeingfinal.Forexample,inRussiatheTsar’sdecisionandautho
ritywouldneverbequestionedbyanybody.SimilarconditionsexistedinFrance,Norwayandoth
erareas.
Therewaslackofanysortoffreedomwherepeoplewerenotsupposedtobelongtoanypoliticalpa
rties,deniedfreedomofmovement,press,speechandinsomecountrieslikeAustriaandRussia,t
herewasahighdegreeofcensorshipofthepressandmostofthegovernmentsinEuropewereope
ratingwithnoparliament.
TheexistinggovernmentsinEuropewerefullofcorruptandinefficientofficialswhomisusedtheir
officesforselfishinterests.Forexample,inFrancethenoblesandclergyenjoyedstatebenefits,to
okbribesandalwaysmisusedstatefunds.InPrussia,theJunkersenjoyedaccesstogovernment
benefitsbecauseoftheirprivilegedposition.
Inmostcountries,thereexistedpoliticalimbalancewiththeprivilegedclassesenjoyinghighposit
ionswhiletheunprivilegedclassesweresubjectedtolowpositionswithfewerbenefits.
ECONOMICCONDITIONS
Economically,mostoftheEuropeancountrieswereagro-
basedexceptBritainwhichwasindustrialized.MostpartsofEuropepracticedfeudalismbywhic
hlandwasownedbypowerfullandlordswhowerefromtheprivilegedclasses.Thepeasantsonth
eotherhandownednolandbutrentedandlivedonthelandofthelandlordsassquatters.
Unemploymentwascommonespeciallywhenweatherconditionschanged.Similarly,mostpart
sofEuropewereaffectedbyfamineduetobadweatherconditionslikewinter,floodsanddrought.

Asaresult,thefarmersgotpoorharvestsyetthegovernmentsdidnothingtoassistthepeople.For
example,in1787,badweatherconditionsaffectedmosteconomiesofEurope.
SOCIALCONDITIONS
Thereexistedsocialclassdivisionswithtwomainclassesofpeople(theprivilegedandtheunprivil
egedclasses).Theprivilegedwerethemostfavouredandtheyenjoyedmostofthestatebenefits.
Forexample,theyownedland,paidnotaxes,gothighranksinthearmyandcivilservicewhilethep
easantssufferedmost.
Inmoststates,therewasclosecollaborationbetweenthechurchandthegovernmentinoppressi
ngthepeople.Forexample,inCatholiccountrieslikeAustria,FranceandSpain,theCatholicChur
chcollaboratedwiththeleaderstooppressthemassesthroughreligiousintoleranceandunfairta
xation.However,despitethefactthatcircumstancesinEuropewerethesame,arevolutionbroke
outinFrancein1789.
THEFRENCHREVOLUTIONOF1789
Arevolutionreferstoafundamentalorcompletechangethattakesplaceinthepolitical,socialand
economicspheresofasociety.Arevolutioncanbepeacefulorviolentwherechangesarerealizedt
hroughforce.TheFrenchrevolutionof1789wasaviolentuprisingofthemassesagainsttheexisti
nggovernmentinFrance.
By1789,Francewasunderamonarchy(kingdom)whichhadruledFranceforoveraperiodofover
fourhundredyearsandbecauseofthatlongperiodoftime,theregimewasreferredtoastheAncie
ntRegime.TherulersofthisregimewerefromafamilythatwasknownastheBourbonsandthat’
swhythegovernmentwasattimesreferredtoastheBourbonMonarchy.Severalkingsservedthis
regimeincludingHenryIV,LouisXIII,LouisXIV,LouisXVandby1789,thekingofFrancewasknow
nasLouisXVI.
TheFrenchrevolutionbrokeouton5thMay1789whenKingLouisXVIsummonedorcalledthe Es
tatesGeneralwhichfailed.On14thJuly1789mobsofhungryandangrypeople,mostlypeasants
stormedPariswhichwasthecapitalofFranceandthekingcouldnotstoptheirviolentactions.Asar
esult,arevolutionthatcausedfundamentalchangesinFrancehadtocontinueforseveralyearsu
pto1799.Astherevolutionprogressed,themonarchywasabolishedandamongthethings,Fran
cewasdeclaredaRepublicin1792asKingLouisXVItogetherwithhiswifeMarieAntoinetteweree
xecutedorkilledin1793.
THECAUSESOFTHEFRENCHREVOLUTIONOF1789
 ThesocialclasssysteminFrance.

 TheinfluenceofthePhilosophers.
 ThenatureoftheFrenchsystemofgovernment(AncientRegime).
 TheroleoftheCatholicChurch.
 ThecharacterofKingLouisXVI.
 TheinfluenceoftheQueen.
 TheinfluenceofEngland.
 TheAmericanwarofindependence.
 Thefinancialcrisisorbankruptcy.
 Thebadweather/famine.
 ThesummoningandfailureoftheEstatesGeneral.
THESOCIALCLASSSYSTEMORSTRUGGLEINFRANCE
The
Frenchrevolutionof1789wasaresultoftheclassstrugglebetweentheprivilegedandunprivilege
dclasseinFrance.By1789,Francewasaclass-
basedsocietywithhighlevelsofinequality.IthadthreeclassesalsoreferredtoasEstatesandthe
seincluded:-
 The1stEstate:ThisincludedthekeymembersoftheClergy–
Churchleaders.TheclergyweremembersoftheCatholicChurchbutwerealsodividedintoth
eUpper(BishopsandArchbishops)andtheLowerclergy(Priestsandmonks-
whodidmuchoftheChurchwork).
 The2ndEstate:ThiswasmadeupoftheNobles–
PrincesandPrincesses(Royals).TheNobilitywasdividedintotheGreater,LesserNobilityand
NobilityoftheRobe.NobilityoftheRobewereadoptedNoblesi.eadmittedintotheNoblerank
sbecausetheirparentsorgrandparentshaddonegreatthingsforthestate.
 The3rdEstate:Thiscomprisedofthepeasantsandthemiddleclassmen(bourgeoisie).
ThefirsttwoEstateswerethenaturalleadersandmostprivilegedinFrance.Itwasdifficulttocross
fromoneEstatetoanother.Ingeneral,theFrenchNobilityandClergyenjoyedseveralprivilegesr
angingfrompoliticalpowertoexemptionfromtaxation.Themiddleclassweredeniedpoliticalpo
werandthepeasantsledalifeoftotalmiseryorsuffering.Thisledtoenemitybetweentheclassesa
ndthisactedasthemajorforcebehindtheFrenchrevolutionof1789astheThirdEstatestruggledt
oenjoysimilarprivileges.
THECLERGY

AsmembersoftheFirstEstateandbelongingtotheCatholicChurch,theyprovidedreligiousservi
cesinFrance.Asaresult,theyusedthischancetodenyreligiousfreedomtothemembersofotherc
hurches.Thisannoyedthem,henceforcingthemtoorganizearevolutionin1789.
TheyalsocontrolledtheeducationsysteminFranceandtheyusedthispositiontodenyeducation
tothepeasants.By1789,thepeasantsroseupdemandingforequalitybeforeeducation.
Theclergyowned10%ofthetotallandinFranceandtheyhadpeasantsassquattersontheirland.
Theythereforeusedthisprivilegetodemandfeudaltaxesfromthepeasantswhichcauseddisc
ontentamongthepeasantsby1789.
Theclergywereexemptedfrompayingtaxesyettheyhadalotofwealth.Inadditiontheyenjoyed
costlyprivilegeslikeconstantpartiesattheKing’sCourt(RoyalPalace)whichdrainedthestatetre
asury.ThisresultedintothebankruptcyoftheFrenchCrownwhicheventuallysparkedofftheFre
nchrevolutionof1789.
TheclergyweredividedintotheUpperandLowerClergy.TheUpperClergytookmostoftheimport
antpostsintheChurchandwereveryrich.TheirluxuriouslifeangeredthemembersoftheLowerC
lergywhoweretheParishPriestsandsufferedinpovertywhodemandedforequality.Theytheref
orejoinedthepeasantsandtheMiddleclasstorevoltin1789.
THENOBLES
ThesebelongedtotheSecondEstateandheldhighofficesinthearmyandgovernmentattheexpe
nseofthethirdEstate.ThisannoyedthepeasantsinFrance,henceforcingthemtostagearevoluti
onin1789.
TheNobleswerealsoexemptedfromtaxationandyetlivedaluxuriouslifeattheKing’sCourt.This
contributedtothebankruptcyoftheFrenchtreasurywhicheventuallysparkedoffarevolutioninF
ranceby1789.
Theyownedalotofthelandonwhichpeasantslivedandworkedasserfs.Everynoblelefttohisson
eitheracastleoramansionandalsoalotofterritoryfromwhichhecollectedtaxes.Allthisannoyed
themembersofthethirdestate,henceinspiringthemtostagearevolutionby1789.
Thenobleswerethemajoradvisorsofthekingandquiteoftentheiradvicewasmisleading.Forexa
mple,theyadvisedthekingtodismisspeoplewithgoodideasfromgovernmentsuchasNeckeran
dTurgot.AllthiscauseddiscontentamongthemembersoftheThirdEstatewhicheventuallyspar
kedofftheFrenchRevolutionof1789.
Besides,theNobleswerealsodivided.TherewerethosethatbelongedtotheGreaterNobilityand
thoseoftheLesserNobilityandtheNobilityoftheRobe.TheGreaterNobilitywerethehighranking

officersandcommandersoftheFrencharmy.Therefore,therewasaconflictbetweentheGreate
rNobility(whoenjoyedalltheprivileges)andtheLesserNobilityandNobilityoftheRobewhoenjo
yednoprivilegesatallapartfromthehonouredtitles.TheLesserNobilitythereforejoinedthepea
santstodemandforsocialequalityandjusticeby1789.
Finally,thenoblesadvisedKingLouisXVItocalltheEstatesGeneralMeetinginMay1789whichwa
stheimmediatecauseoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.ItwasinthismeetingthattheThirdEstate
declaredthemselvestheNationalAssemblyintotaldefianceoftheking.Thenoblesrefusedtolist
entothedemandsoftheThirdEstatewhothereforeoptedforarevolutionin1789.
THEBURDENSOFTHEPEASANTS
TheybelongedtotheThirdEstateandrepresentedthemostsufferinggroupinFrance.Ithadapop
ulationofover22millionpeopleyetthemembersofthe1 stand2ndEstatewerelessthanOnemillion
people.
Thepeasantsexperiencedtheheaviestburdenoftaxation,payingseveraltaxeslikethepolltaxp
aidtotheKing,atenthofhisincometotheChurch,twelfthofhisincometoincometax,thesalttaxpa
idbyeverypeasantoversevenyearsofageandcustomdutiesineachvillagewherehepassedwith
hisgoodsashetookthemforprocessingandmarketing.Thisheavytaxationgreatlyannoyedthe
peasants,henceforcingthemtostagearevolutionin1789.
Thepeasantsweresubjectedtotheexploitativeandoppressivesystemoffeudalism.Bythissys
tem,alllandandwealthwereownedbythenoblesandclergyandthepeasantslivedonthislandas
serfs.ThefeudalsystemoflandtenureinFrancewasunfairandthepeasantsopposeditbecauseit
mademostofthemlandless.Thenoblesalsousedtochargealotfeudalduesortaxesfromtheserfs
.Thepeasantshatedthissystemandthereforetheyrevoltedin1789.
Thepeasantswererestrictedtomovefromoneregiontoanotherorfromoneestatetoanothersin
ceallthenecessitiesoflifeforpeasantswouldbeprovidedbythelandlordsineveryfeudalvillage.T
hisalsoannoyedthem,thusinspiringthemtoorganizearevolutionin1789.
Theywereforcedtogivetheirlabourfreeofchargetoworkonroads,farmsfortheirlandlordsands
erveinthearmy.Whiletheyservedinthearmy,theywerediscriminatedbecausetheycouldnotbe
promoted.Joiningthearmywasnotvoluntaryforpeasantsyettheywerenotallowedtoascendmi
litaryranks.Bythemilitarylawof1781(Thelawofcommissionedandnon-
commissionedranks),importantpositionsandranksinthearmyweretobegiventonoblesonly.T
hisalsobecameamajorsourceofdiscontentamongthepeasants.

ThepeasantsinFrancealsosufferedunfairtrial.Thenobles,forexampleusedtoestablishtheiro
wncourtswherethepeasantsweretriedandnopeasantwonacaseagainstanymemberoftheFirs
tandSecondEstates.ThepeasantswouldalsobearrestedandimprisonedattheordersoftheKin
gwithouttrial.Allthiscauseddiscontentamongthepeasants.Consequently,withleadershipfro
mthemiddleclass,thedesperatepeasantsofferedthemselvesfortherevolutionof1789.
THEMIDDLECLASS(BOURGEOISIE)
WithintheThirdEstatewerethemiddleclassorBourgeoisie,whoalsobelongedtotheunprivilege
dgroupintheFrenchsociety.Itwasanumericallysmallclassconsistingofprofessionals(themost
educatedpeople)likedoctors,lawyers,teachersandthewealthyFrenchmen.Theywerepowerf
ulinthefieldoffinance,tradeandindustryandfromthisclasscameministersofstate,judges,mag
istratesandtaxcollectors.Theytravelledwidelyandthereforehadalotofintellectualandfinancia
lexperience.Theybecamediscontentedbecausetheyweredeniedcertainrightsenjoyedbythef
irstandsecondestates.
TheyhatedthefavouritismoftheAncientregimewhichdeniedthemhighpositionsinthegover
nmentandthearmydespitetheirgreateducation.Asaresult,by1789theywantedtohavefairrep
resentationingovernmentandthearmyandthiswasoneoftheirmajorgrievances.
TheyalsocalledforreligiousfreedominFrance.TheyopposedthedominancyoftheRomanCath
olicChurchinthereligiousaffairsofFrance.By1789,theythereforeroseuptoestablishfreedomo
fworshipinFrance.
TheyhatedthedictatorshipoftheAncientregime.Forexample,theywantedawrittenconstitutio
nforFrance.Thiswouldhelptoreducetheuncontrolledinfluenceofthekingandhiscourtiersinpol
iticalaffairs.Theyalsoresentedthestrictsystemofcensoringpressaspeoplewerenotfreetocriti
cizegovernment.
Apartfromthepoliticalgrievances,themerchantsandindustrialistshadeconomicgrievances.T
heywereunhappyabouttheworseningeconomyofFrancebecauseoftheexcessiveextravagan
cybythegovernmentofficialsandinvolvementinunnecessarywarsliketheSevenYearsWar(17
56-1763)andtheAmericanWar(1776-
1783).ThesewarsdrainedFrance’sfinancialresources,thuscripplingtheFrencheconomy.
Thewealthymiddle-
classhadalsolenttheirmoneytotheFrenchgovernmentduringtheperiodofbankruptcybutby1
789,theyhadnotbeenpaid.Therewasafearthatthegovernmentwouldnotpayback.Asaresult,t
heydecidedtojointhepeasantsinorganizingarevolutionsotorecovertheirmoney.
THEINFLUENCEOFTHEPHILOSOPHERS

The17thcenturywasanageofenlightenmentinEuropewhichgaverisepoliticalPhilosophersinE
uropeancountriesincludingFrance.Thesewereintellectualsorgreatthinkerswhowrotebooks
whichcontainedliteratureandthisliteraturewasinterpretedbytheeducatedpeopleinFrancew
hoinfluencedotherstostagearevolutionagainsttheAncientregime.TheprominentFrenchphil
osophersincludedVoltaire,RousseauandMontesquieuamongothers.
VOLTAIRE(1694–1778)
Helivedbetween1694and1778.Hewroteabookknownas“LettersontheEnglish”.Inthisbo
ok,heattackedtheCatholicChurchinFrance.Forexample,thatthisChurchdidnotallowreligious
freedom.
HealsocriticizedthepresenceofsocialclassesinFranceandtheprivilegesthatweregiventothem
embersoftheFirstandSecondEstates.
HealsocomparedthesystemofgovernmentinEnglandwiththatofFrance.Forexample,henote
dthatinEnglandtherewasfairtrialbythejudicialsystemyetthejudicialsysteminFrancewasvery
unfairespeciallyonthepartofthepeasantswhocouldnotwincasesagainstthemembersoftheFir
standSecondEstates.Therefore,theFrenchmendemandedforthesystemofgovernmentthat
wascomparedtothatofEnglandbyVoltaire,thusleadingtotheoutbreakofthe1789Frenchrevol
ution.
MONTESQUIEU(1689–1755)
Hisbookwasknownas“TheSpiritofLaws”inwhichheputhisviews.Inthisbook,heexpressedt
heideasofequality,libertyandfraternityifpeopleweretohavegoodlifeonthisearth.Libertyrefer
redtofreedom,equalitymeantequaltreatmentwhilefraternitymeantbrotherhood.
However,inFrancethethreeaspectswerecompletelymissing.Forexample,theFrenchsociety
wasdividedintoEstates,wherebythefirsttwoEstatesenjoyedmoreprivilegesthantheThirdEst
ate.TherewasnofreedomforexamplefreedomofworshipandalsotheFrenchmendidnotsharet
hefeelingofbrotherhood.ThiscauseddiscontentandtheFrenchmenthereforedecidedtostage
arevolutiondemandingforliberty,equalityandfraternityandindeedthethreeideasbecamethe
sloganoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.
Healsosuggestedthatforanygovernmenttobefairandefficient(functioningproperly)andcater
fortheinterestsofitscitizens,ithadtohavethreearmswhichincludedtheExecutive,Legislature(
Parliament)andJudiciary.Hewentaheadtostatethatifamemberoftheexecutiveinterferedwith
theworkoftheLegislatureandtheJudiciary,thenthatrulerwaslikelytobeautocraticoradictator.

HiswritingsappliedtoFrancebecausetheKingofFrancewasautocraticby1789.Forexample,Lo
uisXVIdidnotallowaparliamentinFranceandheusedtorefertohimselfasthelaw.TheKingofFra
ncecouldissuewarrants(Lettresdecachets)thatwouldleadtothearrest,imprisonmentanddea
thofthosesuspectedtobeopponentsoftheAncientRegime.Thiscausedalotofdiscontentandth
ereforetheFrenchmendemandedforaconstitutionalgovernmentwhichledtotheoutbreakofth
eFrenchrevolutionof1789.
JEANJACQUESROUSSEAU(1712–1778)
Hewroteabookknownasthe“SocialContract”inwhichheexpressedthat“thoughmanisbornf
reeiseverinchains”.Thatmanwasborntoenjoynaturalfreedomsliketherighttolive,freedomof
worship,freedomofexpression,freedomofassociationandtherighttoownpropertyamongoth
ersbuttherulersdeniedtheserightstotheirpeople.Hethereforerecommendedthatpeoplehadt
obeleftfreetoenjoytheirnaturalrights.
Thephilosophy(ideas)ofRousseauappliedtoFranceandinfluencedthepeopletostagearevolut
ionin1789becausethesystemofgovernmentoftheAncientRegimedidnotprovideforfreedomo
fworship,associationaswellastherighttoownproperty.Forexample,thepeasantswerenotallo
wedtoownlandandarighttolifebecauseinnocentFrenchmenwouldbearrested,imprisonedan
dkilledontheordersoftheking.
THEFRENCHSYSTEMOFGOVERNMENT(ANCIENTREGIME)
By1789,FrancewasunderagovernmentknownastheAncientRegime.Thisregimewasveryunf
airwithalotofweaknesseswhichcontributedtotheoutbreakoftherevolutioninthefollowingwa
ys:
Thesystemofgovernmentwasbasedonhereditaryleadershipasaformofsuccession.Thissy
stemofgovernmenthadaweaknessbecausetheKinghadtocomefromtheFirstEstatewhichco
mprisedofthemembersoftheRoyalfamily.Asaresultofthis,therewereincompetentorweakrul
ersinFranceandKingLouisXVIwasalivingexamplebecausehecouldnotmanagethestateaffa
irs.Thiseventuallycausedarevolutionby1789.
Therewaslackofafunctionalparliamenttoaddresspeople’sproblemsinFranceby1789.TheEst
atesGeneralwhichusedtoactasaparliamenthadlostmetin1614andthereforehadnotsatforap
eriodof175years.Inthedistrictsandprinces,theassemblies(parliaments)werereplacedbyroy
alassembliesknownas“Intendants”whichwereinfluencedbytheking.Lackofaparliamentm
eantthattheFrenchmasseshadnoforumtoairouttheirsocial-
politicalcomplaintsaswellaseconomichardships.Italsomeantthatthekinghadexcessivepowe

rssincetherewasnoparliamenttocheckonhisactions.Thiscreateddiscontentamongthepeople
,henceinspiringthemtostagearevolutionin1789.
TherewasalsolackofaconstitutioninFrance.TheAncientRegimeruledFrancewithoutaconsti
tutiontoprotectpeople’srightsandequalityofallopportunities.Becauseofthis,therewerenoch
ecksandbalancesagainsttheking’sexcessivepowersandunfairpolicies.Thisthereforelefttheki
ngwithtoomuchpowerthatwasunquestioned.Hence,thedesiretogiveFranceaconstitutionres
ultedintoarevolutionby1789,
TheJudicialsystemwasalsoveryunfairwhichcausedtheFrenchrevolutionof1789.TheFrenchj
udicialsystemlackeduniformcourtsoflaw.Apersonwouldbetriedasmanyasfiftytimesforasingl
eoffenceheorshecommitted.Infactby1789,therewereabout400differentcourtsoflawoperati
ngindifferentpartsofFrancewhichcausedjudicialconfusion.Therewerealsodifferentlawsoper
atinginFranceliketheRomanlawinthesouthandthecommonlawinthenorth.Therewasalsonot
rialbyjury(fairhearing)andinmostcasethenoblesweretheaccusersandatthesametimethejud
gesagainstthepeasantsandmiddleclassmembers.Suchunfairnesseventuallycontributedtot
heoutbreakoftherevolutionin1789.
TherewasalotofdespotismordictatorshipinFranceby1789.TheBourbonMonarchywascharac
terizedbygrossabuseofhumanrightsandlackofdemocracy.Allthepowersofthegovernmentw
erevestedinthehandsofthekingwhoregardedhimselfasademi-
God(akingbythegraceofGodandnotthewillofthepeople).Infact,thekingwasthelawandatone
timeboastedbysaying“ThethingislegalbecauseIwishit”.KingLouisXVIatonetimealsosaid“Th
estateismyself”.Suchexpressionsshowedthedespoticpowersthatthekinghadoverhissubject
s.Asifthatwasnotenough,theking’sministershadalotofpower’sthatcouldnotbechallenged.Fo
rexample,thekingandhisministersusedarrestwarrantsknownas“Lettredecatchets”whichwe
reempoweringthemtoarrestandimprisonanyoneatanytime.Allthisunfairnesseventuallyforc
edthemassestostagearevolutioninFranceby1789.
ThesystemofgovernmentalsopromotednepotismorfavoritisminFrance.Theadministrativest
ructureoftheAncientRegimeby1789wasunfairbecauseitfavoredthenoblesandclergywhodo
minatedthekeypositionsinthearmyandcivilservicedespitetheirincompetenceandcorruptten
dencieswhichledtoinefficiencyintheadministration.Whatwasmostannoyingwasthatthemidd
leclasswashighlyqualifiedbutexcludedfromthetopadministrationoftheircountry.Thistherefo
remadethemtomobilizethepeasantsforarevolutionwhichbrokeoutin1789.
Thesystemcreatedgrievanceswithinthearmy.ThesurvivaloftheunpopularanddespoticFrenc
hmonarchydependedonthearmy.However,theFrencharmyhadalotofgrievancesagainstthe
government.Forexample,therewereunfairpromotionswithinthearmywherethehigherranks
wereonlyreservedforthenobles.TheFrenchsoldierswerealsosubjectedtoservepunishmentsf
orminoroffences.Theywerealsopoorlyfed,dressedandpaidamongothergrievances.Thisexpl
ainswhythesoldiers,insteadofsuppressingtherevolutionaries,theyjustjoinedthemandmadet
heFrenchrevolutioninevitableby1789.

ThesystemofgovernmentcreatedgroundsforcomparisonbetweenBritainandFrance.Britainh
adagoodsystemofgovernmentbasedonconstitutionalruleandalsoprovidedforfreedomofwor
ship,amongotherlibertieswhichwasnotthecasewithFrance.ThiscomparisonbytheFrenchme
neventuallymadethemtoorganizearevolutionby1789.
Thesystemalsocreatedgroundsforthephilosopherstowritearticlesthatcriticizedthegovernm
ent.Forexample,thewritingsofVoltairecriticizedtheFrenchsystemofgovernmentasunfairand
compareditwiththegoodgovernancethatwasinEngland.ThisinspiredtheFrenchmentoorgani
zearevolutionin1789.
THEROLEOFTHECATHOLICCHURCH
By1789,theCatholicChurchasareligiousinstitutionhadalotofpowerandweaknessesinFrance
andthiscontributedtotheoutbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789inthefollowingways:
TherewasnoreligioustoleranceorfreedominFranceduringtheAncientRegime.Itwasonlyth
eCatholicfaiththatwasallowedtobepracticedinFrance.FrancehadotherreligionsliketheProte
stantsbuttheAncientRegimehadapracticeofdestroyingtheirtemples.Thisreligiousintoleranc
ecauseddiscontentbetweentheCatholicChurchandotherreligionswhichledtotheoutbreakoft
herevolutionasthemassesdemandedforfreedomofworship.
TheCatholicChurchhadalotofwealth.Forexample,theChurchownedalotoflandinFrance.Onth
island,thepeasantssettledandworkedassquatters(tenants).Astenantsorserfs,theyweresev
erelyexploitedandoppressedbythechurchleaderswhichcausedpublicdiscontentinFrance.
TheCatholicChurchusedtodemandalotoftaxfromthepeasantsforstayingontheChurchland.F
orexample,thepeasantshadtogivetenthoftheirincometotheChurchastithe.Theyalsohadtog
iveapercentageoftheirharvesttotheClergy.Therefore,thepeasantsrevoltedin1789demandi
ngforareductioninthetaxburden.
TheCatholicChurchcontrolledtheeducationsysteminFrance.Whileincontrol,theCatholicChur
chdeniededucationespeciallytothemembersofotherreligions.Thepeasantsingeneralwereal
soaffectedbecausetheeducationsystemwasundertheClergywhoweremembersoftheFirstEs
tateyetthepeasantsbelongedtotheThirdEstate.Thissituationcausedantagonismwhichledtot
heoutbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.
ThemembersoftheCatholicChurchespeciallytheUpperClergyledaluxuriouslifeintheCathedra
ls.ThisextravagancyoftheCatholicChurchtogetherwiththefactthattheclergywereenjoyedex
emptedfromtaxationyettheywereveryrichcontributedtothebankruptcyoftheFrenchCrownb
y1789.ThiseventuallyledtotheoutbreakoftheFrenchRevolutionof1789.

ThemembersoftheCatholicChurchhadalotofpoliticalpowerinFrance.Forexample,theytookth
emajorgovernmentpostsinFrench.In1789therefore,thegovernmentofLouisXVIwasblamedf
orreligiousfavouritismbecausethemembersofotherreligionswerenotallowedtoparticipateint
herunningoftheFrenchgovernment.
ThedivisionswithintheCatholicChurchespeciallyamongthechurchleaders(clergy)causedthe
Frenchrevolutionof1789.TheclergyweredividedintotheUpperandLowerClergy.TheUpperCl
ergycomposedoftheBishopsandArchbishopsandtheseoneslivedaluxuriouslifeintheirpalaces
andattheRoyalCourt.However,thelocalparishpriestslanguishedinpovertyandthisnepotisma
mongtheclergycauseddiscontenttotheextentthattheLowerClergyjoinedthepeasantstostag
earevolutionastheydemandedforequalityintheCatholicChurch.
THECHARACTEROFKINGLOUISXVI,1774-1793
Heassumedthethronein1774.TheFrenchrevolutionbrokeoutin1789duringhisregimeandhe
wasexecutedorkilledin1793.Generally,KingLouisXVIwasweakincharacterandthiscontribut
edtotheoutbreakofthe1789Frenchrevolutioninthefollowingways:
HewasanautocraticordespoticKingandthereforeallthepowerswereinhishands.AlthoughF
rancehadaparliamentknownastheEstatesGeneral,LouisXVIrefusedtheparliamenttomeetlik
etheotherpreviousKingshaddonetotheextentthatby1789,theEstatesGeneralhadspent175y
earswithoutmeeting.ThisparliamentwouldhaveprovidedasolutiontotheproblemsofFrancet
oavoidarevolution.
HedeniedtheFrenchmentheirfundamentalrightsandfreedoms.Forexample,heusedtois
sueLettresdecachetwhichwerewarrantsorlettersthatledtothearrestandimprisonmentofh
isopponentsplusinnocentFrenchmenwithouttrial.Healsoneverallowedfreedomofpress,expr
essionandassociation.ThiscauseddiscontentinFrancethateventuallysparkedoffarevolutioni
nFranceby1789.
Hewasveryconservative.Heopposedanyattemptthatwasaimedatcarryingoutreformsthat
wouldreducehispowersandthestatusofhisregime.Forexample,herefusedtograntconstitutio
nalleadershipinFranceforfearofreducinghisabsolutepowers.Thisalsocauseddiscontentamo
ngtheFrenchmen.
HesupportedthesocialclasssysteminFrance.Hefinancedtheprivilegesthatwereenjoyedby
themembersoftheFirstandSecondEstatesattheRoyalPalace.Herefusedtheremovalofprivileg
eslikeexemptionoftaxationandallthiscausedthebankruptcyoftheFrenchCrownby1789which
annoyedtheFrenchmen,hencecausingarevolution.

Asamanofweakcharacter,hewassosubmissivetohiswife,theQueenofFrance.Heallowedth
einfluenceofQueenMarieAntoinetteinthestateaffairs.Forexample,whenthefinancialcrisiswo
rsenedheappointedfinancialadvisorslikeTURGOTandNECKERwhosuggestedabolishingof
thesocialclassesandthattheclergyandnoblesshouldstartpayingtaxessincetheywererich.Ho
wever,ontheadviceofhiswifewhowasalsoconservative,thekingdismissedtheEconomistsand
thisworsenedthefinancialstatusofFrance.
HeinvolvedFranceintheAmericanWarofIndependence.Between1776and1783,thepeop
leofAmericafoughtfortheirindependenceagainstBritain.KingLouisXVIsenttheFrenchsoldier
stoassisttheAmericansbecausehewantedtorevengeonBritainwhichhaddefeatedFranceduri
ngtheSevenYearsof1756-
1763.Duringthiswar,Francespentalotofmoneywhichcontributedtoafinancialproblemscrisis
thateventuallysparkedoffarevolutioninFranceby1789.
LouisXVIsignedaFreeTradeTreatywithEnglandin1786whichwasabigmiscalculationbecau
seitcausedeconomichardshipsthateventuallycausedarevolution.Thistreatyaffectedtheecon
omyofFrancebecauseastaxfreegoodsenteredFrance,theFrenchindustriesclosedsincetheyc
ouldnotcompetewiththecheapforeigngoodsfromBritain.Theclosureofindustriesledtounem
ploymentwhichcontributedtotheoutbreakoftheFrenchRevolutionof1789.
Hewasneglectedthestatedutiesoraffairs.Heusedtospendmostofhistimeinleisureactivitieslik
ehuntingwhileimportantstatemattersremainedunattendedto.Thisisanotherdemonstration
ofaKingwithaweakcharacterandthereforeitmadehimunpopularamongtheFrenchmenwhich
eventuallyinspiredthemtoriseup.
Healsohadashycharacter.Forexample,hecouldnotchairRoyalCouncilmeetingsbecausehe
washewasshyyetthiswassupposedtobehisduty.Hecouldthereforenotmeasureuptohispositi
onofbeingthekingofFrancewhichalsomadehimunpopular.
LouisXVIwasastaunchorstrongCatholic.Hewastoocatholicthathecouldnotsupportchangesw
ithintheCatholicChurchthatwouldhavecateredfortheinterestsofmajorityoftheFrenchmen.F
orexample,herefusedtoallowfreedomofworshipandownershipoflandbyotherFrenchmenwh
ichtheCatholicChurchhadrestricted.SuchchangeswithintheCatholicChurchwouldalsohaver
emovedtaxburdensfromthepeasants.ThisequallymadeLouisXVIunpopularinFrance.
HefailedtosolvetheproblemoffamineinFrance.Francehadbeenhitbybadweather(severewint
er)towards1789whichresultedintofaminebutthegovernmentofLouisXVIfailedtoprovidefoo
dbecauseitwasbankrupt.ThehungrymobsgatheredinPariswheretheyformedagroupofpeopl
eknownastheParisMobandtheythereforestartedtoorganizetheFrenchrevolutionof1789.

HealsohadacarefreeattitudetowardsthepublicationsofthecriticalwritersespeciallythePhilos
ophers.ThesePhilosopherswroteandcirculatedarticlesthatcriticizedtheinjusticesoftheAncie
ntregime.It’sthesepublicationsthatmadethemassesawareoftheirrightswhichwerebeingabu
sed,henceinspiringthemtoorganizearevolutionin1789.
HewasresponsibleforthefailureoftheEstatesGeneralwhichsparkedoffthe1789Frenchrevolut
ion.InMay1789,LouisXVIcalledtheEstatesGeneralontheadviceofNECKERtosolvethefinanci
alandotherproblemsinFrance.AlltheEstateswererepresented.However,LouisXVIdisappoint
edthepeasantswhenherejectedtheirproposalslikeendoffeudalismandunfairtaxationamong
others.Theythereforedecidedtorevoltin1789.
THEINFLUENCEOFTHEQUEENOFFRANCE,MARIEANTOINETTE
MarieAntoinettewasthewifeofKingLouisXVI.ShewasanAustrianandtwogotmarriedin1770,b
eforeLouisXVIbecameKingofFranceQueenMarieAntoinettecontributedtotheoutbreakofthe
1789Frenchrevolutioninthefollowingways;
TheFrenchpeoplehatedhertotheextentoforganizingarevolutionagainstthegovernmentbeca
useofherAustrianorigin.AsaforeignerinFrance,shewasalwaysreferredtoasthe“AustrianWo
man”whichwasasignoflackofpopularityandrespectamongtheFrenchmen.Thisthereforeinflu
encedtheFrenchmentoorganizearevolutionin1789.
Thequeenlackedthenecessarywisdomandasenseofjudgment.Shegotmarriedataveryageag
eof16(sixteen)years.ThisaffectedherstatusandresponsibilityasaQueeninFrancewhichmade
herunpopularamongtheFrenchmen.ThiseventuallycausedtheFrenchrevolutionof1789.
ThequeenofFrancedistancedherselffromtheunprivilegedclassofthepeasantswhowerethem
ajority.ThiswasbecauseshebelongedtotheroyalfamilyinAustriaasshewasadaughtertoEmpr
essMariaTheresaofAustria.Shewasthereforeagreatsupporteroftheprivilegesenjoyedbyth
eClergyandnoblesattheexpenseofthepeasantsbecauseofherroyalbackground.Thisalsomad
eherunpopularinFrance.
ThequeenwasinsensitiveorunsympathetictothesufferingoftheFrenchmasseswhichangered
them.Theythoughtthatitwasbecauseofherforeignstatusthatshewasinconsideratetotheirsuf
fering.Thisthereforeincreasedtheirdiscontentorhatredwithherwhicheventuallyledtotheout
breakoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.
ThequeeninterferedwiththepoliticalaffairsinFrance.Thiswassobecauseshewasthemajoradv
iserofherhusbandandthetwomadeaterriblecombinationforFrance.Forexample,sheadvisedt
hekingtodismisspeoplewithgoodideasfromgovernmentlikethetwofinancialcontrollersname

ly;TurgotandNecker.Thetwohadsuggestedabolitionofthesocialclassesandtheirassociatedp
rivilegessoastosolvetheproblemofbankruptcy.However,thequeenadvisedherhusbandtodis
missthemwhichhedidandthisworsenedthefinancialstatusofFrancewhicheventuallycontribu
tedtotheoutbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionby1789.
ThequeenofFrancewasatthecentreandalwayssurroundedbygreedyorselfishpersonsespecia
llytheClergyandtheNobleswhohadlefttheirprovincesandcametoliveattheRoyalcourt.Theses
upportersoftheAncientregimeusedthequeentoprotecttheirprivilegesandthiscausedaconflic
tbetweentheFrenchmassesandtheirqueenthateventuallyledtotheoutbreakofthe1789Frenc
hrevolution.
ThequeenofFrancecontributedtothebankruptcyoftheFrenchtreasurywhichbecameamajorc
auseoftherevolutionby1789.Thisisbecauseshewasveryextravagantandfondofpleasureorlu
xurytotheextentthathalfofthenationalincomeofFrancewasspentonher.Herhusbandcommitt
edalotofmoneyfromthestatetreasuryforherexpenditureforexampleonherhorses,clothingan
dentertainment.ThiscauseddiscontentamongtheFrenchmasseswhichledtotheoutbreakofth
e1789revolutioninFrance.
ThequeenofFrancewasalivingsymboloftheFrenchhumiliationintheSevenYearsWar.Betw
een1756and1763,ahopelessallianceofAustriaandFrancewasdecisivelydefeatedbyBritain.C
onsequently,FrancelosthercoloniesofIndiaandCanadatoBritain.ThisdefeatannoyedtheFren
chmenanditincreasedtheirhatredtowardsAustriaandtheAustrianwomanwhichcontributedt
otheoutbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.
THEINFLUENCEOFENGLAND
AsaFrenchneighbour,EnglandprovidedapracticalexampleofwhatFrenchmendemandedfor.
Politically,theEnglishsystemofgovernmentanditsinstitutionswereadmiredbymanyFren
chmenby1789.Forexample,thoughEnglandwasamonarchyorKingdomlikeFrance,theEnglis
hmonarchywasconstitutional.ItalsohadafunctionalParliament.Ontheotherhand,Francewhi
chwasalsoamonarchywasautocratic.Therefore,theFrenchmenrevolteddemandingforconsti
tutionalrule.Inaddition,inEnglandtheprotestantfaithwasdominantbutEnglandallowedfreed
omofworship.Ontheotherhand,theCatholicfaithwasdominantinFrance,butFrancedidnotallo
wfreedomofworshipandthiseventuallyledtotheoutbreakoftheFrenchRevolution.
Economically,in1763EnglanddefeatedFranceandshelosthercoloniesofIndiaandCanada.The
lossofthesecolonieswhichweresourcesofwealthlikemineralscontributedtothebankruptcyof
Francewhichledtotheoutbreakofthe1789Frenchrevolution.

EnglandalsosignedaFreeTradeTreatyknownastheCobdenTreatyof1786withFrance.By
thistreaty,BritishgoodswereallowedtoenterFrancewithoutpayingtaxes.ThisaffectedtheFre
ncheconomybecausetheBritishgoodswhichweresuperiorout-
competedtheFrenchmanufacturedproducts.TheFrenchindustriesthereforeclosedandthere
wasseriousunemploymentinFrancetogetherwithbankruptcy.ThiseconomicinfluenceofEn
glandcontributedtotheoutbreakoftheFrenchRevolutionof1789.
THEAMERICANWAROFINDEPENDENCE,1776-1783
Theperiod1776to1783witnessedarebellionoftheAmericanBritishcoloniesagainstBritaindem
andingfortheirindependence.TheFrenchgovernmentunderKingLouisXVIextendedfinancial
andmilitaryassistancetotheAmericansbecausehewantedtorevengeagainstBritainwhichhad
defeatedFranceduringtheSevenYearsofWarof1756to1763bywhichFrancehadlosthercoloni
esofCanadaandIndia.TheFrenchsoldierswhowenttoAmericaledbyGeneralLafayettefoughtb
ravelytogetherwiththeAmericansanddefeatedtheBritish.Consequently,theAmericansgotth
eirindependenceleadingtothecreationoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica(USA).Thiswarhadpoliti
calandeconomiceffectsthatcontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1789Frenchrevolutioninthefollo
wingways;
Politically,theFrenchsoldierswhohelpedtoliberatetheAmericanslikeGeneralLafayettecameb
acktoFrancewithrevolutionaryanddemocraticideas.TheseFrenchsoldiershadassistedtheAm
ericanstoendtheBritishexploitativeandautocraticregime.Theydiscoveredthattheproblemst
heyhadhelpedtoliberatetheAmericanfromweretheveryonesinFrance.It’sthereforenotsurpri
singthattheformersoldierslikeLafayettequicklysupportedthepeasantsstagearevolutionin17
89.
WhentheAmericansgotindependencefromBritain,theydraftedaconstitutionundertheleader
shipofGeorgeWashington.Intheirconstitution,itwasstatedthatallmenhadarighttoenjoycert
ainfundamentalfreedomslikefreedomofspeech,freedomofassociation,freedomofmovemen
tandgoodgovernance.ThesefreedomshadbeenviolatedbyBritainandinthesamewayLouisXV
IofFranceviolatedthesamefreedoms.Inaddition,hewasadespotbecauseFrancehadnoconsti
tution.Therefore,thepeopleofFranceusedtheexampleoftheAmericanWarofIndependenceto
stagearevolutiondemandingforthesamefundamentalfreedomsofman.
ThewarexposedtheweakcharacterofKingLouisXVI.Thisisbecausehewasmoreinterestedinre
vengeandhedisregardedthefinancialproblemsthewarwouldhaveonFrance.Thefinancialcost
ofthewaronFranceeventuallycontributedtotheunpopularityofLouisXVIwhichledtotheoutbre
akofthe1789revolution.
Economically,thewarforcedKingLouisXVItoborrowmoneyfromthemembersofthemiddleclas
sorbourgeoisiesoastosupporttheFrencharmyinAmerica.By1789,thelenderswantedtheirmo

neybackbutbecausethestatewasbankrupt,LouisXVIfailedtopaybackthemoney.Thisgroupth
ereforeinfluencedotherdiscontentedgroupsinFrancetostagearevolutionin1789.
ThewaralsocontributedtothebankruptcyoftheFrenchtreasury.ThiswasbecauseFrancespent
alotofmoneytotransportandmaintainthesoldiersinAmericaduringawarthatdraggedonforsev
enyearsyetshegainednothingfromit.Thisbankruptcyincreaseddiscontentamongthepeasant
swhichforcedthemtoorganizearevolutionagainsttheAncientRegimein1789.
THEFINANCIALCRISISORBANKRUPTCYOFTHEFRENCHCROWN
By1789,theFrenchtreasurywasbankruptwithaheavydebtburden.Thisfinancialcrisiswasbrou
ghtaboutbycorruptionorembezzlementofthetaxrevenuebythetaxcollectorsaswellastheextr
avagancyofthenobles,clergyandMarieAntoinette.Francealsowastedalotoffinancialresource
sinuselessexpensivewarslikeSevenYearsWarof1756-
1763andtheAmericanWarofIndependenceof1776-
1783.Thereforeby1789,France,wasfacingaseverefinancialcrisiswhichcontributedtotheoutb
reakoftheFrenchrevolutioninthefollowingways;
ThefinancialcrisismadetheFrenchmassestoloseconfidenceintheexistinggovernmentwhich
wasbankrupt.Thisthereforeforcedthemtoorganizearevolutioninordertoremovethegovernm
entandreplaceitwitharesponsiblegovernmentthatwouldsavetheeconomyfromfurtherdeclin
e.
ItforcedtheAncientRegimetoborrowmoneyfromthemiddleclassmembersinFrancewhichitev
enfailedtopaybackby1789.Oncethemiddleclassmembersrealizedthatthegovernmentwasun
abletorefundtheirmoney,theyjoinedthepeasantsinordertoremovethegovernmentandrepla
ceitwithonethatwouldpaybacktheirmoney.
Itmadethegovernmentincapableofprovidingbasicnecessitiesandevenrunningthestateenter
priseslikeagriculture,transportandindustry.Thisresultedintoeconomicproblemslikeinflation
,unemploymentandgeneralpovertyinFranceby1789.Theseeconomichardshipsforcedthema
ssesespeciallythepeasantswhowerehardesthittostagearevolutionin1789.
Thefinancialcrisismadethegovernmentunabletohandletheeffectsofnaturaldisasterslikethes
everewinterthatattackedFrancein1781-
1788andledtocropfailure.Thiswasbecausethegovernmenthadnomoneytostockfoodfromab
roadforpeopleandtosubsidizebasicfoodstuffslikebread.Thisworsenedtheproblemoffaminei
nFrancewhichforcedthehungrypeopletoformamobintheFrenchcapitalofParisthatstarteda
revolutiononby1789.
ThefinancialcrisisforcedtheAncientRegimetoimposeheavytaxesonthepeasantswhichtheyo
pposedtotheextentofstagingarevolution.Thereweredirecttaxeslikethe“Tailletax”whichwasi
mposedonlandandthepolltaxwhichwasimposedontheheadofthehouseholdamongothers.T
heindirecttaxesincludedthesalttaxknownasGabelleandtheCorveetaxwhichwaspaidinformo
fforcedlabouronpublicworks.Worsestill,theAncientRegimeadoptedharshmethodsofcollecti

ngthesetaxeswhichofteninvolvedtorture,arrest,imprisonmentanddeath.Thiscausedresent
mentamongthepeasantsthateventuallysparkedoffarevolutionby1789.
ThebankruptcysituationincreasedtheunpopularityofthequeenofFrance.Sheforexamplesup
portedtheextravagancyattheRoyalcourtandsheevenadvisedherhusbandtodismissTurgotan
dNeckerwhohadproposedabolitionoftheprivilegesofthefirsttwoestatessoastosaveFrancefr
ombankruptcy.Shethereforebecameveryunpopularandtheresentmenttowardshercausedar
evolutioninFranceby1789.
ThebankruptcyalsoexposedtheweakcharacterofLouisXVI.TheKingfailedtosupportthefinan
cialreformsassuggestedbyTurgotandNecker.HeinsteadsupportedtheprivilegesoftheFirstan
dSecondEstatesliketaxexemption.Healsosupportedtheextravagancyatthecourtwhichcause
dbankruptcy.Thisthereforemadehimveryunpopularwhichledtotheoutbreakofarevolutionin
1789.
Thefinancialcrisisalsobroughtthephilosophers’workintorealityorplay.Thefinancialcrisisledt
othetorturingofthepeasantsbythetaxfarmers(taxcollectors)likethecuttingofarms,confiscati
onoftheirpropertyandRousseau’sworkcriticizedtheviolationofhumanrightsbytheleadersand
hadsuggestedformantobeleftfreetoenjoyhisrightstolifeandpropertyamongotherrights.The
peasantswerethereforeinfluencedbythewritingsofRousseautostagearevolutionin1789.
ItwasthefinancialcrisisthatledtothesummoningorcallingoftheEstatesGeneralon5 thMay1789
.WhenKingLouisXVIrecalledNeckerastheFinancialMinister,NeckeradvisedthekingtocalltheE
statesGeneral,amongotherthings,tobeadvisedonhowtosolveFrance’sfinancialtroubles.Ho
wever,themeetingfailedbecauseLouisXVIrefusedtosupporttheremovaloftheprivilegesofthe
FirstandSecondEstatessoastosolvethefinancialproblemsofFrance.ThemembersoftheThird
EstatethereforedecidedtostartarevolutioninMay1789.
BADWEATHER(SEVEREWINTER)
Between1787and1788,Francewashitbybadweather.Severewinterdestroyedthecropsandth
isledtoverypoorharvestsandthereforetherewasterriblefamineinFrance.Crowdsofhungryan
ddesperatemasseslefttheruralareasandwenttoParis(capitalofFrance)hopingtofindfood.Th
eywenttothepalacetoseeiftheKingcouldprovideforthem.KingLouisXVIcouldnotprovidefood
becausehisgovernmentwasbankruptandtomakeitworse,thefoodpricesinFrancewereveryhi
ghandmanypeoplecouldnotfindemploymentbecausetheindustrieshadbeenclosed.Therefor
e,thehungrypeopledecidedtojoinotherdiscontentedpeopleandstartedarevolutionin1789.
THESUMMONINGANDFAILUREOFTHEESTATESGENERAL(5thMAY1789)

ThissparkedofftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.TheEstatesGeneralhadspent175yearswithout
meetingsince1614duringthereignofKingLouisXIII.Itwassummonedorcalledon5thMay178
9toexaminegrievancesorcomplaintsanddrawupreforms.TherepresentativesfromtheThree
Estates(socialclasses)attendedtheEstatesGeneral.Whileinthemeeting,therepresentativeso
ftheThirdEstate(peasants)demandedforfairtaxation,endoffeudalism,equalitybeforethelaw
andanendtothesocialclassesandtheirprivileges.Noonesuggestedtheabolitionofthemonarch
y.Theysimplywantedreformsinit.
KingLouisXVImadeitverydifficultforthepeasantswhohadsuggestedholdingaonemanonevot
eonthegrievancesthathadbeenadvancedtoformtheagendaoftheEstatesGeneral.Heinstead
suggestedthatthevotingwastobeaccordingtothesocialclasses.Hefearedthatthepeasantswe
retodefeattheothermemberssincetheywerethemajority.TheThirdEstaterejectedtheideaoft
heKingtovoteseparately.LouisXVIbecamefuriousandorderedforthehalltobeclosedwhichme
antthathehadsuspendedthemeeting.TheThirdEstaterealizedthattheKingwasmoreintereste
dinretainingtheprivilegedpositionoftheFirstandSecondEstates.Thisannoyedthemandtheref
oretheydecidedtostartarevolutionwhichmarkedthebeginningoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789
.LaterCountMirabeauandthemembersoftheThirdEstateusedthischancetodeclarethemselve
stheNationalAssemblyon17thJune1789.TheyinvitedmembersfromtheotherEstatestojo
inthem.
Questions:
a)TowhatextentdidinternalfactorscontributetotheoutbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789?
b)Towhatextentdidtheexternalfactorscontributetotheoutbreakofthe1789Frenchrevolution
?
c)“TheFrenchrevolutionof1789wasinevitable”.Discuss.
d)“MarieAntoinettewasprimarilyresponsiblefortheoutbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789”.
Discuss.
e)“TheweaknessincharacterofKingLouisXVIwasprimarilyresponsiblefortheFrenchrevolutio
nof1789”.Discuss.
f)“LouisXVIwasprimarilyresponsiblefortheoutbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789”.Discuss.
g)WhywasFrancefacedwitharevolutionin1789andnotanyotherEuropeanstateyetconditions
weresimilar?
h)“ItwastherottennessoftheFrenchpoliticalsystemthatledtotheoutbreakofthe1789Frenchr
evolution“Discuss
THECOURSEOFTHEFRENCHREVOLUTIONOF1789
ThecourseoftheFrenchrevolutionhasanumberofeventsandhistorybasesontheseeventstosh
owthattherewerefundamentalchangesinFranceanditistruethatthesechangescontributedto
thecollapseoftheAncientRegimeby1793.

TherevolutionwaspeacefulatthestartandnooneexpectedtodoawaywiththeKingdom.Howev
er,in1792FrancebecameaRepublicandin1793LouisXVIandhiswifewereexecuted.Themainf
eaturesoreventsofthecourseoftheFrenchrevolutionincludethefollowing;
 ThesummoningoftheEstatesGeneral(May1789)andtheformationoftheNationalA
ssembly,June17th1789.
 TheTennisCourtOath,20thJune1789.
 TheRoyalSession,23rdJune1789.
 ThefalloftheBastille,July1789.
 Thedeclarationoftherightsofman(August–September1789).
 TheMarchofthewomentoVersailles(October1789).
 TheNationalizationofChurchProperty,November1789andtheAssignats.
 TheCivilConstitutionoftheClergy,July1790.
 TheemergenceofÉmigrés.
 ThedeathofMirabeau,April1791.
 TheKing’sflighttoVarennes,June1789.
 TheFrenchConstitutionofSeptember1791.
 Thecreationofpoliticalparties(politicalclubs)inFrance.
 ThecreationofaRepublic,September1792.
 TheexecutionofLouisXVI,January1793.
 RevolutionaryFranceatwarwiththerestofEurope(1792–1794).
 TheReignofTerrorinFrance,1792–1794.
THESUMMONINGOFTHEESTATESGENERAL(5THMAY1789)ANDTHEFORMATION
OFTHENATIONALASSEMBLY(17THJUNE1789)
TheEstatesGeneralthatwassummonedbyKingLouisXVIon5 thMayendedinfailure.Thekinginsi
stedonthetraditionalfashionofholdingseparatemeetingsforthethreeEstatesandvotingoncla
ssbasiswhichtheThirdEstaterejected.
Consequently,theydeclaredthemselvestheNationalAssemblyandthiswastoactastheparliam
entofFrance,hencereplacingtheEstatesGeneral.TheyinvitedmembersfromotherEstatestojo
inthem.TheywereeasilyjoinedbytheLowerClergyandtheLesserNobilitywhowereequallyunh
appyabouttheAncientregime.Forexample,CountMirabeau,oneoftherevolutionaryleadersbe
longedtothenobility.
TheformationoftheNationalAssemblywasanimportanteventinthecourseoftherevolutionbec
auseitmadeoutstandingachievementsforFrance.Forexample,itabolishedfeudallawsandther
eforereducedthepowerofthelandlordswhousedittodemandalotoftaxesfromtheirtenants.Th

eNationalAssemblyalsodeclaredthatallFrenchmenwerefreetoenjoytheirrightsthathadbeen
violatedbytheAncientRegime.
TheNationalAssemblyalsolaiddownnewadministrativestructuresinFrance.Forexample,thel
ocalgovernmentwasre-
organizedbythecreationof83(eightythree)divisionswhichwereknownas Departmentsandt
heleadersforeachdepartmentwereelectedonmeritotherthanbeingappointedbytheKingoron
thebasisofsocialstatusashadbeenbefore.
TheNationalAssemblyalsoabolishedthesocialclassesinFrance.Thiswasafundamentalchang
ebecauseFranceusedtohavethreesocialclassesofwhichtheclergyandthenoblesweremorepri
vilegedthanthepeasantswhowereinthethirdestate.However,theNationalAssemblydeclared
thateveryonewasequalespeciallybeforethelaw.
THETENNISCOURTOATH,20THJUNE1789
On20thJune1789,theThirdEstatememberswenttotheirusualmeetingplacebuttheyfoundthe
hallclosedinpreparationfortheRoyalSession.TheThirdEstatewasnotgivenpriornoticeandfor
amoment,theywereconfused.However,aftersometimetheywenttoanearbybuildingwhichse
rvedasTennisCourtandheldameetingfromwheretheytookanoathnevertoseparateuntiltheco
nstitutionofthekingdomwasestablished.Thisoathlaidafoundationforthedeclarationoftherig
htsofmanaswellastheestablishmentofconstitutionalgovernanceinFranceinthelateryearsoft
herevolution.
THEROYALSESSION,23RDJUNE1789
On23rdJune1789,thekingorganizedaspecialroyalsessionatVersaillesinwhichhedeclaredtherec
entactsoftheThirdEstatelikedeclaringthemselvestheNationalAssemblyasillegal.Healsoemp
hasizedthefactthatthethreeestatesweretomeetseparately.Afterthis,theking,thenobilityand
clergyleftthehallwhilethethirdestatedeputiesormembersdidnotleave.Themasterofceremon
iesreportedthattheKinghadaskedthemtoleaveimmediately.Inresponse,Mirabeau,onethere
volutionaryleaderswarnedthat,“Gotellyourmasterthatweareherebythewillofthepeople,wes
hallnotleaveunlessatthepointofthebayonet.”Thekingwhowasnowconfusedfinallyconceded
defeatandon27thJune1789,heorderedallthethreeEstatestositasonebody.Thissolvedamatte
rthathadbeentheimmediatecauseoftherevolutioni.e.thesittingarrangement.
THEFALLOFTHEBASTILLE,14THJULY1789
ThemobinParisbecameexitedandtheyorganizedanuprisinginsupporttotherevolution.LouisX
VIsenthistroopstosuppresstheriot(demonstration).However,therevolutionariesdisarmedth

etroopsandthenextstepwastoinvadetheBastille.BastillewasthemajorstateprisoninPariswhe
remanyinnocentFrenchmenhadbeenimprisoned,torturedandotherskilledwhileothersfacedl
ongtermimprisonmentontheordersoftheKing.
ThedestructionoftheBastillecausedfundamentalchangesinthehistoryofFrance.Forexample,
theprisonersweresetfreeandsomeoftheprisonguardswerekilledbytheprisoners.Thiswasimp
ortantinthehistoryofFrancebecauseitshowedthattheroyalabsolutepowerhadbeenabolished
i.e.therewastobenomoreimprisonmentwithouttrialasitusedtohappenduringtheAncientregi
me.
Inaddition,thenewsaboutthefalloftheBastillespreadinFranceandthisresultedintothedestruc
tionofotherprisonsintheprovincesofFrance.
ItalsoledtotheformationarevolutionaryarmyknownastheNationalGuard.Thisarmywhich
wassetuptoprotectthegainsoftheFrenchrevolutionwasputunderthecommandofGeneralLaf
ayette.
TherevolutionariesalsowentaheadtoabolishtheWhitecolourflagwhichwastheflagoftheAn
cientRegimeandhereplaceditwiththeTri-
colourflag(aflagwiththreecolours).Thiscolourbecamethesymboloftherevolution.Thethree
coloursrepresentedliberty,equalityandfraternitywhichwerethekeywordsoftheFrenchrevolu
tionof1789.
FollowingthefalloftheBastille,thenoblesandclergybecamescared.Thosewhowantedtosavet
heirlivesandthoseoftheirfamiliesandalsotosavetheirpropertyfrombeingconfiscatedordestro
yedsurrenderedtheirsocialstatusandtheyjoinedtherevolution.Therefore,thisshowsthatmor
echangeswerebeingbroughtaboutbytherevolutioninFrance.
TheeventhoweverledtoincreasedviolenceinFrance.Theformerprisonersbecameviolentandt
hehomesofthenoblesandclergywereattacked.Thenobleswerekilledwhiletheirpropertywasd
estroyed.ItalsoledtothefirstemigrationofthenobleswhowereopposedtotherevolutiontoAust
riaandPrussia.ThesenobleswerecalledÉmigrés.ThiseventuallyledtoforeigninterventioninFr
anceandwarwithEurope.Despitethishowever,thefalloftheBastillewasanimportanteventinth
ehistoryofFrancetotheextentthat14thJulybecameadayfornationalcelebrationsuptotheprese
ntday.
THEDECLARATIONOFTHERIGHTSOFMAN(AUGUST–SEPTEMBER1789)
ThisdocumentwasdraftedbyLafayetteandpassedbytheNationalAssembly.Itoutlinedthebasi
crightsofmaninafreeandjustsociety.Insummary,thedocumentprovidedforfreedomofmanfr

omallformsofoppressionorsuffering.Thisdocumentdeclaredthatthereshouldbeequalityforal
l,freedomofworship,associationandspeechamongothers.Consequently,theAncientRegime
whichwasknowntobeviolatingsuchfreedomscouldnolongerdoit,thusanothersignificantchan
ge.
However,LouisXVIrefusedtoendorsethisdocumentandthisactionannoyedtherevolutionarie
sthattheKingwasnotinterestedinthechangesthataffectedhisregime.Besides,thedeclaration
emphasizedrightsandnotdutiesofmananditwaspartlyduetosuchweaknessesthattherevoluti
onturnedmoreviolent.
THEMARCHOFTHEWOMENFROMPARISTOVERSAILLES,OCTOBER1789
InOctober1789,about7,000hungryanddesperatewomendecidedtomarchfromParistoVersai
lleswheretheKingandhisfamilylived.TheywenttodemandforfoodfromtheKingandalsotoforc
etheKingtoattendtotheirneeds.GeneralLafayettewhowasincommandoftheNationalGuarda
ccompaniedthewomensoastomaintainlawandorder.Aftersomeresistance,theKinggaveintot
hedemandsofthemob.
On6thOctober1789,inaveryhumiliatingprocession,thewomenforcedtheKingandtheroyalfam
ilytowalkfromVersaillestothecentreofPariswhichwasadistanceoftenkilometers.Thisclearlyi
ndicatedthattheKinghadlostalltheprideandpowersthathehadandthattheregimewasintheha
ndsoftherevolutionaries.Theywentaheadandputhiminoneofthesmallpalacesinthecity(Paris
)andguardedhimasaprisoner.
THENATIONALISATIONOFCHURCHPROPERTYANDTHEASSIGNATS,NOVEMBE
R1789
TheNationalAssemblydealtwiththeRomanCatholicChurchinFrance.Withthestrongsupporto
fMirabeau,thechurchestatesorpropertieswerenationalizedinordertoraisestaterevenue.The
statewasinapersistentfinancialcrisisfollowingtheabolitionofalltaxesbytheNationalAssembly
.Thepropertieswerethenputonpublicauctionforwhoeverwasinterestedtobuy.
Beforethesaleofthesepropertieswasimplemented,anewpapercurrencycalledAssignatswas
printedtoactassecurity.OneAssignatwasequivalentto100Francsin1790.Thepeasantswhono
wmanagedtobuythesepropertiesespeciallylandwereveryhappywiththemoveandtherefore,t
heybecamestrongsupportersoftherevolution.
ThechurchhoweverlostitsoriginalinfluenceinthepoliticalaffairsofFrance.Someclergywholost
theirgreatestatesandwealthwereunhappywiththerevolutionandtheybegantocollaboratewit
htheanti-

revolutionaryforcesabroad.Inaddition,astherevolutionprogressed,theassignatswereissued
withlittlereferencetotheactualvalueofthechurchlands.Asaresult,theassignatsrapidlylostval
uewhichledtoinflation.Oneassignatwhichwasworth100Francsin1790wasworthoneFrancin1
797.
THECIVILCONSTITUTIONOFTHECLERGY,JULY1790
InJuly1790,theRomanCatholicChurchwhichwasoneofthemajorcausesoftherevolutionsuffe
redanothersetback.Adocumentthatreduceditspowerandregulatedthebehavioursoftheclerg
yknownastheCivilConstitutionoftheClergywasestablishedbytheNationalAssembly.Byt
hisdocument,therevolutionarygovernmenttookovertheresponsibilityofappointingArchbish
ops,BishopsandPriests.Itwasalsothegovernmenttopaysalariestotheclergy.Allthelandofthec
lergyandChurchwherethepeasantssettledassquatterswastakenbythestate.Thisdocumentis
anotherevidenceofhowtherevolutionaffectedtheCatholicChurchwhichusedtohavealotofpo
wersandwealthinFrance.
However,theCatholicChurchleaders,LouisXVIhimselfandaboveallthePopeinItalyopposedth
isdocument.LouisXVIrefusedtoendorsethedocumentandinsteadhesoughtformilitaryassista
ncefromabroadtofighttherevolution.Similarly,thepredominantlycatholicareasofMontaban,
LavendeeandLyonsrebelledagainsttherevolutionarygovernmentinFrancewhichledtoviolen
ceinthecountry.
THEEMERGENCEOFTHEÉMIGRÉS
Astherevolutionprogressed,someroyalists,clergyandnobleswhodidnotwanttosurrenderthei
rsocialstatusandwerealsoscaredoftheirlivesfledFranceandwenttoexile.Theywerereferredto
asÉmigrés(emigrants).TheywentAustriaandPrussiaandwhileinthesecountries,theémigrésp
ersuadedtheirhostcountriestosupporttheminanarmedstruggletofighttherevolutionariesinF
ranceandrestoretheAncientRegimeinfullstatus.
In1791,anarmyofexiledFrenchmenwasformedneartheFrenchboarderintheRhinelandswhic
hwasEastofFrance.TheseexiledrebelsstartedsendingagentsbacktoFrancetorecruitmoreme
mberswhichwasdone.ThisactionbroughtmoreproblemstothesurvivingmembersoftheAncie
ntRegimewholivedinFranceastherevolutionariesstartedtoarrestandkillthosetheysuspected
tobecollaboratingwiththosewholivedinexile.ThisthereforecausedviolenceinFrance.
THEDEATHOFMIRABEAU,APRIL1791

CountMirabeauhadservedasthePresidentoftheNationalAssemblyfrom1789whentherevolut
ionstartedinFrance.Hedesiredapeacefulrevolutionwherethemonarchyhadtobepreservedbu
tthemonarchycouldalsoacceptfundamentalchangesinFrance.
InApril1791,Mirabeaudied.However,hisdeathcreatedavacuumforruthlessorharshleaderslik
eRobespierreandDantontotakeoverthecontroloftherevolution.Whiletheseleaderswereinco
ntrol,therevolutionbecameviolentandFrancewasdeclaredaRepublicandtheKingwasexecute
din1793whichledtothecollapseoftheAncientRegime.
THEKING’SFLIGHTTOVARENNES,JUNE1791
In1791,KingLouisXVIwhowasscaredthattherevolutionarieswouldkillhimescapedfromParist
ogetherwithhiswife.TheymovedtowardsthestateofLuxemburgfromwherehethoughttheyw
ouldcrosstoAustria.Hedisguisedhimselfasaladyindressingbuttheroyalcouplewasrecognized
beforetheycouldcrosstheboardertownofVarennes.TheywerearrestedandtakenbacktoParis,
imprisonedandwerelabelledastraitorstotherevolution.
TherevolutionarieswentaheadandsearchedtheofficeofLouisXVIandfounddocumentsthatsh
owedthattheKingwascollaboratingwiththeémigréstofighttherevolution.Theseverydocume
ntsincreasedthehostilityandresentmentoftheFrenchmentowardstheAncientRegimeandthe
ywereusedasevidencethatledtohisexecutionin1793whichmarkedtheendoftheAncientregim
e.TheimprisonmentofthekingalsomeantthattheAncientRegimewasnolongerincontrolofFra
nce.
THEESTABLISHMENTOFTHEFRENCHCONSTITUTION,SEPTEMBER1791
InSeptember1791,therevolutionarieswiththehelpoftheNationalAssemblyproducedaconstit
utionforFrance.Thisconstitutionamongotherthingsreducedthepowersofthemonarchy.Fore
xample,theKingcouldnolongerappointseniorofficersinthearmyandcivilservantswithoutthea
pprovaloftheAssembly.
Theconstitutionfurtherrecognizedthenewadministrativestructures(83)whichwerereferredt
oasDepartmentsandwereledbyofficialsknownasprefectsandsub-prefects.
TheconstitutionalsoprovidedforthecreationofanewAssemblycalledtheLegislativeAssem
blywhichwasdominatedbythosewhousedtobecalledpeasants.Theconstitutionthereforered
ucedthepowersofthemonarchyandimprovedtheadministrationinFrance.TheLegislativeAss
emblywasinpowerbetweenSeptember1791andSeptember1792.Itwassucceededbyth
eConventionGovernmentwhichgovernedFrancefrom1792to1794.

TheLegislativeAssemblyandtheconventiongovernmentconsistedofinexperiencedbutambiti
ouspoliticianswhocompetedwitheachothersoastofillthevacuumleftbytheprisonerkingandth
edeathofMirabeau.TheyincludedMaximillienRobespierre,Danton,Marat,HerbertandRoland
.Theybelongedtodifferentpoliticalpartiesandhaddivergentpoliticalopinions.Consequently,t
hetwonewgovernmentsplungedFranceintotheReignofTerrorandwarwiththerestofEuropeb
etween1792and1794.
THEEMERGENCEOFPOLITICALCLUBS(PARTIES)INFRANCE
ThreemainpoliticalclubsorpartieswereformedinthecourseoftheFrenchrevolution.Theseclub
shaddifferentandrivalpoliticalinterestsandtheircompetitionledtoviolence.Thefirstpoliticalpa
rtytobeformedwasthatoftheJACOBINSandtheyopenedupmanybranchesinpartsofFrance.
TheirleaderwasknownasROBESPIERRE.TheJacobinswantedforcetoapplysoastoseethatt
herevolutionsucceeded.TheyalsowantedtoturnFranceintoaRepublic.Theyhowever,feared
warwithothercountriesbecauseitwoulddestroythegainsoftherevolution.
ThesecondpoliticalpartywastheCORDELLIERSwhichrepresentedtheviewsofLafayetteand
itwasledbyDANTON.TheygreatlysupportedaconstitutionforFranceandtheybelievedindem
ocracy.However,theywerenotwellorganizedandthereforetheysoonlosttheirinfluencetotheJ
ACOBINSclub.
ThethirdweretheGIRONDINSformedandledbyROLANDandhiswifeMADAMEROLAND.
TheywantedaRepublicandfavouredwarwithothercountriesandindeed,theyputpressureont
heKingtoappointRolandasaWarMinister.
TheformationofpoliticalpartieswasanothereventresponsiblefortheestablishmentoftheFirst
FrenchRepublicin1792andthecollapseoftheAncientRegime.Also,theconflictsandpowerstru
ggleassociatedwiththepoliticalclubsledtomoreviolenceinFrance.
FRANCEBECOMESAREPUBLIC,SEPTEMBER1792
InSeptember1792,theConventionGovernmentledbyRobespierredraftedaconstitutionwhich
declaredthatFrancewasaRepublicandnotaMonarchy.Intheconstitution,theKinghadnopl
aceandthatFrancehadtoelectitsleaders.RobespierrebecametheleaderoftheRepublicofFran
ceandthiswasanotherfundamentalchangethataffectedtheAncientRegimeandledtoitscollap
seby1793.
THEEXECUTIONOFKINGLOUISXVI,JANUARY1793

InJanuary1793,theRepublicanConventiongovernmentorganizedatrialofKingLouisXVI.Hew
aschargedfortreason.Theyusedtheevidenceofthecorrespondenceswiththeémigréstheyhad
foundinhisofficefollowinghisabortiveorfailedattempttoescapefromFranceinJune1791.On2
1stJanuary1793,hewassentencedtodeathusingtheinventedhumankillingmachinewhichwas
knownastheGUILLOTINE.HisexecutionmarkedtheendofmonarchicalruleinFranceforsom
etime.
THEFORMATIONOFTHEREVOLUTIONARYCOMMITTEES
In1793,theConventiongovernmentsetupthreecommitteestospearheadthesuccessoftherev
olution.Thesecommitteeswere:
 TheCommitteeofPublicsafety:
Theworkofthiscommitteewastospyontheactivitiesoftherevolutionaryarmy,arrestthe
suspectedopponentstotherevolutionandsendthemtotheGuillotine.
 TheCommitteeofGeneralSecurity:
ThiswasinchargeoftheworkofthepoliceinParisandotherprovincesofFrance.Themem
berswouldarrestcivilianswhoweresuspectedofnotsupportingtherevolutionandtheyw
ouldbesenttotheRevolutionaryTribunalorCourt.
 TheRevolutionaryTribunal:
ThiswasarevolutionaryCourtspecificallycreatedtotrythosebroughttoitbytheCommitteeofPu
blicSafetyandtheCommitteeofGeneralSecurityasoffenderstotherevolutionarygovernment.
ThousandsofFrenchmenwerebroughttothiscourtwhereappealingwasneverallowedandsoth
eywereexecuted.ThecreationofthesecommitteesweakenedtheAncientRegimeandledtoterr
orinFrance
REASONSWHYTHEANCIENTREGIMECOLLAPSEDBY1793
 TheweaknessesofLouisXVIi.e.hisinconsistence,extravagancyetc.
 ThenatureoftheAncientRegimei.e.itwascharacterizedbyconservatism,nepotism
andgrossabuseofhumanrights.
 Thenegativerole/characterofQueenMarieAntoinette.
 FailureofLouisXVItohijacktherevolution.
 TheriseoftheNationalAssembly.
 Declarationoftherightsofman.

 Thecivilconstitutionoftheclergy.
 ThefalloftheBastille.
 ThedeathofMirabeau.
 TheenactmentofthefirstFrenchconstitutionon5 thSeptember1791.
 Theriseofpoliticalparties/
clubs(Girondins,CordelliersandJacobins)weakenedthemonarchy.
 ThehostilityofEuropeanmonarchstowardstheFrenchrevolutionmadetherevolutio
nariesviolenttowardstheAncientregimee.g.thePillnitzDeclarationandtheBrunswi
ckManifesto.
 TheriseoftheConventionGovernmentinFranceinandtheformationoftheRepublicin
1792.
 TheriseoftheParisMob/mobjustice.
 TheriseofpersonalitieslikeDanton,Robespierre.
 TheKing’sflighttoVarennesleadingtohisexecution.
 TheAmericanWarofIndependence.
 Failureofthearmytosupportthemonarchy.
 RoleofEngland.
 RoleofpoliticalphilosophersunderminedtheAncientRegime.
 TheKing’scollaborationwiththeÉmigrése.g.documentsfoundhisofficedrawersho
wedevidenceofthis.
 TheMarchoftheWomenfromParistoVersailles.
 ThecallingoftheEstatesGeneral,5thMay1789.
 TheexecutionofKingLouisXVIin1793.
FRANCEATWARWITHTHERESTOFEUROPE(REVOLUTIONARYWARS)1792-
1799
ThesituationinFranceafterthedeclarationofthenewconstitutioninSeptember1791becamew
orse.From1792,FrancefoundherselfatwarwiththerestofEuropeancountries.On20thApril17
92,theLegislativeAssembledeclaredwaronAustriaandimmediatelytheKingofPrussiadecided
tojoinAustriaandfightagainsttheFrenchmen.Thisperiodwascharacterizedbywarsbetweenre
volutionaryFranceandtherestofEuropeessentiallyduetoconflictsandmisunderstandingsbet
weenrevolutionaryFranceandtheotherEuropeancountries.
Whentherevolutionbrokeoutin1789,itwasreceivedwithhappinessbymanylocalpeopleinothe
rstatesofEurope.Ontheotherhand,theEuropeangovernmentsreactednegativelybecausethe
yfearedthattheFrenchrevolutionwasboundtocauserebellionsintheircountries,hencethreate
ningtheirposition.Thereforefrom1792,scaredbythesuccessoftherevolutionandtheeventsin
Francebythattime,Austria,Prussia,Spain,BritainandHollandformedthefirstcoalitionorallianc
e.

REASONSWHYFRANCEWASATWARWITHTHERESTOFEUROPE
TheactivitiesoftheFrenchémigrésintheneighboringcountriescausedthesewars.Thesewereri
chnoblesandclergywhohadgonetotheneighboringcountriesespeciallyAustria.Theybeganor
ganizingacounterrevolutionaryforceandwereledbyComtedeArtois,oneofLouisXVI’sbrother
s.By1791,theyhadaforceofabout20,000menwhichfrequentlyattackedtherevolutionarygov
ernmentinFrance.TheiraimwastocomebacktoFrance,overthrowtherevolutionarygovernme
ntandrestoretheBourbonMonarchy.ThisscaredtherevolutionariesinFranceandthereforethe
ydecidedtodeclarewarontheEuropeancountriesthatsupportedtheémigrés.Forexample,the
yattackedAustriawhensherefusedtostopassistingtheémigrés.
ThenatureoftheLegislativeAssemblyalsocausedwarsbetweenFranceandothercountries.
Thisassemblywascomposedofinexperiencedandimmaturepeoplewhodidnotknowhowtoha
ndlesensitiveissuesandpolitics.Theywereidealistsandwereunabletoreason.Theybelievedth
atwarwasasourceofwealthandprestigeandtheyalsobelievedthatitwasthebestwayofsolvingc
onflicts.Theywereover-
influencedbythedreamofexpandingFrance.Hence,theyhadtofightothercountriessoastoexp
andthegloryofFrance.ItwasalsothisassemblythatissuedoftherecklessEdictofFraternityofNo
vember1792bywhichtheyvowedorpromisedtohelpallthosepeopleofEuropewhorebelledaga
insttheirgovernments.ThisscaredtheEuropeanMonarchiesespeciallyinAustriaandPrussia,h
enceforcingthemtouniteanddeclarewaragainstFrance.
Thesuccessofthe1789Frenchrevolutionalsomadetherevolutionarywarsinevitable.TheFrenc
hrevolutionhaddoneawaywithabsoluteruleinFrancebydraftingaconstitutionforFranceinSep
tember1791.Asaresult,EuropeancountriesthatwerestillunderabsolutemonarchicalrulelikeA
ustriaandPrussiabecamescaredthatFrancewasgivingabadexampletotheirpeople.Moreoveri
nNovember1792,theFrenchrevolutionariesissuedtheEdictofFraternityinwhichtheywererea
dytosupportrebellionsinotherEuropeancountries.Theydeclaredthatallgovernmentswereth
eirenemiesandallpeopleweretheirfriendsbystatingthat"warwiththeKingsandpeacewiththep
eople”.ThisthereforethreatenedotherEuropeancountrieswhichforcedthemtouniteanddecla
rewaragainstFrance.
ThehostilityorenemityofEuropeankingstowardsrevolutionaryFrancealsocausedtherevoluti
onarywars.TheEuropeanmonarchswantedtorestoretheBourbonMonarchyinFrancewhichha
dbeenunderminedbytheFrenchrevolution.TheEuropeankingsespeciallythoseofAustriaandP
russiaconsideredittheirobligationtorestoreandprotecttheirfellowKingLouisXVI.Thereforein
August1791,theKingsofPrussiaandAustriaissuedwhatwasknownasthePILNITZDeclara
tioninwhichtheydeclaredtheirreadinesstorestoretheking’spowersinFrancebyassertingthat
thecauseofLouisXVIwasthecauseofeverykinginEurope.ThisannoyedtheFrenchrevolutionar
iesandthereforeforcedthemtodeclarewaronthoseEuropeancountriesasawayofpunishingth
emforinterferingintheFrenchaffairswhichdidn’tconcernthem.
TheBrunswickManifestoofJuly1792causedwarsbetweenFranceandtherestofEurope.Austr
iaandPrussiahadformedajointarmywhichwascommandedbyaPrussianDukeknownasBruns

wick.InJuly1792thisjointcommanderoftheAustro-
Prussianforcesissuedamanifestowhichannoyedtherevolutionariesandforcedthemtodeclare
warontherestofEurope.ThismanifestoorstatementthreatenedtotaldestructionofParisiftheF
renchrevolutionariescontinuedtoharmKingLouisXVIandothermembersoftheRoyalfamily.Th
ismanifestoalsowarnedthatanyresistanceagainstthisdeclarationcouldbetreatedasarebellio
nandthereforepunishable.Thisannoyedtherevolutionarieswhoevendemandedtheexecution
oftheKing.ItalsoforcedthemtodeclarewaronAustriaandPrussiahencecausinganatmosphere
ofwar.
ThecommercialoreconomicinterestsforcedsomeEuropeancountriestojointhewaragainstFra
nce.Forexamplefrom1792,therevolutionarygovernmentinFrancecancelledallthecommercia
ltreatiesthatFrancehadsignedwithBritain,BelgiumandHolland.Thisthreatenedtheeconomici
nterestsoftherichmiddleclassinothercountrieshencebecomingasourceofconflicts.Alsowhen
FranceinvadedBelgiumandHollandin1793,whichweretradingpartnersofBritainitannoyedBri
tainwhoseeconomicinterestswerethreatened.BritainthereforejoinedAustriaandPrussiatofig
htFrancenotbecauseshewasagainsttherevolutionbutbecauseofthedesiretoprotecthercom
mercialintereststhatwerebeingthreatenedbyrevolutionaryFrance.
TheriseoftheGirondinsPartycontributedtotheoutbreakoftherevolutionarywars.Themem
bersofthispartybelievedinwarastheonlysolutiontoproblems.Theyalsobelievedthatwarswoul
dhelpthemtoexportrevolutionaryideasoflibertyequalityandfraternitytoothercountries.They
furtherbelievedthatwarsweretoenableFrancetoexportherglorytotherestofEurope.Thispres
sureoftheGirondinsthereforeforcedFrancetodeclarewarontherestofEurope.
ThedeclarationofFranceasaRepublicon22ndofSeptember1792contributedtotheoutbreak
ofrevolutionarywars.ThisactannoyedtheEuropeancountriesthatwerestillunderkings.Arepu
blicinitselfmeantagovernmenttoelectedbythepeople,ledthepeopleandforthepeople.Italso
meantintroductionofdemocraticidealsofallformsandtomakemattersworsetheFrenchmenw
erealreadytoextendsuchdemocracyandidealstotherestofEurope.Thatkindofarrangementsc
aredtheexistenceofmonarchiesinEuropeancountrieslikeAustriaandPrussiawhichdecidedtof
ightFrancewithanaimofrestoringtheBourbonmonarchyinFrance.
ThedeathofEmperorLeopoldIIofAustriaalsoledtotherevolutionarywars.Hesympathizedwith
hisbrother–in–
lawKingLouisXVIbutdidnottakeanymovetorescuehimfromtherevolutionaries.Thiswasbeca
usehewasmoreconcernedaboutsecurityinhisowncountry.Hethereforewantedpeacewithoth
ercountriesandneverprovokedwarwithFrance.However,LeopoldIIdiedin1792andhisdeathc
hangedthepositionofAustria.HewasreplacedbyEmperorFrancisII,hissonwhowassurrounde
dbybadadvisorswhowereinfavourofwarwithFrance.Consequently,theyforcedhimtodeclare
waronFrance,henceleadingtotherevolutionarywars.
Theterritorialambitionsalsocausedtherevolutionarywars.ItwasapolicyinEuropeatthattimet
hatwheneveracountrydefeatedtheother,itwouldtakepartofthedefeatedcountryandannexitt
oherterritory.FrancethereforeattackedotherEuropeanpowerswiththeaimofconqueringterri

tories.OtherpowersalsowereforcedtouniteinordertostoptheaggressivemovesoftheFrenchr
evolutionaryarmy.ThisthereforecausedwarsbetweenFranceandtherestofEurope.
TheroleoftheGermanprinceslivingintheFrenchprovinceofAlsaceandotherprovinceswhichon
cebelongedtotheAustrianEmpirealsocausedrevolutionarywars.Theseprinceshadlosttheirri
ghtandlandbytheDecreeof4thAugust1789.ThesePrinceshadrefusedthecompensationoffere
dtothembytheFrenchmenbutinsteaddemandedfortherestorationoftheirfullrights.Theyther
eforeappealedtotheAustriaforassistancewhichannoyedtheFrenchrevolutionarygovernmen
t,henceforcingFrancetodeclarewaronAustriaandrestofEurope.
ThedesirebytherevolutionariesinFrancetoexporttherevolutionaryideasoflibertyequalityand
fraternitytotherestofEuropebyforcealsoledtorevolutionarywars.ThemembersofLegislative
Assemblydemandedforwarasawayofspreadingtherevolutionaryspiritabroadagainsttheesta
blishedEuropeanmonarchies.Theyevencameupwithamotto“peacewithpeopleandwaragain
stthetyrants(kings)”.ThisthreatenedthekingsofEuropeandinanattempttosafeguardtheirpo
sition,theydecidedtofightFrance.
TheexecutionofKingLouisXVIin1793createdconditionsforwarsbetweenFranceandtherestof
Europe.KingLouisXVIwaslabeledatraitorandaccordingly,hewasexecutedonSunday21 stJanu
ary1793.TheexecutionofthekinghoweverscaredallthedespotickingsofEuropeespeciallythos
eofAustria,Prussia,SpainandBritainwhothoughtthattherevolutionaryeffectinFrancecouldex
tendtotheircountries.TheythereforeunitedanddeclaredwaragainsttheFrenchrevolutionary
government.
TheCivilConstitutionoftheClergyofJuly1790alsoledtotherevolutionarywars.Thisdocumentg
reatlyreducedthepowersandprivilegesoftheCatholicChurch.Forexample,itreducedthechurc
h’sinfluenceinthepoliticalaffairsofFranceandalsomadetheBishopsandprieststobecomecivils
ervantspaidbythestate.ThisarrangementannoyedthecatholicstatesofEuropeandforcedEur
opeancountrieslikeAustriaandSpaintobeginrequestingtheirgovernmentstofightFrancesoas
toliberatetheirfellowbrothersandsistersinfaithinFrance.EventhePopecondemnedtheCivilCo
nstitutionoftheClergyandaskedcatholicstatestoallyandfightFrance.Asaresult,countrieslikeA
ustria,Spain,HollandandItalianstatesjoinedtogetheranddeclaredwaragainstFrance.
NOTE:FrancedeclaredwaronAustriaon20thApril1792andimmediatelyPrussiajoinedonthe
sideofAustria.OnthesideofFrance,thewarbeganonasadnotebecauseFrenchforceswerenotw
ellequippedandprepared.Therefore,theyweredefeatedatfirst.Amonthlater,theenemyforce
sofPrussiaandAustriawerethreatenedtotakeoverParis.ThedefeatofFranceincreasedtheconf
lictsbetweentheGirondinsandtheJacobins.TheJacobinswereopposedtothepolicyoftheGiron
dinsofbeingatwar.In1793,theJacobinsoverthrewtheGirondinsandinOctober1793,allthepro
minentGirondinswereexecutedbytheJacobins.From1793therefore,theJacobinscontrolledt
heConventionGovernmentandtheyreactedtothedefeatofFranceinthefollowingways:
 Theystartedapolicyofmilitaryconscriptioni.e.forcefulrecruitmentintothearmyofthem
enbetween18and25years.

 AllthoseGeneralsinthearmywhowereunsuccessfulinthewarwhichledtothedefeatofFr
ancewerearrestedandexecuted.
 Theygotpreparedtodefeattheinternalandexternalenemiesthatthreatenedthesurviva
loftheFrenchRepublic.TheJacobinsdidnotbelieveinmonarchism.Theyalsobelievedth
attheideasofliberty,equalityandfraternityweregoodforeveryoneandthatitwasacrime
tobeanenemyoftherevolution.
EFFECTSOFTHEWARSBETWEENFRANCEANDTHERESTOFEUROPE
ThewarsincreasedthehostilitytowardsFrancefromherneighbourswhichworsenedtherelatio
nsbetweenFranceandtherestoftheEuropeancountries.TheEuropeangovernmentswereopp
osedtotheFrenchimperialism(expansion)andattempttospreadtherevolutionaryideaswhicht
hreatenedthesegovernments.ThisforcedtheEuropeanstatestoformcoalitionsandcounterco
alitionsthatfinallyledtothedefeatofFranceby1815.
Thesewarsledtothespreadoftherevolutionaryideasofliberty,equalityandfraternitytootherEu
ropeancountrieswhichwereconqueredbytheFrenchrevolutionariesespeciallyGermanandth
eItalianstates.Thislaterledtotheriseofnationalismordesireforfreedomandindependencewhi
chcontributedtopoliticalinstabilityinEurope.
ThewarscontributedtotheReignofTerrorinFrance.TheinitialdefeatofFrancebythealliedforce
sforcedtheFrenchrevolutionariestobecomeviolentanddeterminedtoeliminatetheinternalspi
esandcollaboratorsoftheenemiesoftherevolutionliketheémigrés.Thisledtobloodshedordeat
hofeveninnocentciviliansinFrance.Similarly,followingthedefeatofFrancebyAustriaandPruss
ia,therewasarebellionagainstthegovernmentintheWesternregionofLavande.Thepeopleinth
isregionwerestaunchcatholicwhoopposedtherevolutionarygovernmentanditspolicies.After
sufferingdefeat,therevolutionarygovernmentstartedrecruitingthemintothearmyandthepeo
pleinthisregionhatedthisforcefulrecruitmentandthereforerebelledagainsttherevolutionaryg
overnmenthencecausinginsecurityorinstabilityinthecountry.
ThewarsresultedintogreatlossoflivesanddestructionofpropertynotonlyinFrancebutalsothen
eighbouringcountries.Therewaslossoftroopsonbothsidesaswellasalotoflootingandconfisca
tionofpropertythatusedtobelongoftheclergy.
ThewarscontributedtotheeconomicdeclinenotonlyinFrancebutalsointherestofEurope.Beca
useofthewars,therewasdeclineineconomicactivitieslikeagricultureandindustrializationinFra
nceaswellasundermininginternationaltrade.Inaddition,therewasshortageofbreadorfoodin
Francebecausemuchofitwastakentowarfronttofeedthesoldiers.
ThewarsunitedtheFrenchmenandgavebirthtotheFrenchnationalism.ThisisbecausealltheFr
enchmenwerebroughttogetherbythesewarstofightagainstEuropeancountriessoastosafegu
ardtheaimsoftherevolution.Forinstance,whenLouisXVIdismissedtheGirondins,peoplereact
edbitterlybystagingdemonstrationson25thJune1792againstLouisXVI.Thedemonstrationsen
dedupinthekillingofalltheSwissguardswhowereguardingLouisXVIathispalaceofTuileries.

ThewarsledtothedeathofKingLouisXVIinJanuary1793.Thekingwassuspectedofcollaboratin
gwithenemiesoftherevolution.LouisXVIco-
operatedwiththeEuropeancoalitionagainstFrance.Consequently,thekingwasexecutedinJan
uary1793.ThisthereforeledtothedownfalloftheBourbonmonarchyinFrance.
ThewarscontributedtotheriseofNapoleonBonaparteIintopowerinFranceby1799.Thiswasbe
causehewasgiventhecommandoftheFrencharmyinthemilitarycampaignsespeciallytoItalyin
1796–
1797andEgyptin1798.Thisgavehimanopportunitytodisplayhismilitaryskillsandtalentswhich
madehimpopularinFrance.Thispopularitythereforelatercontributedtopowerin1799.
ThewarsalsoledtoextensionofFrance’sboundariesandthefallofotherempiresinEurope.Forex
ample,FranceconqueredtheItalianandGermanstateswhichledtotheexpansionofFranceandt
hecollapseoftheAustrianempirethathadoncecomprisedtheItaliansandtheGermans.
ThesewarsincreasedtheconflictsbetweentheGirondinsandtheJacobins.Thetwowerethemaj
orpoliticalpartiesinFranceduringthecourseoftherevolution.However,theJacobinswereoppo
sedtothepolicyoftheGirondinsofbeingatwarwiththerestofEurope.ThereforewhenFrancewa
sdefeatedbyAustriaandPrussia,thisincreasedtheconflictsbetweenthetwoparties.Thispartly
explainswhytheLegislativeAssemblyGovernmentcollapsedinSeptember1792andFrance
wasdeclaredaRepublic.Laterin1793,theJacobinsoverthrewtheGirondinsfrompowerandexe
cutedalltheprominentGirondinswhichincreasedviolenceinFrance.
ThewarsalsoledtothebirthofdiplomacyinEurope.Diplomacywasthespiritofcooperationamon
gtheEuropeanpowerstosolveinternationalproblems.ThealliancesthatwereformedagainstFr
ancebyEuropeanpowerswerelaterslowlytransformedintotheCongressSystemof1818to182
5whichalsohelpedincontrollingtheeffectsoftheFrenchrevolutionfromspreadingfurtherinEur
ope.
Revisionquestions:
1. AccountfortheincreasinghostilitybetweenFranceandherneighboursbetween1792an
d1794.
2. Examinethecausesandtheconsequencesofthe1792–
1794warsbetweenFranceandherneighbours.
3. WhywasrevolutionaryFranceatwarwiththerestofEuropebetween1792and1794?
4. HowdidtheeventsinFrancebetween1792and1794affectherneighbours?
THEREIGNOFTERRORINFRANCEORREVOLUTIONARYVIOLENCE,1792–1794
TheReignofTerrorwasaperiodinFranceduringthecourseofthe1789Frenchrevolutionwhichw
ascharacterizedbyastruggleforpoliticalpower,tensionaswellasfearinthewholecountry.Inad
dition,duringthisperiodsomeFrenchmenhadtorunawayandgotoliveinexileandalsouprisings
werestagedinFrance.Therewerealsowidespreadexecutionsandmassivedestructionofprope

rty.Generally,therewasbloodshedorviolenceatthetimewhentheConventionGovernment
wascontrollingFranceandthisperiodwhichisknownasthe“ReignofTerror”stretchedfrom17
92to1794.
CAUSESOFTHEREIGNOFTERRORINFRANCE
TheweakcharacterofKingLouisXVIledtothereignofterrorinFrance.Hewasveryweakandunab
letoprovideleadershiptotheFrenchrevolutionwhichwouldhavemadeittomovesmoothly.Asar
esult,therevolutionlandedinthehandsoftheextremistswhoeventuallychangedapeacefulrev
olutionintoareignofterror.Thekingalsorefusedtosignimportantdocumentslikethedeclaratio
noftherightsofmanandcitizenofAugust–
September1789aswellastheCivilConstitutionoftheClergyofJuly1790.Thisthereforeportraye
dKingLouisXVIasanenemyoftherevolutionwhichannoyedtherevolutionaryextremistslikeRo
bespierrewhodecidedtokillwhoeverwasinfavourofthekingandthemonarchy,hencecausingt
hereignofterror.
ThehostilityofEuropetowardsrevolutionaryFrancecausedterrorinthecountry.Followingtheo
utbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionEuropeancountrieslikeAustriaandPrussiaturnedagainstFranc
e.TheyfearedthattheirpeopleweretofollowtheexampleoftheFrenchrevolutionandoverthrow
theirgovernmentsinthosecountrieswhichwereunderthemonarchicalrule.Theythereforedeci
dedtoguardagainsttherevolutionbydeclaringwaragainstFrancesoastodefeattherevolutiona
riesandrestoretheBourbonMonarchy.ThisscaredtherevolutionariesinFrance,henceforcingt
hemtokillanyonesuspectedofcollaboratingwithFrance’senemies,thusleadingtothedeathofv
erymanypeople.
Thegrowingthreatsoftheémigrésintheneighbouringcountriesledtowar.Theseweremember
softheprivilegedclasseswhohadfledintoexilefollowingtheoutbreakoftherevolution.Whileinf
oreigncountrieslikeAustria,theémigrésstartedmobilizingsupporttodefeatorsuppresstherev
olutioninFranceandrestoretheancientregime.ThisannoyedtherevolutionariesinFranceandi
ncreasedtheirangeragainstthemonarchywhichforcedmenlikeRobespierretobeginkillingallt
hosesuspectedofcollaboratingwiththeémigrésinFranceandallthosethatwereagainsttherevo
lution.Consequently,manypeoplewerekilledwhichcreatedalotoffearandsuspicion,hencecau
singterror.
TheinitialdefeatofFrancebyAustriaandPrussialedtoterrorinFrance.Thetwocountrieswereve
ryhostiletorevolutionaryFrancesincethesuccessoftherevolutioninFrancethreatenedthesurv
ivaloftheirabsoluteregimes.WhenthetwocountriesdefeatedFrancein1792,therevolutionary
governmentfeltthatthesoldiershadnotdoneenoughtofightfortheircountry.Consequently,all
theGeneralswhohadledtothedefeatofFrancewerechargedwithtreasonandtheywereexecute

d.Furthermore,thedefeatofFranceledtoforcefulrecruitmentintothearmyofallthemalesbetw
een18and25yearsofageandthisincreasedfearandtensioninFrance.
ThecreationofinternalandexternalenemiesbytheNationalConventionGovernmentcontribut
edtorevolutionaryviolenceinFrance.WithinFrance,therevolutionarycommitteeswouldarrest
thosewhoweresuspectedtobeenemiesoftherevolutionandthesamegovernmentalsowasont
helookoutforthosemembersoftheAncientRegimewhowerecollaboratingwiththoseFrenchm
enwholivedinexile.Therefore,revoltswerestagedbytherevolutionariessoastodefeattheinter
nalandexternalenemiesoftherevolution.
ThedeclarationoftherightsofmanofAugust–
September1789alsoledtotheoutbreakofterrorinFrance.Thiswasadocumentthatwasdrafted
byLafayetteandpassedbytheNationalAssemblyinAugust–
September1789.Thisdocumentprovidedforfreedomofmanfromallformsofoppressionorsuff
ering.ItthereforedeclaredthatthereshouldbeequalityforallFrenchmen,freedomofworship,a
ssociationandspeechamongotherrights.Thisdocumenthoweverhadaweaknessinthatitemp
hasizedtherightsoftheFrenchmenanddidnottalkabouttheirdutytokeeplawandorderinFranc
e.Consequently,therevolutionariesdestroyedpropertyandkilledtheiropponentsinthenameo
fexercisingtheirrights.Thereforetherewastotalanarchy(breakdownoflawandorder)inFrance
andthiswasoneofthefeaturesofthereignofterror.
ThecivilconstitutionoftheclergyofJuly1790alsoledtoterrorinFrance.Thiswasadocumentthat
wasissuedbytheFrenchrevolutionariesintheNationalAssemblyinJuly1790toreducethepowe
roftheClergyandalsoregulatetheirbehaviours.Bythisdocument,thepriestsweretobeappoint
edbythestateandthestatehadtherighttodismissthem.Thepeasantswerealsoallowedtotakeo
verlandfromtheCatholicChurch.ThiscreatedgeneraloppositioninFrancetotherevolutionbyth
eCatholics.InsomeregionslikeLavendeDistrict,therewereopenrevoltsbytheCatholicpriestsa
gainsttherevolutionarygovernmentbecauseithadreducedthepowersoftheCatholicChurch.T
herefore,inordertosuppresssuchrebellions,therevolutionarygovernmentdecidedtouseforce
bydeclaringwaragainsttherebelliousCatholics.Asaresult,manypeoplewerekilled,henceleadi
ngtothereignofterrorinFrance.
ThestormingoftheBastilleinJuly1789contributedtoterrorinFrance.Bastillewasthemajorstate
prisoninPariswheremanyinnocentFrenchmenhadbeenimprisoned,torturedandotherskilled
duringtheAncientRegime.Asaresult,whentherevolutionbrokeout,thisprisonbecameonethe
majortargetsbytherevolutionaries.Consequently,on14thJuly1789,Bastillewasattackedandd
estroyedbytherevolutionariesandthiswasfollowedbythedestructionofotherprisonsinthecou
ntryside.ThiscontributedtoterrorinFrancebecausetherevolutionariesstarteddestroyinglives
andpropertyofthesupportersofancientregimewithoutfearofbeingimprisonedandaboveallth

erewerenoprisonswheretheenemiesoftherevolutionwouldbekeptandthereforemanyofthe
mwereexecuted.Inaddition,theformerprisonerswhoweresetfreefromtheBastillealsobecam
eviolentastheycarriedoutthepolicyofrevengeonthemembersoftheAncientRegime.
ThedeathofCountMirabeauinApril1791ledtothereignofTerrorinFrance.CountMirabeauwaso
netheFrenchrevolutionaryleaderswhohadservedasthePresidentoftheNationalAssemblyfro
m1789whenitwassetup.Mirabeauwantedtopreservethemonarchyandthemonarchytoaccep
tchangesinFranceusingpeacefulmeans.ItistruethatinFranceofthattime,somerevolutionarie
swantedtodoawaywiththemonarchyandalsotouseforcetomaketherevolutionsucceed.Hisde
aththereforecreatedanopportunitytotheopponentsoftheAncientRegimeforexampletheJaco
binsunderRobespierrewhotookovercontroloftherevolution,declaredFrancearepublicandex
ecutedKingLouisXVIwhichincreasedterrorinFrance.
ThediscoveryoftheguillotinemachineacceleratedtheReignofTerrorinFrance.Thiswasadevic
eforcarryingoutexecutionsbydecapitation(cuttingoffpeople’sheads).ItwasnamedafteraFre
nchPhysicianandpoliticianDr.JosefGuillotinewhodiscoveredthismachineduringthecourseoft
heFrenchrevolutionof1789.ThousandsofFrenchmenwhowerearrestedbytherevolutionaryg
overnment,includingKingLouisXVIandhiswifeQueenMarieAntoinetteweresenttothisGuilloti
neandwereeventuallyexecuted.ThisthereforeincreasedterrorinFrance.
TheriseofviolentpoliticalclubsorpartiesinFrancecausedterror.Anumberofpoliticalclubsweref
ormedduringthecourseoftherevolutionliketheJacobins,theGirondinsandtheFeuillantsamon
gotherswithdivergentpoliticalinterests.ThesepartiesstartedstrugglingforpoliticalpowerinFr
anceespeciallyafterthedeathofMirabeauinApril1791.Consequently,manypeoplelosttheirliv
esandeventheleadersofthesepartiesdiedastheystartedtoeliminatetheirpoliticalopponentsf
orexample,Marat,DantonandHerbert,henceleadingtoterrorinFrance.
TheriseoftheParismobcausedthereignofterrorinFrance.AsaresultoftheharshconditionsinFr
ancelikefamine,disgruntledgroupsofhungryandenergeticmenmovedfromtheruralareastoth
eurbancentresandformedtheParisMob.Eventually,mobstookovercontroloftherevolutioninF
rance.Theproblemwasthatthesemobswereguidedbyemotionsratherthanreasoning.Theybe
lievedinmobjusticeastheonlysolutionofsolvingtheirproblemswhichcausedalotofsufferingtot
heFrenchmasses.Forexample,theydestroyedthepropertyofthemembersoftheprivilegedclas
sesandalsohunteddownallthosewhohadrefusedtojointherevolution,thusleadingtoterrorinF
rance.
TheattemptbyLouisXVItoescapefromFrancein1791contributedtoterrorinFrance.In1791,Ki
ngLouisXVIwhowasscaredoftherevolutionariesattemptedtoescapetoAustria.Unfortunately
,hewasarrestednearthebordertownofVarennes.HewassubsequentlybroughtbacktoPariswh

erehewasimprisoned.Therevolutionarieswentandsearchedhisofficeandtheyfounddocumen
tswithevidencethathewascollaboratingwiththeenemiesoftherevolution(émigrés)wholivedi
nexile.ThisevidencewasusedtounderminethepopularityoftheKingandtherevolutionariessta
rtedtosupportpoliticalpartiesagainsttheirKingandalsothosemembersoftheAncientRegimea
ndthiswasfollowedbytheexecutionofLouisXVI.
TheformationofstateterroristorgansorrevolutionarycommitteescontributedtoterrorinFranc
e.TheseincludedtheCommitteeofPublicSafety,theCommitteeofGeneralSecurityandtheRev
olutionaryTribunal.Thefirsttwocommitteeshadthedutyofarrestingrealandsuspectedorimag
inaryopponentsoftherevolutionwhiletherevolutionarytribunalhadthedutyofsentencingthos
ewhowerefoundguiltytotheGuillotine.ThisincreasedterrorinFrancebecauseitwasverydifficu
lttosurvivetheGuillotineifonewassenttotherevolutionarytribunal.
TheexecutionofKingLouisXVIinJanuary1793andlaterhiswifeQueenMarieAntoinetteinOctob
er1793causedthereignofterrorinFranceandthiswasintwoways.Inthefirstplace,itscaredtheE
uropeancountrieslikeAustria,PrussiaandSpain,henceforcingthemtouniteanddeclarewaraga
instrevolutionaryFrance.EventhosecountriesthathadnotjoinedtheFirstCoalitiondidsoinorde
rtofightFranceandsuppresstherevolution.Thisinturnforcedtherevolutionarygovernmenttok
illanyonesuspectedofcollaboratingwithFrance’senemies,thusleadingtothedeathofveryman
ypeople.Internally,theexecutionofKingLouisXVIandhiswifeledtoviolentprotestsmainlybyth
eroyalistsinFrance.Totherevolutionaries,thefactthatawholekingwasexecuted,anyordinary
personcouldbemassacredwithoutregrets.Asresult,therewasmassivekillingofallthosewhoro
yalistswhowereprotestingagainsttheexecutionoftheking,whichledtoterrorinFrance.
Theinfluenceofthe1791constitutionalsoledtotheoccurrenceoftheReignofTerrorinFrance.In
September1791,theFrenchrevolutionarieswiththehelpoftheNationalAssemblyproducedaco
nstitutionforFranceandthiswasthefirstinthehistoryofFrancebecausetheAncientRegimeused
togovernwithoutaconstitution.Thisconstitutionamongotherthingsreducedthepowersofthe
monarchy.Forexample,theKingcouldnolongerappointseniorofficersinthearmyandcivilserva
ntswithouttheapprovaloftheAssembly.ThisgreatlyannoyedtheroyalistsinFranceandothersu
pportersofthemonarchywhodecidedtoorganizerebellionsagainsttherevolutionarygovernm
ent.Therevolutionariesdecidedtointroducethepolicyofterroragainstallthosewhoweresuppo
rtingtheAncientregimeinFranceandintheprocess,thousandsofinnocentpeoplelosttheirlives,
henceth4reignofterror.
TheriseofradicalpoliticalleadersorextremistscausedthereignofterrororviolenceinFrance.Th
esepeopleincludedRobespierre,Danton,MaratandHerbertamongothers.Theseweremenofu
ncompromisingcharacterandthereforewantedtherevolutiontosucceedbyforce.Asaresult,th
eyintroducedthepolicyofterrorinFrancesoastomaketherevolutionsucceed.Forexample,Mar

atexecutedtheCatholicpriestsincludingthosewhohadbeenimprisoned.Morefearwascreatedi
nFrancewhenRobespierreexecutedDanton.ThisincreasedtensioninFrance,thusleadingtote
rror.
TheeconomiccrisisinFrancealsocausedthereignofterrorinFrance.Since1788,Francewaschar
acterizedbypoorharvests,adepressionandunemploymentamongothereconomichardships.
ThesituationworsenedwhentheKingLouisXVIfailedtoprovidepracticalsolutionsduetohiswea
kcharacter.Thisannoyedtherevolutionarieswhodecidedtoexecutethekingandothernoblesa
ndclergywhomtheyheldresponsiblefortheeconomichardshipsinFrance,thusleadingtoterrori
nFrance.
Thepresenceoftheconservativenoblesandclergyduringtherevolutioncontributedtotheoutbr
eakofrevolutionaryviolence.Thesewerepeoplewhorefusedtoacceptreforms.Forexample,th
eyrefusedtosurrendertheirprivilegesandotherswerecollaboratingwiththeémigréstooverthr
owtherevolutionarygovernment.Consequently,thepeasantsdestroyedalotoftheirpropertya
ndtheyalsoconfiscatedfromthempropertylikeland,thuscontributingtotheperiodofterrorinFr
ance.
TheriseofRepublicanisminFrancealsocausedthereignofterror.Republicanismwasapoliticalid
eologywhichopposedmonarchism.Italsoemphasizedpeople’srighttoelectheadsofthegovern
ment.Therefore,therepublicansadvocatedfortheestablishmentoftheRepublicinFrancebeca
usethemonarchyinFranceunderKingLouisXVIwasassociatedwithdictatorship.Thisideologyt
hereforeincreasedthedeterminationoftherevolutionariestokillthekingandmakeFranceaRep
ublicwhichacceleratedthereignofterrorinFrance.
Theemergenceofanewreligionknownasthe“WorshipofReason”undertheleadershipofHe
rbertcontributedtoterrorinFrance.HerbertwantedtodestroyChristianitythroughoutFrancea
ndthereforeheviolentlyattackedtheCatholicChurch.RobespierreandDantonwhodominatedt
heconventiongovernmentbeganhatingthe“Herbertists”andtheiractivities.Therefore,theyor
deredforthearrestandkillingofHerbertandhisfollowersinMarch1794thusincreasingterrorinF
rance.
Theintroductionofthe“LawofSuspect”increasedterrorinFrance.Thislawwaspassedon17th
September1792bytheNationalConventionGovernmentledbyRobespierre.Bythislaw,meres
uspicionbytherevolutionarygovernmentwouldleadtoaconclusionthatonewasagainsttherev
olutionandthereforethatparticularpersonwouldbearrested,triedandmanytimessuchpeople
wereexecuted.Becauseofthislawtherefore,manyinnocentFrenchmenlosttheirlives,thuslead
ingtothereignofterror.

TheweaknessoftheNationalConventionGovernmentalsoledtoterrorinFrance.Thiswasagove
rnmentthatwasestablishedinFranceimmediatelyin1792afteroverthrowingKingLouisXVI.Thi
sgovernmentwascomposedofinexperiencedleaderswholackedanydegreeofpoliticalmaturit
yinthem.SuchmencamefrommereclubsliketheJacobinsandGirondinsandtheyincludedDant
onandRobespierreamongothers.Asaresult,thisweakgovernmentfailedtocontrolthedemons
trations,riotsandmobswhicheventuallycausedterrorinFrance.
Thecreationofa‘religiouscult’byRobespierrewhichwassupportedbyDantonincreasedTerrori
nFrance.ThiscultwasbasedontheneedtocreateastatewhereallFrenchmenwereobedienttoth
e“SupremeBeing”soastoachievethegoalsoftherevolution.Therefore,theoffendersofthecult
wouldbearrestedandpunishedandmanytimestheywouldbeexecuted.
Question:“ThereignofTerrorinFrancewasinevitable”.Discuss.
THEIMPACTOFTHEREIGNOFTERROR
ItledtotheendoftheMonarchyinFrance.Becauseofthereignofterror,themonarchywasabolish
edandarepublicwasestablishedin1792.ThiscametobeknownastheFirstFrenchRepublicandit
wasoneachievementsoftherevolution.Francewasreorganizedonarepublicanmodelandthisf
avouredtheestablishmentofotherdemocraticinstitutions.
TheReignofTerrorledtogreatlossoflives.ManyimportantandinnocentFrenchmenwerevictimi
zedandeventuallykilled.Themajorityofthevictimswerepeasantsandtownworkersinspiteofth
eirgreatsupportfortherevolution.Attheclimaxofthereignofterror,600,000Frenchmenhadper
ished.AmongthevictimswereKingLouisXVIandhiswifeQueenMarieAntoinettewhowereexec
utedin1793.
ItstrainedorworsenedrelationsbetweenFranceandherneighbourslikeAustriaandPrussia.Th
eviolentactivitiesoftherevolutionsuchastheexecutionofKingLouisXVIandhiswifeledtoopenh
ostilityandwaragainstFrancefromacoalitionofEuropeanpowerslikeBritain,AustriaandPrussi
aastheywantedtorestorelawandorderinFrance.
ItunifiedtheFrenchmenbehindtherevolutionbysilencingtheinternalopposition.Theinternale
nemiesoftherevolutionwereeitherkilledortheyfledFrancewhilesomeacceptedunwillingly.As
aresult,nationalunitywasachievedthroughbloodshedandterror.
EconomicactivitieslikeagricultureandindustrializationcametoastandstillinFranceasproducti
onwascutdownbecausepeoplewerestrugglingtodefendtheirrightsandthereforetheycouldn
otsettledowntoliveastablelife.

Itincreasedtheproblemofrefugeesorémigrés.TheincreasingterrorinFranceforcedmanypeop
letofleetotheneighbouringcountrieslikePrussiaandAustria.Thesepeopleunsuccessfullyatte
mptedtooverthrowtherevolutionarygovernmentwiththesupportofthehostcountrieswhichin
creasedenemitybetweenFranceandtherestofEurope.
TheReignofTerrorledtomassivedestructionofpropertyinFrance.Buildings,bridges,industries
andfarmswerealldestroyedeitherbytherevolutionariesorthecounterrevolutionaryforceswhi
chledtotheunpopularityoftherevolution.
TheReignofTerrorbroughtinnewreligionsinFrance.Forexample,theHerbertistsintroducedan
ewreligioninFrancewhichwasknownasthe“WorshipofReason”.Therewasalsothecultorrel
igionofthe“SupremeBeing”whichwasintroducedbyRobespierre.Allthesereligionswereop
posedtoChristianity.
ItledtotheformationofanewgovernmentinFranceknownastheDirectoryGovernment.In1795
,theFrenchmenwhoweredisgustedwiththereignofterroragreedtoformationoftheDirectoryG
overnment.ThisgovernmentruledFrancefrom1795upto1799andithelpedtospearheadtheFr
enchrevolutionupto1799.
ItinfluencedtheEuropeankingstopassmorerepressiveorharshlawssoastocountertheriseofe
xtremismintheircountries.ThiswasbecausetheReignofTerrorhadbeencausedbythepresenc
eofextremistpoliticiansduringthecourseoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.
TheperiodofterrortaughtalessontotheFrenchsocietyandEuropeasawholeabouttheweaknes
sesoftheRepublicansystemofgovernmentwhichwascharacterizedbyviolence,politicaldivisio
nsandopposition.Thiswasbecauseitallowedmanypoliticalgroupstoexistasthecasehadbeen
withtheConventionGovernmentwhichhadplungedFranceintoterror.
ItlaterledtotheriseofNapoleonBonapartetopowerinFrancewholaterinfluencedEuropeanaffa
irsup1815andbeyond.DuringtheReignofTerrormanyexperiencedmilitaryofficerswereexecu
tedorkilled.Consequently,therewasshortageofshortageofartilleryofficerswhichhelpedNapo
leontobeappointedintotheFrencharmy.Hissuccessesinthearmymadehimpopularamongthe
Frenchmenwhichenabledhimtocometopowerin1799.
MAXIMILIENROBESPIERRE

HewasamemberoftheJacobinswhoruledFranceasadictator.HeincreasedterrorinFranceanddur
inghisregimeheeliminatedhispoliticalopponentsliketheGirondinsandtheCordeliers.
In1794,Robespierreorganizedacult(kindofareligioussect)andthiscultwasnamedthe“Supreme
Being.”ThiswasopposedtoChristianityandhestatedthatthepropermethodsofworshippingtheS
upremeBeingincludeddutieslikehatredtobetrayal,defendingthehelpless,punishthetraitorsand
totreatnooneunjustly.
RobespierrewantedtopleasetheFrenchmenthatwhateverhewasdoingwerefortheirowngoodsu
chthatthosewhowerearrestedandkilleddeservedthosepunishmentsbecausetheyweretraitorst
otherevolutionandtheSupremeBeinginparticular.
RobespierrewantedtointroducesocialisminFranceandheputupwhatwasknownasthe“LawofMa
ximum”.Bythislaw,thepriceofbreadandothernecessitieswerecontrolled.Thetraderswhoweref
oundtohavesoldabovethesetpricewouldbearrestedandwereexecuted.Hestatedthatthislawwa
stoprotectthepoorfrombeingexploitedbythecapitalists.Hewentaheadandconfiscatedtheprope
rtyoftherichandhedistributedittohissupporters.
However,someoftherevolutionarieslikeDantonandHerbertwantedthisviolencetoendandthisan
noyedRobespierre.Hearrestedthetwoandaccusedthemofbeingtraitorsandtheywereexecuted.
MoreFrenchmenintheconventiongovernmentbecametiredoftheReignofTerrorandtheyplanne
dtooverthrowRobespierre.Therefore,on27thJuly1794theywereabletoarrestRobespierreand
on28thJuly1794,hewasexecuted.TheJacobinsclubwasclosedandthismarkedtheendofthe“Re
ignofTerror”inFranceandtheactivecourseoftheFrenchrevolution.
FRANCEAFTERTHEFALLOFROBESPIERRE
AftertheexecutionofRobespierre,FranceneededanotherconstitutionbecausetheoneoftheConv
entionGovernmentunderRobespierrewasdictatorial.Therefore,anewconstitutionwasdraftedin
1795.Bythisconstitution,Francewastoberuledbyacommitteeoffive(5)membersbecausetheFr
enchmenweretiredofaoneman’sruleforfearofbreedingdictatorship.ThemembersoftheCommit
teeweretobeknownasDirectorsandtheirgovernmentwastobeknownastheDirectory.TheDirect
orywasalsotohaveaparliamentorassemblyandthatassemblywastohavetwocouncils.
THEDIRECTORYGOVERNMENT,1795-1799
TheDirectoryGovernmentwasthenewgovernmentorcommitteethatwasestablishedin1795inFr
ancetoreplacetheNationalConventionGovernment.ItwasformedaftertheendoftheReignofTerr
orandthefallofRobespierreinJuly1794.ItruledFrancefouryearsfromNovember1795toNovemb
er1799whenitwasoverthrownbyNapoleonBonaparteinacoup.
Thenewgovernmentconsistedof5(five)membersorDirectorsandthesewereLazareNicolasCarn
ot,PaulFrançoisBarass,LouisMariedeLaRevelliere-Lepuaux,Jean-FrançoisRewbellandEtienne-
FrançoisLeTourneur.Theseweretoserveforoneyearsoastoavoiddictatorship.Thenewgovernm
entruledFrancewithaparliamentoftwoCouncilsorHouses.TherewastheCounciloftheEldersorUp

perHousewhichhad250membersandeachmemberwasover45yearsofage.Thesecondcouncilw
asknownastheCouncilofDeputiesorLowerCouncilwhichconsistedof500(fivehundred)member
sandtheseweretobe30yearsorabove.ThiscouncilproposedlawsforFrancetotheCouncilofElders
whichwoulddecidetotakeupthelawsornot.TheDirectoryGovernment,however,facedalotofchal
lengesrightfromthebeginningwhichincludedthefollowing;
TherewererebellionsorthreatsfromtheRoyalistsandtheJacobins.TheRoyalistswantedtorest
orethemonarchyandthereforeinOctober1795,theystagedanuprisingagainsttheDirectoryGove
rnmentwhentheyinvadedthehallwheretheAssembly(parliament)wasmeeting.TheDirectoryGo
vernmentordereditssoldierstodispersethemobandthiswassuccessfullydone.Thesoldierswerec
ommandedbyayoungmilitaryofficerknownasNAPOLEONBONAPARTEandthisincidentcame
tobeknownasthe“WHIFFOFGRAPESHOT”ofOctober1795.Napoleonwasimmediatelyapp
ointedCommanderoftheinteriorarmyin1796
TheDirectorygovernmentwasalsofacedwiththeproblemofthesocialists.Thesocialistswanted
atypeofgovernmentthatwouldcontrolthefactorsofproductionsoastobringaboutequalsharingof
wealthbetweentherichandthepoor.Oneofthefactorsofproductionthattheywantedtobenational
izedwaslandyettheFrenchrevolution1789ofhadprovidedforprivateownershipofland.Theleade
rofthesocialistswasknownasFrançoisBabeufandtogetherwithhissupportersandsomememb
ersoftheJacobinsClub,theyplannedtooverthrowtheDirectorygovernmentandtakeoverpowerin
France.However,theirplanleakedandFrançoisBabeufwasarrestedandexecutedbythenational
armytogetherwithhisfollowersin1796.
TherewerealsoreligiousconflictsresultingfromtheCivilConstitutionoftheClergyofJuly1790whic
hhadgreatlyannoyedthemembersoftheCatholicChurchinFrancetotheextentofstagingrebellion
sagainsttherevolutionarygovernment.ThisalsoprovedtobeachallengetotheDirectorygovernm
ent.
Therewasaneconomiccrisisresultingfromtheunendingpoliticalinstabilitybothatathomeandabr
oad.Inaddition,therewasinflationandunemploymentwhichmadelifedifficultfortheFrenchmen.
Ontheforeignfrontby1795,FrancehadendedthewaragainstEuropeanstatesapartfromAustriaa
ndBritain.AlleffortstoreconcilewiththemwerefruitlessduetotheFrench’sdeterminationtoretaint
heconqueredterritoriesofBelgiumandItaly.Thesetwothereforeremainedtheonlyremainingpro
blemstoFrance.Therefore,theDirectorygovernmentdecidedtobeginwithAustriainwhatcameto
beknownastheItalianCampaignof1796-1797.
THEITALIANCAMPAIGN,1796-1797
Duringthiscampaign,theDirectoryGovernmentattackedAustriafromtheItalianPeninsular.By17
96,AustriawasincontrolofItalyandhadimposedautocraticruleovertheItalians.TheDirectorygov
ernmentsentNAPOLEONBONAPARTEtoleadtheFrenchforcesintheCampaign.Hetookwithhi
manillequipped,inexperiencedandpoorlytrainedforcethatlackeduniformandfood.Howeverusi
nghisskillsandbrilliance,Napoleonmanagedtoorganizehisforcesandmadethemreadyforaction.

Usingtheseforces,NapoleonmanagedtodefeattheAustrianforcesattheBattleofRivoliinJanuary
1797.TheItalianswelcomedhimasaliberatorandheextendedtothemtherevolutionaryideasoflib
erty,equalityandfraternity.WhileinItaly,NapoleonthenlootedtheItalianworksofartfromtheMus
eumsandGalleries.AlsosomepiecesofartwerelootedfromtheprivatehomesandweretakentoFra
ncetobeautifyParis.
AfterthedefeatofAustriainItaly,NapoleonBonapartemovedwiththeFrenchforcestowardsVienn
a,thecapitalofAustria.Austriabecamescaredandconsequentlyshedecidedtoenterintoapeaceag
reementwithFrance.ThiscametobeknownasthePeaceTreatyofCampoformioofOctober179
7.
Bythetermsofthistreaty,AustriasurrenderedtoFranceanotherterritoryshewascontrollingknow
nasBelgiumorAustrianNetherlandswhichwasnorthofFrance.Francealsogotanotherterritoryfro
mAustriawhichwasontheLeftBankofRiverRhine.Inaddition,NapoleonBonapartecompletelyex
pelledAustriafromthenorthernItalianstatesandheorganizedthesestatesintoanewrepublic,whic
hhenamedtheCISALPINEREPUBLIC.
THEEGYPTIANCAMPAIGN,1798–1799
AfterthedefeatofAustria,FrancebecamethemostpowerfulstateonmainlandEurope.However,B
ritainremainedthemostpowerfulstateinEuropeasawhole.Therefore,theDirectoryGovernment
plannedtoattackanddefeatBritainsuchthatFranceremainedthemostpowerfulcountryinEurope.
However,wellknowingthatBritainwasasuperpowerandgreatlydependedonhercommercialacti
vitiesforsurvival,theDirectorsplannedtoweakenBritainbydestabilizinghertradingactivitiesalon
gtheMediterraneanSeaandhercommercialempireintheFarEast(India).Thiswasthroughoccupy
ingEgyptbecauseEgyptwasstrategicallylocatedalongthissearoute.Thiscampaignwasalsoputin
thehandsofNapoleonBonaparte.
InMay1798,NapoleonBonapartetooktheFrenchforcestoEgypt.OnhiswaytoEgypt,hecaptured
theIslandofMalta.HemanagedtoenterthecountryafterdefeatingtheEgyptianrulersattheBattleo
fPyramids.However,theFrenchforceshadlefttheirfleet(warships)atthecoastastheyenteredEgy
pt.Consequently,theBritishnavalforcedestroyedtheFrenchfleetatthePortofAlexandriaandtheF
renchwerecutofffromcommunicationwiththehomegovernment.
NewsreachedBritainthatNapoleon’sforceswereplanningtoattackBritainandtheBritishreactedb
ycollaboratingwithTurkeytodefeattheFrenchforcesinEgypt.NapoleonwasthereforestuckinEgy
ptandtomakemattersworse,hegotnewsthattheSecondCoalition(militaryalliance)hadbeenfor
medbyEuropeanpowersagainstFranceandhelearntthatalltheterritoriesthatFrancehadacquire
dintheTreatyofCampoformioof1797likeItalyhadbeenlostbytheDirectoryGovernment.Hesecre
tlyleftEgyptandlandedinSouthernFrance.Bythistime,theDirectoryGovernmentwasveryunpop
ularandhadlostthesupportoftheFrench.ThisthereforehelpedNapoleontostageacoupinNovemb
er1799whichoverthrewtheDirectoryGovernment.
ACHIEVEMENTSOFTHEDIRECTORYGOVERNMENT

Whileinpower,theDirectorygovernmentmadeimportantachievementsdespitetheaboveproble
msandtheyincludedthefollowing;
TheDirectorygovernmentmanagedtoendtheReignofTerrorinFrance.Thiswasthroughabolishin
gtheJacobinsclub,apartythathadledtoterrorinFrance.TheDirectoryGovernmentalsoabolished
otherterroristorgansliketheCommitteeofPublicSafety,theCommitteeofGeneralSecurityandthe
RevolutionaryTribunal.Italsoabolishedthe“LawofSuspect”thathadbeenputinplacein1792by
theNationalConventionGovernmentunderRobespierre.Therefore,Franceregainedsomerelativ
epeaceandstabilityduetotheeffortsoftheDirectorygovernment.
TheDirectoryGovernmentrestoreddemocracyandpromotedconstitutionalruleinFrance.Foralo
ngtime,Francehadbeenunderdictatorialruleforexampleby1789underKingLouisXVIandlaterbet
ween1793and1794underMaximilienRobespierrewhopromotedterrorandkilledverymanypeopl
einFrance.However,theconstitutionofRobespierrewhichwasdictatorialwasabolishedbytheDire
ctoryGovernmentandanewonewasdraftedandacceptedbytheDirectorsinAugust1795.Witht
hisconstitutionof1795,ademocraticandparliamentarysystemofgovernancewasestablishedinF
rance.Forexample,therewasaparliamentinFrancewhichoperatedwithtwocouncilsi.e.theCounc
iloftheEldersandtheCouncilofthe500(fivehundred)members.ThismadetheFrenchmentoenjoy
somedegreeofdemocracy.
TheDirectorygovernmentexpandedtheboardersorfrontiersofFrance.ThiswasachievedwhenN
apoleonBonaparteledtheFrencharmyagainstAustriaandcapturedtheItalianstatesthroughtheIt
aliancampaignof1796–
1797.HissuccessextendedtheFrenchborderstoNorthernItalythroughthepeacetreatyofCampof
ormioof1797inwhichAustriasurrenderedtoFrancetheItalianstatesaswellasotherterritorieslike
BelgiumandtheRhinelands.NapoleonBonapartewasalsosenttoEgyptwherehecapturedtheIsla
ndofMalta.
TheDirectorygovernmenttriedtoimprovetheeconomyofFrance.Thiswasdonethroughdevelopi
ngindustries,promotingtradeaswellasagriculture.Similarly,thedirectorygovernmentenrichedt
heFrenchtreasurywiththetreasuresfromtheconqueredstates.Forexample,afterItaliancampaig
n,AustriawasforcedtopayheavywarindemnityanditalsoorderedNapoleonBonapartetolootthea
rtworksfromthegovernmentandprivatemuseumsofItaly.Healsolootednumerousmasterpieces
ofpaintingandsculpturewhichwereferriedtoFranceandusedtobeautifytheFrenchMuseumsthus
promotingtourisminFrance.
TheDirectorygovernmentre-
organizedtheoncedisorganizedFrencharmy.Manysoldiershadbeenkilledwhileothershaddesert
edthenationalarmy.Thesurvivingsoldierswerepoorlyequippedandthespiritoffightingwasveryl
owfollowingthedefeatofFrancebyacoalitionofEuropeanpowerslikePrussia,BritainandHolland.
Thisarmywasreo-
organizedthroughtherecruitmentofmoresoldiers,serioustrainingandintroductionofnewandmo
dernweapons.ThegovernmentalsoappointednewarmygeneralslikeNapoleonBonapartewhore
placedthosethathadeitherdiedorfledthecountryduringtheReignofTerror.Itwasthisstrongarmy

thatmaintainedpeaceandstabilitywhichhadbeendisruptedduringthereignofterroraswellaspro
motingtheFrenchgloryabroad.
TheDirectoryGovernmentalsokeptalivethespiritoftherevolutionthathadstartedinMay1789asw
ellasspreadingtherevolutionaryideastootherpartsofEuropethroughthewarsitfought.Forexam
ple,intheItalianCampaignof1796-
1797Napoleonusedtheevolutionarycatchwordsofliberty,equalityandfraternitywhichmadehim
toappearasaliberatorfromtheautocraticAustrianrule.HealsomadesuchideastoextendtoItaly.
TheDirectoryGovernmentpromotedreconciliationinFrance.Thiswasdonebyreleasingmanypoli
ticalprisonerswhohadbeencapturedduringtheReignofTerror.Italsograntedpoliticalamnestytot
hosemembersoftheNationalConventionGovernmentwhohadcausedrevolutionarywarsbetwee
nFranceandtherestofEuropesince1792andsomeofthesepoliticianswereevenallowedbytheDire
ctoryGovernmenttoparticipateinthepoliticsofFrance.Forexample,thegovernmentre-
admittedthesurvivingmembersoftheGirondinspoliticalpartyintogovernmentposts.
TheDirectoryGovernmentrestoredgloryforFrance.AcountrylikeAustriahadpreviouslydefeated
Franceduringtherevolutionarywars.However,in1797theFrenchdefeatedAustriawhenAustriaat
temptedtoresisttheFrenchoccupationofBelgium.ItalsoattemptedtooccupyEgyptalthoughNap
oleonBonapartehadtowithdrawsoastogobacktoFranceanddefendhiscountryfromforeigninvasi
on.
TheDirectoryGovernmentsavedFrancefromtherestorationoftheAncientRegime.Thiswasdonet
hroughthecrushingofanuprisingorrebellionthathadbeenstagedinOctober1795bytheroyalistsa
gainsttheDirectoryGovernment.ThesesurvivingmembersoftheAncientRegimeweredispersed
byNapoleonBonaparte.Thiseventbecamefamousandwascommonlyreferredtoasthe“Whiffof
Grapeshot”ofOctober1795.
TheDirectoryGovernmentwassuccessfulinmakingpeacewithotherEuropeancountries.Thereh
adbeenhostilitybetweenEuropeancountriesandrevolutionaryFrancebetween1792and1794be
causetheFrenchrevolution1789ofthreatenedthesurvivalofthemonarchicalregimestheEuropea
ncountrieslikeAustriaandPrussia.However,whentheDirectorygovernmentcametopowerin179
5,itmadepeacewithsomeEuropeancountrieslikeSpainandHolland.
TheDirectoryGovernmentalsosucceededinsuppressingthesocialists.UndertheleadershipofFra
nçoisBabeuf,thesocialistswantedtotakeoverpowerinFranceandputinplacearegimethatwould
controlthefactorsofproductionlikeland.Theirattemptfailedastheirplanleakedtothegovernment
.Asaresult,inMay1796thenationalarmyarrestedBabeuftogetherwithhissupportersandtheywe
reexecuted.ThisthereforepromotedsecurityinFrance.
Thegovernmentisalsocreditedfordefendingthestateagainsttheexternalinvaders.By1797,thefi
rstmilitarycoalitionwhichhadbeenformedagainstrevolutionaryFrancehadbeencrushedbytheDi
rectorygovernmentandonlyBritainremainedunchallengedofthe15membersofthecoalition.The
victoryoftheFrenchforcesoverthiscoalitionmadetheDirectoryGovernmentverypopular.

TheDirectoryalsolaidfoundationfortheriseofNapoleonBonapartetopowerwhorescuedtheFrenc
hsocietyfromanarchyby1799.Thegovernmentusedhimtosuppressrevoltsandhewasalsogivent
hecommandofboththeItalianandEgyptianmilitarycampaigns.Thoughhewasnotsuccessfulinth
eEgyptiancampaign,hissuccessintheItaliancampaignincreasedhispopularityorfameespeciallyi
nthearmywhichsupportedhimtooverthrowthegovernmentinNovember1799.
WEAKNESSESORFAILURESOFTHEDIRECTORYGOVERNMENT
MuchastheDirectorygovernmentregisteredsomesuccessesorachievements,italsohadseveralf
ailuresinitstermofoffice.Thus,itsachievementswereshort-
livedandoutweighedbyfailureswhichcontributedtoitsdownfallin1799.Theseweaknesessorfailu
resincludedthefollowing;
Thedirectorygovernmentfailedtosolvethesocial-
economiccrisisinFrance.Famine,unemploymentandinflationpersisteduptotheendoftheregime
.Despiteitsattemptstoimproveagriculture,industryandcommerce,theperformanceofagricultur
eandindustrialsectorincreasinglydeteriorated.Thegovernmentfailedtodeveloptheagricultural
sectorwithnewandmodernagriculturaltechniquestomeetthegrowingdemandsoftheFrenchme
n.Similarly,theDirectoryGovernmenthadabolishedthe“LawofMaximum”whichledtohighprices
ofgoodsinFrancewhichledtodiscontentamongtheFrenchmassesandinturnmadetheDirectoryg
overnmentunpopular.
TheDirectorygovernmentfailedtostopcorruptionintheFrenchsociety.By1799,itwasprovedbeyo
nddoubtthatthedirectorswerethemostcorruptadministratorsinthehistoryofFrance.Theypracti
cedbothpoliticalandeconomiccorruptionwheregovernmentfundswereembezzledwhichnegati
velyaffectedtheeconomyofFrance.Consequently,thegovernmentbecameunpopularasituation
whichwasexploitedbyNapoleonBonapartetostageacoupin1799.
TheDirectorygovernmentwasveryextravagantinitsexpenditure.Forexample,itestablishedaver
ylargeFrencharmyofmorethanonemillionmenandalotofmoneywasspentonmaintainingthisar
my.Inaddition,thearmywassentonexpensivemilitarycampaignsliketheItalianandEgyptiancam
paigns.Thiscontributedtoafinancialcrisisandtotalbankruptcyofthestateby1797similartowhatw
asinthegovernmentofKingLouisXVIby1789,hencemakingtheDirectorygovernmentunpopular.
TheDirectoryGovernmentalsomadeamistakeofreleasingmanypoliticalprisonersorroyalistswhi
chdispleasedtherevolutionariessincesuchpeoplewereagainsttherevolution.Thishadbeendone
bythegovernmenttopromotereconciliationbutitmadethegovernmentunpopularamongtherevo
lutionaries.ThisgavechancetoNapoleonBonapartetorisetopower,leadingtothedownfalloftheDi
rectorygovernmentin1799.
ThegovernmentfailedtoreconcilethestateandtheCatholicChurchinordertorestorelawandorder
inthecatholicdominatedprovinces.ItshouldberememberedthattherelationshipbetweentheCat
holicChurchandthestatebecamestrainedsincetheCivilConstitutionoftheClergyofJuly1790inwhi
chthegovernmenttookoverthechurch’sproperties.Thathostilitywasignoredbythedirectorygov

ernmentwhichledtoinstabilityorreligiousconflictsinFrance.Allthismadethegovernmentunpopu
lar,leadingtoitscollapsein1799.
TherewaslackofharmonybetweentheDirectorsandthetwocouncilswhichformedtheparliament
ofFrance.ThesecouncilsweretheCouncilofElderswhichwascomposedofthe250membersandth
ecouncilofthe500members.ThetwocouncilswerethelawmakingbodiesforFranceandtheDirect
orsweretoimplementthelaws.However,onmanyoccasionstheDirectorsrefusedtoapplythelaws
becauseofthepowerstrugglesbetweentheDirectorsandtheparliamentwhichalsomadethegover
nmentunpopular,thusleadingtoitscollapsein1799.
ItfailedtoprovidetotalpeaceintheFrenchsociety.ThereignoftheDirectorygovernmentwaschara
cterizedbyoccasioninsecurityfromvariousgroupsespeciallytheJacobins,royalists,thesocialists.
Theywerenotcontentedwiththewaythegovernmentwasconductingitsactivitiesandthereforeth
eyorganizedrebellionswhichcreatedpoliticalinstability.Forexample,in1795theroyalistsdemons
tratedagainsttheDirectorygovernmentonlytobesavedNapoleonBonaparteintheWhiffofGrapes
hot.TherewasalsotheBabeufconspiracyof1796allofwhichcausedpoliticalunrestinFrance.Thisw
eaknessmadethegovernmentunpopularandforcedtheFrenchmentoadvocateforastronggover
nmentwhichwouldensurepeaceandstabilityandwhenNapoleonBonapartepromisedthistheFre
nchsupportedhimtooverthrowtheDirectorygovernmentin1799.
TheDirectorygovernmentfailedtoprotectthegainsoftherevolutionandtheterritoriesacquiredint
heearliercampaigns.Duringthefirstcoalition,NapoleonsecuredalotoftreasuresfromItalyandma
nyterritorieswereconqueredsuchthatby1797FrancewasincontrolofthestateslikeNorthernItaly
,Rhinelands,SwitzerlandandBelgium.Howeverduringhisabsence,theEuropeanstatesorganize
dasecondcoalitionandrecapturedtheseterritoriesfromFrance.Thismadethegovernmentunpop
ularandpartlyexplainsNapoleon’sheroicwelcomefromEgypteventhoughhehadnotsucceeded.
ThegovernmentfailedtopromoteequalityofalltheFrenchmenbeforethelaw,voteandpoliticalrep
resentation.Itwasonlytherichmiddleclasstovoteortobevoted.Thepoorpeasantswereleftoutbec
ausetheypossessednowealthasapreliquisite(condition)tovote.Bythistime,thepeasantshadgai
nedlittleornonefromtherevolution.Becauseofthistherefore,theDirectorygovernmentwasdomi
natedbythemiddleclassmemberswhohadaccumulatedalotofwealthandpropertyfromtheÉmigr
ésandtheCatholicChurch.Asaresult,thegovernmentbecameunpopularamongthepeasantswhi
cheventuallyleditscollapsein1799.
TheDirectoryGovernmentriggedelectionsinFrance.In1797,theDirectorygovernmentorganize
delectionsforthosewhoweretogototheparliament.Thegovernmenthadbecomeunpopularand
manyFrenchmenvotedfortheroyalists.ThisscaredtheDirectorsandtheyusedNapoleonBonapar
tetorigtheelections.ThisthereforemadetheDirectoryGovernmentveryunpopular.
TheDirectorygovernmentincreasedhostilityfromotherEuropeanpowerstowardsFrance.Thego
vernmentorganizedmilitarycampaignsagainstEuropeanpowerswhichgeneratedhatredfromth
osecountriestowardsFrance.Consequently,EuropeanpowerslikeAustria,PrussiaandBritainfor

medcoalitionsagainsttheDirectoryGovernment.ThisalsomadetheDirectorygovernmentunpop
ularinFrance,thusleadingtoitscollapseby1799.
TheDirectoryGovernmentnarrowedtheFranchise.The1795constitutionthatwassetupbyDirect
oryGovernmentgavethevotingrightsonlytothosewhohadwealthandwerepayingtaxes.Thiswas
seenasunfairbythepeasantswhohadnowealthinFrancebutwantedtohaveashareinthepoliticsof
theircountrythroughvotingtheirrepresentativesintheparliament.Thisthereforemadethegover
nmentunpopular.
ThegovernmentfailedtocontrolthehighcrimeratesespeciallyinsouthernFrancewherehighwayr
obberywasrampant.TheFrenchmenespeciallythepeasantswerescaredabouttheirsecurityandt
hatoftheirpropertiesthattheyhadgainedfromtherevolution.Thisunderminedthegovernment’sa
chievementsandpartlyexplainsthegrowingfameforNapoleonwhowasseenastheonlymantopro
tectthemandthestate.
TheDirectorygovernmentlackedconfidenceinitselfandinsteadoverreliedonNapoleonBonapart
eforitssuccessandexistence.Forexample,itpromotedhimtotherankofGeneralandthesamegove
rnmentmadehimcommandmilitarycampaignsof1796and1798inItalyandEgyptrespectivelyonh
erbehalf.Italsoreliedonhimtosuppressinternalrebellions.ThismadetheDirectorygovernmentu
npopularandinsteadincreasedthefameofNapoleonwhichheexploitedtooverthrowtheverygove
rnmentin1799.
TheDirectorswerenotunitedduetopowerstrugglesamongthemselvesandotherreasons.Forexa
mple,asearlyas1795,someDirectorswantedthecontinuationofthewarpolicythathadworkeddur
ingthereignofterrorwhileothersopposedthis.Alsobecauseofdisunity,twomembersoftheDirecto
rygovernmenti.eAbbeSieyesandLucienBonapartesupportedNapoleonBonapartetooverthrowt
hegovernmentwhenhecarriedoutacoupinNovember1799thatbroughthimtopowerwhichmark
edtheendoftheDirectorygovernment.
Allinall,theDirectorygovernmentregisteredsomeachievementsinFranceespeciallyinherforeign
policywhenshedefendedFrance,expandedtheFrenchboundariesandextendingtherevolutionar
yideas.ButherfailuresweremoreseriouswhichmadetheFrenchmentoloseconfidenceinitandsup
portNapoleonBonapartetooverthrowitin1799.
EFFECTSOFTHEFRENCHREVOLUTIONONFRANCE
Assesstheimpactofthe1789FrenchRevolutiononFrance.
TheFrenchRevolutionbrokeouton5thMay1789andwentonupto1799.Thisrevolutionbecameat
urningpointinthehistoryofFrancebecauseitbroughtaboutfundamentalpolitical,socialandecono
micchangesorresultsonFrancesomeofwhichwerepositivewhileotherswerenegativeasseenbel
ow;
POSITIVEEFFECTS

 TheFrenchrevolutionledtotheabolitionorendofmonarchialrulewhichhadbeeninpowerinFra
nceformanyyearsin1792.Itwasinsteadreplacedbytherepublicationgovernment.Conseque
ntly,KingLouisXVIandhiswifeQueenMarieAntoinettewerekilledin1793andmostofthenobles
fledintoexile,thusleadingtocollapseoftheAncientRegimewithallitsabusesorinjustices.
 TheFrenchrevolutionof1789ledtotheabolitionoftheRoyalGuardwhichwasreplacedwithther
evolutionaryarmyknownastheNationalGuard.Itisthisarmythatmaintainedthegainsofthere
volution.Inaddition,therevolutionledtomilitaryreformsinFrancewhichstrengthenedtheFre
ncharmy.Forexample,therevolutionarygovernmentexpandedtheFrencharmythroughcom
pulsorymilitaryconscription.Thisarmywasalsowelltrainedsoastorespondtotheexternalthre
atsandtoguardothernationalinterests.ItwasthisstrongarmythatdefeatedAustriain1797,th
uspromotingtheFrenchglory.
 ItledtotheabolitionofthesocialstratificationorclasseswhichhadcharacterizedFranceforalon
gperiodoftime.WiththeoutbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionin1789,theFrenchwerenolongerdivi
dedandtreatedalongsocialclasses.Forexample,thepeasantsandmiddleclassmemberswere
nolongerdiscriminatedinthepolitical,economicandsocialaspectsofFrance,somethingthatha
dbeenimpossiblebefore1789.Instead,thissituationwasreplacedbyanewsocialorderbasedo
nequalityforallclassesregardlessofthebirth.
 TherevolutionresultedintotheendofdictatorshipordespotisminFrance.Thiswasachievedwit
hthefallofBastilleon14thJuly1789wherevictimsofletresdecachetwerekeptandthereforehad
beenapillarofdespotism.
 TheFrenchrevolutionof1789gavebirthtofreedomofmanwhichwasattainedaftertheDeclarat
ionofRightsofManandCitizensdocumenton28thAugust1789.Inthisdocumentmanyfundame
ntalhumanrightswereoutlinedlikefreedomofspeechandworshipamongotherswhichbrough
tinthelibertyandequalityofallmensocietyinsocietyinFrance.
 ItledtotheabolitionoffeudalismandserfdominFrance.ThiswasasystembywhichalllandinFra
ncewasownedbythenoblesandclergyandthepeasantslivedonthislandasserfs.Thissystemw
asunfairandthepeasantsopposeditbecauseitmademostofthemlandless.Bythesamesystem
,thenoblesalsousedtochargealotfeudalduesortaxesfromtheserfs.Thepeasantshatedthissy
stemandthereforewhentheyrevoltedin1789,itwasimmediatelyabolishedandthus,theThird
EstatebecamemorepowerfulthantheFirstandSecondEstates.
 TheFrenchrevolutionof1789ledtotherevivaloremergencyofparliamentarydemocracyandd
ebateinFrancewhichhaddiedoutsince1614.ThisstartedwiththeEstatesGeneralMeetingon5 t
h
May1789andlaterdeclarationoftheThirdEstateintotheNationalAssemblyandcontinuedwit
htheLegislativeAssemblyin1791andbeyond.Thispromotedfairrepresentationandalsoguar
anteedpeople’srightsandfreedomswhichhadbeenlackingbefore1789.
 TherevolutionledtothebirthofconstitutionalisminFrance.Thiswasthroughtheestablishment
oftheFirstFrenchConstitutionofSeptember1791.Thisconstitutionreformedthelocalgovern
mentthroughthecreationofCommuneswithelectedofficialsateverylevel.Furthermore,itwas
inthisfirstconstitutionof1791constitutionin1791wherehumanfreedomofallsortswasclearly
elaboratedwhichwasanimportantachievementforFrance.
 ItledtotheriseofFrenchNationalismandpride.Duringthecourseoftherevolution,anumberofi
nstitutionsweresetupwhichdevelopedasenseofnationalprideamongtheFrenchmenofallcla
sses.TheseincludedtheTri–

colourflag,theNationalAssemblyaswellastheNationalGuard(revolutionaryarmy)underLaza
reCarnotandGeneralLafayettewhichwastoprotectthegainsoftherevolution.
 TheFrenchrevolutionof1789ledtosomereformsintheeconomyaimedataddressingtheecono
micproblemsthatFrancehadsufferedbefore1789.Forexample,itrevisedtheunfairtaxationsy
stemthroughputtinginplaceabalancedtaxationsystemwhereeventhechurchpaidtaxesandt
hishelpedtoreducethefinancialcrisisthatFrancehadsufferedby1789.Italsoledtotheintroduc
tionanewpapermoneyknownasAssignatstocontrolinflation.ItalsoencouragedFreeTradei
nthedifferentregionsofFrancethroughtheabolitionofcustomsbarriersortaxesandmonopoli
es,thusliberatingtheFrenchcommerceandindustry.Additionally,auniformorstandardmetric
systemofweightsandmeasureswerealsointroduced.Thisreplacedtheoldchaoticandvarying
measurefromonepartofFrancetoanotherwhichreducedcheatingandexploitationthathadch
aracterizedFranceforalongperiodoftime.Allthisimprovedtheeconomicsituationfromthecrisi
ssufferedbyFrenchmensince1788.
 ItalsoledtolandreformsinFrance.Theoldlandsystemwasabolishedafter1789andthelandtha
toncebelongedtotheCatholicchurchandnobleswasconfiscatedbythepeasants.Thisledtothe
increaseinfoodproduction,thusreducingfamineandstarvationthathadcharacterizedFrancef
oralongtime.
 ItledtoeducationalreformsinFrance.Forexample,itafter1789aNationalEducationSystemwa
sputinplacethroughtheestablishmentofpolytechnicschoolsandcollegebytheNationalConve
ntionGovernment.ThissystememphasizedtheFrenchcultureandusedFrenchasamediumofi
nstructionanditwasaccessedbyalltheFrenchmenirrespectiveoftheirsocialclassbackground.
 TheFrenchrevolutionof1789resultedintoactivepoliticalcompetitioninFrance.Thisledtothee
mergenceofvariouspoliticalclubsinFrenchpoliticsliketheJacobinsclub,theGirodinsandtheC
ordeliersamongotherswhichallaimedatspreadingthegospeloftheFrenchrevolutionfarandw
ide.Itshouldbenotedthatbefore1789,therewasnofreepoliticalcompetitioninFrancesincethe
rulingBourbonFamilyhaddominatedtheFrenchpoliticsforages.Howeveraftertherevolution,
theFrenchbecamefreetochooseanypoliticalorganizationandtochoosetheirownleaders.
 TheFrenchrevolutionof1789separatedthechurchfromstate,hencereducingtheinfluenceoft
heCatholicChurchespeciallyintheaffairs.ThroughtheCivilConstitutionoftheClergyofJuly17
90,thestatewasgivengreaterpowersoverthechurchwhichbecameameredepartmentofthes
tate.Similarly,thePopelosthispowerswhobecameamerespiritualleaderoftheCatholicChurc
h.FreedomofworshipwasestablishedintheFrenchsocietywhereotherreligionswereallowedt
oprevailinFrance.ThisbroketheOldCatholicmonopolyinFrance.TheChurchalsolostitsmono
polyoverlandintheFrenchsociety.TheirlandswereconfiscatedbytheFrenchgovernmentand
partgiventothepeasants.TheChurchalsolostitsprivilegeslikecontrollingeducation,controllin
gmarriages,andcontrolovertaxeswhichwerealltakenbythestate.Allthismadethepeasantsh
appy.
 ItledtoterritorialgainsforFrancethroughconquest.Throughtherevolutionarywars,Franceac
quiredseveralterritoriesliketheItalianstates,Belgium,HollandaswellastheLeftBankoftheRhi
neamongothers.ThisthereforeledtothecreationofalargeFrenchempireinEuropewhichchan
gedthebalanceofpowerinEuropeinfavourofFrancefrom1789upto1814.
 ItpromotedtheFrenchgloryinEuropethroughthemilitarysuccessesthatwereregistereddurin
gtheperiod1789and1799.Thereweremilitarysuccessesduringtheperiod1789and1799.Fore

xampletherewasthedefeatofthe1stcoalitionin1795andtheconfirmationoftheFrenchpossess
ionoftheleftbankoftheRhine.Similarly,therewastheItaliancampaignof1796inwhichFranced
efeatedtheAustrianforcesandthetwocountriessubsequentlysignedtheTreatyofCampoform
ioof1797thatrecognizedthecreationoftheCisalpineRepublicaswellastheFrenchpossessiono
fBelgium.
 ItledtotheriseofnewmenwithnewideasonthepoliticalsceneofFrance.Theseincludedamong
othersAbbeySieyes,Danton,Roland,Marat,BarrassandlaterNapoleonBonaparte.Suchmen
helpedtospearheadthesuccessoftheFrenchrevolutionby1799,thusremainingsignificantint
hehistoryofFrance.
 TherevolutionpromotedtheFrenchculture.After1789,thevariousrevolutionarygovernment
sgreatlyemphasizedtheFrenchcultureinformoflanguage,Artandtheatre(drama)asawayoff
orgingnationalunitywhichwasnecessaryduringthecourseoftherevolution.Thisfurtherprom
otedtheFrenchnationalism.
NEGATIVEEFFECTS
 ItledtoaninterclassstruggleinFrance.Thisstrugglewasbetweentheprivilegedandtheunprivil
egedclassesastheformerwerenotwillingtosurrendertheirprivilegesliketaxexemptionpeacef
ully.ItalsodividedthecatholicsintotheJuristsandthenon-
Jurists.Therefore,theFrenchrevolutionof1789dividedtheFrenchintothesupportersandnon-
supportersoftherevolutionwhichcausedcivilwarsthatledtounrestinFrance.
 Itledtothemassivedestructionofproperty.TheFrenchrevolutionof1789wascharacterizedbyv
iolenceandthereforeduringitscourse,alotofpropertyespeciallyforthenoblesandclergywasatt
ackedanddestroyedbytheviolentrevolutionaries.
 Similarly,therevolutionledtothelossoflives.ThiswasduringthecourseoftheReignofTerror,the
revolutionaryaswellastheNapoleonicWarsinwhichthousandsofinnocentFrenchmenlosttheir
lives.
 ItledtothemassiveexodusofFrenchmentotheneighboringcountrieslikeAustriaandPrussia.Th
esepeoplecametobeknownastheÉmigrés.Theseweremostlynobles,clergyandroyalistswhod
ecidedtogoabroadinsearchofmilitaryaidsoastoorganizeacounterrevolutionagainsttherevol
utionarygovernmentinFrance.ThisincreasedenemitybetweenFranceandthoseEuropeancou
ntriesthatwerehostingandsupportingtheÉmigréslikeAustria.
 ItledtointernationalenemityorcooperationamongEuropeanpowersagainstFrance.Thiswas
manifestedintheBrunswickManifestoofJuly1792whichwasissuedbyBrunswick–
thejointcommanderoftheAustro-
PrussianarmyaswellastheformationofcoalitionsagainstFrancelikethe1 st,2nd,3rdand4thcoaliti
onswhereallthebigpowersalliedtofightagainstrevolutionaryFrance.Thiswasbecausetherevo
lutionthreatenedthesurvivaloftheabsoluteregimesinEuropeancountrieslikeAustriaandPrus
sia.ThisenemityledtothebreakdownofinternationaldiplomacyinEurope.
 Itledtoeconomicdeclinefurther.Forexample,therewasasharpdeclineinthemanufacturingan
dcommercialsectorsandindustrialproductioninFrancefellby75%between1789and1799.Thi
sincreasedtheunemploymentprobleminFrance.Therewasalsoinflationwiththepricesofesse
ntialcommoditieslikesugardoubling.Italsoshatteredinternationaltradesuchthatby1797only

atenthoftheOceangoingVessels(ships)of1789wereavailableandasaresulttheFrenchexports
hadfallenby50%.
 TheCivilconstitutionoftheclergyofJuly1790greatlyreducedthepowerandinfluenceoftheCath
olicChurchinFrance.ThiscreatedenemitybetweentheCatholicChurchandthestateorgovernm
ent,thusleadingtotheeventsoftheReignofTerrorinFranceandthesubsequentinstabilityinFra
nce.
 TheFrenchrevolutionof1789ledtofreedomofworship.Thiswasgoodbutitgavebirthtoradicalr
eligioussectsliketheHerbertistswhointroducedareligioncalledtheWorshipofReasonandchan
gedthecalendaroftheCatholicChurch.Forexample,itforcedpeopletoworkonSundayandthos
ewhorefusedwerekilled.
 ItledtotheexecutionorkillingofKingLouisXVIandQueenMarieAntoinettein1793.Thistherefor
eweakenedtheBourbons,hencemakingthemunabletorestoretheirgloryinFranceasitgenerat
edhostilitytowardstheBourbonMonarchyfrom1793to1814aswellas1814to1830.
 Itledtointernalpoliticalinstabilitycharacterizedbyrebellionsagainsttherevolutionarygovern
mentsinFrancefrom1790onwards.Forexample,therewastheRoyalistRevoltofOctober1795a
swellastheconspiracy(revolt)oftheSocialistsunderBabeufofMay1796.Therewerealsoreligio
usinstabilitiesinFranceespeciallyasthemembersoftheCatholicChurchwereattackedbytheHe
rbertistswhocapturedtheirpropertyandanewRevolutionaryCalendarwasalsoadoptedin1792
.
 ItledtotheimpositionofharshtermsonFrancebytheGreatEuropeanPowersduringthesigningo
ftheViennaSettlementof1815afterthedownfallofNapoleonBonaparteI.Forexample,Frances
ufferedaheavywarindemnityorfine,anarmyofoccupationaswellasthelossofherterritoriesinE
urope.ThiswasbecauserevolutionaryFrancehaddisturbedEuropeanpeaceforovertwentyyea
rsandthereforeshewaspayingaheavypriceforthisdisturbance.
 ThesuccessofFrenchrevolutionof1789inspiredtheoutbreakofotherrevolutionsinFrance.fore
xample,therewasthe1799couporrevolutionthatbroughtNapoleonBonapartetopoweraswellt
he1830and1848revolutions.AlltheserevolutionsdestabilizedFrance.
EFFECTSOFTHEFRENCHREVOLUTIONONEUROPE
 TheFrenchrevolutionintroducedtherevolutionarydoctrinesofliberty,fraternityandequalityw
hichwentbeyondFrancetoothercountrieslikeItalyandGermany,thuspromotingFrance’sglory
inEurope.
 TheFrenchrevolutionledtointernationalco-
operationamongEuropeancountries.ThiswasbecausetheFrenchrevolutionincreasedwarfar
einFrance.ThisledtotheformationofthefirstcoalitioninthehistoryofEuropewhereallcountries
alliedtofightrevolutionaryFrancein1792.MembersofthiscoalitionincludedBritain,Prussiaand
Austriaamongothers.ThisthereforeledtothebirthofdiplomacyinEurope.
 ItledtothecreationoftheFrenchEmpireinEuropethroughtheNapoleonicWarsofconquestasN
apoleonBonapartewasaproductoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.ManyEuropeanstateslikethe
ItalianandGermanstates,Belgium,Poland,SpainandPortugalwereboughtunderthecontrolof
FrancebyNapoleon,thuscreatingtheFrenchEmpireinEuropewhichfurtherpromotedtheFrenc
hgloryinEurope.

 TheFrenchrevolutionledtoabolitionoffeudalismnotonlyinFrancebutinthewholeofEurope.For
instanceinPrussiapeoplewereinfluencedbytheFrenchrevolutiontodecampaignandfightfeud
alisminwhichthepeasantswereexploitedbythelandlordsandthisendedin1848.
 TheFrenchrevolutionaffectedthesociallifeofEuropeansstatesastheFrenchcultureandlangua
gewerewidelyspreadelsewhereinEuropeforexampleinGermany,Italy,SpainandBelgium.Th
eFrenchlanguageandliteraturewereadoptedbypeopleinthesecountries,thusinfluencingthei
rsociallife.
 ItledtothedisintegrationoftheoncegreatAustrianempire.Thiswasasaresultoftheseveralrevol
utionarywarsthatshefoughtwithrevolutionaryFrance.Forexample,shelosttoFranceenormou
sterritory,aftertheItaliancampaignof1796includingtheItalianPeninsularandGermany.
 TheFrenchrevolutionledtotheoutbreakofotherrevolutionsinEuropelikethe1820s,1830sand
1848revolutionsaswellastheRussianrevolutionsof1917.Therevolutionprovidedtheinspiratio
ntothelaterrevolutionariesbyinstillinginthemthedesiresofliberty,equalityandfraternityespe
ciallyinthosepartsofEuropethatwerestillunderdictatorialrulers.Asthesedespoticrulestriedto
suppresstheseideas,itcausedmanyrebellionsinstateslikeSpain,Belgium,NaplesandtheItalia
nandGermanstatesin1820,1830aswellas1848inthewholeofcentralEurope.
 ItlaidafoundationfortheNationalunificationofItalyandGermanyin1870and1871respectively.
NationalistsentimentsweresowedafterNapoleon’sconquestoftheItalianPeninsulaandtheGe
rmanstatesintheearly19thcenturywhenhe(Napoleon)preachedtherevolutionaryideasofequ
ality,libertyandfraternity.
 TheFrenchrevolutiondestroyedofeconomicsetupofmanyEuropeancountries.Forexample,d
uringtherevolutionarywars,moststatesinEuropehadtheirpropertydestroyed.Withtheriseof
NapoleonIwereverymanywarswerefoughtbyFranceagainstcountrieslikeSpain,Russia,Belgi
um,PortugalandBritainwhichdestroyedtheirproperty,thusleadingtothedeclineoftheirecono
mies.
 ItusheredinFranceanageofanarchyandchaosleadingtotheReignofTerrorbetween1792and1
794.ThiswascharacterizedbythemassivekillingofseveralFrenchmenincludingtheKingandhis
wife.ThiscreatedenemityorhostilitybetweenFranceandotherEuropeancountries.
 ItledtoemergencyofdictatorslikeRobespierre,Danton,MaratandRoland,hisMadamwhoseco
nflictingideasintensifiedhostilities,anarchyandbloodshedinFranceanddeterioratedFrance’sr
elationswithherneighborslikeAustriaandPrussiaamongothers.
 TheFrenchrevolutionof1789laterledtothedevelopmentofextremeconservatisminEurope
asareactiontowardstherevolutionaryideas.Forexample,PrinceMetternichwhowasthegover
nedAustriabetween1815and1848introducedoppressiveandconservativepoliciessoastostop
thespreadofrevolutionaryideasinCentralEurope.However,thiscausedalotofsuffering,thusle
adingtotheoutbreakofthe1830and1848revolutionsinEurope.
 TheFrenchrevolutionthreatenedotherEuropeanmonarchieswhichforcedEuropeanstateslike
Austria,Prussia,RussiaandBritaintodeclarewaragainstFrancesoastostopofrevolutionaryide
asinthesecountries.Thisledtomanyrevolutionarywarswheremanypeoplelostlives.
 ItledtotheriseofNapoleonBonapartetopowerin1799,amanwhodominatedthewholeofEurop
ebetween1799and1815.NapoleonBonaparteconqueredmanyEuropeanstateslikeItalianan
dGermanstates,Belgium,SpainandPortugalamongothers.HelaterintroducedtheContinental

SystemwhichaffectedtheeconomiesofEuropeancountries.Besides,NapoleonicWarsledtom
assivelossoflivesanddestructionofproperty,thusfurtherleadingtoeconomicdeclineinEurope.
 ItledtotheincreaseinpopulationofthecountriesneighboringFrance.Thiswascausedbytheram
pantrunawayoftheémigrésforthesafetyoftheirlivesduringthecourseoftherevolution.
 TherevolutionledtotheactofunderminingtheCatholicChurchinEurope.ItstartedinFrancewith
theCivilConstitutionoftheclergywhichunderminedchurch’sroleandlaterspreadtootherEurop
eanstates.Forexample,withinFrancethechurch’sinfluencewaseliminatedfromthestateaffair
s.ItalywitnessedtheworstofitwhenNapoleonBonaparteimprisonedthePopein1807.Therevol
utionariesofthe1820s30sand1848alsopartlyfoughttheclericalrigiditiesandunfairness.Allthe
setracedoriginfromthe1789Frenchrevolution.
 Itledtoabolitionofsocialprivilegesandreplacedthemwithnewsocialorderbasedonequalityofal
lirrespectiveofthestatusorbirth.
 TheFrenchrevolutionledtotheemergenceoftheparliamentarydemocracyinEurope.Beforeth
erevolution,nearlyallEuropeanstateshadnoparliamentseparatefromtherulersofstate.Butth
eFrenchrevolutionbroughtintheideawhichstartedinFranceandlaterspreadtootherstates.
 TherevolutionledtothegrowthofconstitutionalisminEuropebeginningwiththeFirstconstitutio
nofSeptember1791inFrancewhichdefinedthebasicman’srightsandtheideaspreadtootherEu
ropeanstates.
 TheFrenchRevolutionledtotheemergenceofdifferentpoliticalgroupsinEuropewhichtookover
thegovernanceofEurope’spoliticaldestiny.Partieswereformedonthebasisofdifferentideologi
esandpoliticalinclinations.Forexample,thosewhobelievedinthepowerofthechurchandthePo
pe,formedtheClericalPartyacrossEurope,thosethatbelievedinoldleadershipweretobethe
LegitimistswhilethosewhodemandedfordemocraticsystemsofgovernanceweretheRepu
blicansandLiberalsandmanyothers.


NAPOLEONBONAPARTEI,1769-1821
NapoleonBonapartewasbornin1769atAjacciotownontheIslandofCorsicaintheMediterranean
Sea.ThisislandwasannexedtoFrancein1768ayearbeforeNapoleonwasborn,hencehewasborna
Frenchcitizenin1769.HewasbornfromapoorBonapartefamilybutsecuredascholarshipandstudi
edfromanexpensivemilitaryacademyatBrienne,laterinPariswherehegraduatedasanartilleryo
fficer.
Duringhisyouth-
hood,heattemptedtoliberateCorsicafromtheFrenchoverlordshipwhichledtotheexpulsionofhisf
amilyfromCorsicabytheFrenchgovernment.Duringtherevolution,hejoinedtheJacobinscluband
soonbecameacloseassociateofRobespierre.OnthedownfallofRobespierre,June1794,hewasim
prisonedandlaterreleasedduetothescarcityoftheartilleryofficersintheFrencharmy.In1793Nap
oleonalsosuccessfullysuppressedaroyalistuprisingandenrootingoutBritainfromtheFrenchPort
ofToulon.ThisearnedhimapromotionfromtherankofCaptaintoaBrigadiergeneralintheFren
charmy.
In1795,heledtheFrencharmyagainstthemobsthathadsurroundedthehallwherethenewlyelecte
dDirectoryassemblyweremeeting.Theywereopposedtothenewconstitutionwhichgavebirthtot
heDirectorygovernmentandthetwocouncils.Napoleonorderedhistroopstofireintothemobthere
bydispersingthem.Herescuedthedirectoryandtheincidentcametobeknownas theWhiffofGrape
shot.NapoleonwasimmediatelyappointedCommanderoftheinteriorarmyin1796.Betwee
n1796and1798,hewasengagedintwomilitarycampaignswhichspreadhisfamethroughoutFranc
eandEurope.InNovember1799,NapoleonBonaparteoverthrewtheDirectoryGovernment,hen
cecomingtopower.HethenruledFranceasanEmperorupto1814whenhewasoverthrownandexil
ed.Hemanagedtoescapefromexile,camebacktoFranceandruledforonehundreddays.Thereafte
r,hewasfinallydefeatedin1815.
FACTORSFORTHERISEOFNAPOLEONBONAPARTETOPOWERIN1799
TheannexationofCorsicaIslandbyFrancein1768wasresponsiblefortheriseofNapoleonBonapart
etopower.In1768,theIslandwhereNapoleonwasbornbecameaFrenchterritoryasFrancegotitfr
omtheRepublicofGenoa(Italy).ThoughbornontheCorsicanIsland,NapoleonBonapartewasther
eforebornaFrenchcitizenin1769andheexploitedthischancebybirthtoassumeortakeupresponsi
bilitiesinfrancetotheextentofbecomingaFrenchrulerby1799.
Napoleon’sfatherCharlesBonapartehadfriendlyrelationswiththenobilityclassinFranceandthisal
socontributedtohisrisetopower.ThefriendshipofhisfatherwiththenobilityassistedNapoleonBon
apartetostudyintheprestigiousmilitaryacademiesorschoolsofBrienneandlaterPariswhichwe

resupposedtobeforthechildrenofthenoblesonly.Whileintheseschools,NapoleonBonaparteacq
uiredmilitaryskillsandhegraduatedasanartilleryofficer.Thismilitaryeducationenabledhimtobea
ppointedintheFrencharmywhichgavehimanopportunitytocometopowerby1799.
Napoleon’sfamilybackgroundexplainswhyhecametopower.BythefactthatNapoleonBonaparte
wassupposedtobeanItaliancitizen,hehatedtheFrenchcitizenshipwhichwasforcedontohim.He
wasalsobornfromaverypoorfamilyandthereforewhileinthemilitaryacademies,Napoleonfacedl
onelinessandabitterlibecausehewasamongthesonsoftherich.Thisgavehimcourageandendura
nceandthereforehestruggledtooffsetthispoorfamilybackground.Thisinfluencedhimtoworkhar
dandexcelinthemilitaryschoolswherehewent,thusgraduatingasanartilleryofficer.Thisenabled
himtojointheFrencharmy,whicheventuallycontributedtohisrisetopowerby1799.
TheFrenchrevolutionof1789helpedNapoleonBonapartetorisetopowerandthiswasinmanyways
.Forexample,therevolutioncreatedapowervacuuminFranceafterthedeathofKingLouisXVIandt
hedownfalloftheBourbonregimeormonarchyin1793whichNapoleonexploitedtorisetopowerin1
799.Hadthemonarchystillbeenexisting,itwouldhavebeenverydifficultforNapoleontorisetopow
erby1799.
Therevolutionalsoabolishedthesocialclassdivisionssuchthatitwasnolongertheclergyandtheno
blesthatweresupposedtobethenaturalrulersofFrance.TheFrenchrevolutionof1789thereforele
dtotheequalityofallFrenchmenandforthatmatter,talentedmenlikeNapoleonBonapartewoulde
asilyrisetopositionsofresponsibilityregardlessoftheirsocialbackground.ItisbecauseofthisthatN
apoleonBonapartefromapoorfamilyeasilyrosethroughpromotionstothecommanderoftheinteri
orforcesyetduringtheAncientRegimeitwasonlythenobleswhoweresupposedtobepromotedint
hearmy.Thisaidedhimcapturepowerin1799.
Similarly,theFrenchrevolutionof1789createdtheshortageofmilitaryofficerstherebyputtingNap
oleontolimelight.Manyhadfledthecountry,somearrestedandothersdiedduringtherevolutionar
ywars.Besides,theReignofTerrorhadalsobroughtaboutscarcityofartilleryofficersandthisgaveN
apoleonchancetobefreedfromprisonin1794becausetheFrencharmyneededmanyartilleryoffice
rstofightwarsforFranceandtoexporttherevolutiontoothercountries.Alltheseenabledhimtoriset
opowerby1799.
Therevolutioncreatedatraditionofviolence,terrorandcoupsasameanstoloseandcapturepower
andthisiswhatexactlyNapoleonwanted.Forexample,Frenchthemonarchywasoverthrownthrou
ghviolenceandRobespierrealsoacquiredpowerthroughthesamemeans.NowonderNapoleonm
adehiscoupandascendedthethroneinNovember1799.
TherevolutionalsoprovidedNapoleonwithanopportunitytodisplayhismilitaryskillsorabilitiesasa
skillfulsoldierwhenhemanagedtodefeattheenemiesoftherevolution.Forexample,in1793Napol
eonsuppressedanuprisingoftheroyalistsinPortToulonwhoweresupportedbyBritainagainstthe
NationalConventionGovernment.Thisbroughthimfameandthereforehewaspromotedtotheran
kofBrigadierGeneralin1794.In1795,Napoleonalsomanagedtosuppressanuprisingorganizedby
theroyalistsagainsttheDirectoryGovernment.ItalsocreatedwarsinwhichNapoleonparticipatedl

iketheItaliancampaignof1796to1797aswellastheEgyptiancampaignof1798whiche
arnedhimpopularitymoresointhearmy.Inallthese,Napoleondisplayedhisabilitieswhichmadehi
mpopularinFrance,henceleadingtohisrisetopower.
TheFrenchrevolutionof1789alsousheredintheconfusion,anarchy,civildisorder,foreignwarswit
htherestofEuropeandgeneralinstabilities(ReignofTerror)inFrance,whichNapoleonexploitedto
riseonpowerin1799.AllthosemadetheFrenchmendesireforalternativeleadershipmoreoverfro
mmilitarymentorestorestabilityandorderintheFrenchsocietyanddefendtheaimsoftherevolutio
n.ThisexplainswhywhenNapoleonstagedamilitarycoup,themassessupportedhim,henceleadin
gtohisrisetopower.
TherevolutionintroducedorexposedNapoleontotheveryimportantandinfluentialleadersoftheti
mewhocontributedmuchtohisrisetopowerin1799.TheseincludedrevolutionaryleaderssuchasR
obespierre,Roland,DantonandotherswhotaughtNapoleonleadershipskillsthathelaterusedtoco
metopowerby1799.HealsoestablishedfriendlyrelationswithsomemembersoftheDirectorygove
rnmentlikeBarrasandAbbeSieyeswithwhomhelaterconspiredtocapturepowerfromtheDirector
ygovernmentin1799,henceleadingtohisrisetopower.
TheFrenchrevolutionalsogavebirthtotheideasofliberty,equalityandfraternity.Napoleonadopte
dtheseideaswhichhelpedhimtorisetopower.Healwaysspokeofthethreeideasandevenexported
thembeyondtheFrenchbordersduringtgeItalianandEgyptiancampaigns.Thiswonhimsupportfr
omtheFrenchmen,henceleadingtohisrisetopowerby1799.
TheFrenchrevolutionof1789alsoledtotheformationofarevolutionaryarmyknownastheNational
GuardwhichreplacedtheRoyalGuardoftheAncientRegime.Thisrevolutionaryarmylaterserveda
saninstrumentwhichelevatedNapoleonfirsttofameandsecondlytotheactualCoupofBrumaireor
November1799againsttheDirectorygovernmentwhichdirectlybroughthimtopower.
Napoleon’sintelligencealsoassistedhimtorisetopower.NapoleonBonapartewasageniusorintelli
gentandthereforewhileinthemilitaryacademies,heexcelledinthemilitarycoursesandhewasequi
ppedwithuniquefightingskillsthatlaterassistedhimtorisetopower.Forexample,in1793hewasa
bletosuppressanuprisingoftheroyalistswhowerebeingsupportedbyanEnglishfleettofightagain
sttheNationalConventionGovernment,atPortToulon.Alsoin1795,stilltheroyalistsstagedan
uprisingagainsttheDirectoryGovernmentastheywantedtorestorethemonarchy.Butthiswas
alsosuppressedbyNapoleonBonaparteinwhatisknownasthe“WhiffofGrapeshot”of1795.Thi
shelpedhimtoeasilyrisetohigherranksintheFrencharmywhichmadehimpopularinFranceandthe
reforeassistedhimtorisetopowerby1799.
Napoleon’smarriagetoJosefineBeaurharnaisin1796alsoassistedhimtorisetopower.Josefi
newasadaughterofoneoftheDirectorsknownasGeneralBARASS.Bymarryingthedaughterofon
eoftheleadingpoliticians,NapoleoncameclosetotheleadingpowerholdersinFrance.Thistherefor
eassistedNapoleontobethecommanderoftheEgyptianandItaliancampaignsonbehalfoftheDire
ctorygovernmentwhichwonhimpopularityinFrance.ThismarriageequallywonNapoleonfavourf
romsomeofthearistocraticmemberssinceJosefinehadconnectionswiththearistocratsinFrance.

Asaresult,manyofthemsupportedNapoleontooverthrowtheDirectorygovernmentin1799which
assistedhimtorisetopower.
Napoleon’scharacterorpersonalityledtohisrisetopower.Hehadexceptionalorganizationskillsan
dadministrativeabilitiesandthiswasbackedbyhisoratorypoweroreloquencewhichonmanyocca
sionsheexploitedtoinfluenceeventsinthearmyamonghissoldiers.Thisisillustratedwhenhemobil
izedandorganizedtheFrencharmywhichhadbeendisorganizedbytheFrenchrevolutionof1789.M
anyoftheFrenchsoldiersweretiredoffightingandlivedverymiserablelives.Forexample,theywere
poorlydressedandlackedfood.However,NapoleonBonaparteconvincedthemtojointheItalianca
mpaignof1796to1797whenhepromisedtheangrysoldiersgloryandwealth.Asaresult,hedefeate
dAustriaduringthiscampaignwhichmadehimpopular,henceleadingtohisrisetopower.
Napoleon’soverwhelmingambitionforpoweralsoledtohisrisetopower.Rightfromhischildhoo
d,Napoleonhadanambitionofbeingatthetopofthesociety.Forexample,attheageoftenyearshea
dmiredtobeasoldierlikehisfather.Whileayouth,hemadeanattempttoliberateCorsicafromFranc
e.Hisambitiouscharacteralsodraggedhimintowarswiththegreatpowersofthetimebetween179
2and1798.Forexample,hefoughtAustriain1793and1796.HealsofoughtBritaininthefamousEgy
ptiancampaignwhichearnedhimalotofpopularitythatledhimtorisetopower.Itwasalsothisoverw
helmingambitionthatinfluencedhimtoorganizetheCoupofBrumaireinNovember1799againstth
eDirectoryGovernmentwhichwasdirectlybroughthimtopower.
ThescientificimprovementsinEuropeatthattimealsoledtoNapoleonBonaparte’srisetopower.Att
hetimeofNapoleon’scampaigns,therewerenewadvancementsinmilitarysciencewheremodern
weaponslikemobileartilleries,telescopesandroadmapshadbeeninventedandwhichNapoleonus
edtoregistersuccess.Therewasalsotheconstructionofbetterroadswhicheasedthemovementoft
heFrenchforcesunderNapoleon’scommandtothebattlefield.Thisenabledhimtoorganizesurpris
eattacksanddefeathisenemieslikeAustriaduringtheItaliancampaignof1796–
1797.ThisearnedhimmorepopularityinFrancethatassistedhimtorisetopowerby1799.
ThecontributionofhisbrotherLucienBonaparteassistedNapoleontorisetopower.LucienBona
partewasthePresident(Head)ofthecouncilofthe500membersthatproposedlawsfortheDirector
yGovernmentinFrance.However,LucienBonaparteLucienphysicallycampaignedforNapoleonb
eforethecouncilandhewasoneofthepoliticianswhobetrayedtheDirectoryGovernmentandsupp
ortedNapoleontoorganisethe1799Coupthatbroughthimtopowerin1799.
ThesupportfromtherevolutionaryarmyassistedNapoleontorisetopower.Havingbeenaloyalarm
yofficerintheFrenchforcessincetheearly1790s,Napoleonwonthesupportofthenationalarmy.Th
esoldiersweretooloyaltohimandthispartlyexplainsthesuccessofhismilitarycampaigns.Hethusu
sedthearmytoglorifyhisnameinthecampaignsandfosterorcarryouthisMilitarycoupinNovember
1799.Atthetimeofhiscoup,thearmylaidamilitarysiegeatthehalloftheassemblywhichintimidated
theoppositionandforcedthemtoacceptNapoleon’ssovereignpowers.Similarly,whenLucienBon
apartepresentedNapoleontotheparliament,thecouncilofthe500membersfirstrejectedhimbutt
hepresenceofthearmyintimidatedthosewhowouldhaveopposedNapoleon.Asaresult,thecounc

ilofthe500toowascompelledtosubmitandthetwodirectorswhorefusedtoresignwerearrestedby
thearmy.
Napoleon’scloseassociationwithprominentleadersenabledhimtoriseonpower.Hehadlinkswitht
hegreatmenofFranceandtheseincludedtherevolutionaryleaderslikeRobespierre,Danton,Marr
atandlaterDirectorslikeGeneralBarras,AbbeSieyesandCarnot.Withsuchlinks,Napoleonwasabl
etoreadtherevolutionaryliteratureofthephilosphersespeciallytheworkofRosseauwhoseworkh
adtheideasoffightingforthefundamentalrightslikefreedomofworshipandassociation.Napoleon
aloslearntleadershipskillsfromthesegreatpoliticianswhichhelaterusedtocometopower.Thesel
eadersalsoputNapoleonintothepoliticallimelightwhichenabledhimtorisetopower.Forexample,
CarnotchosehimtoleadtheItaliancampaignwhichenabledhimtoexposehismilitarytalentsandhe
ncepromotedtocommanderofinteriorforces.AllthisaidedNapoleon’srisetopowerby1799.
Napoleon’sluckassistedhimrisetopower.ManyeventsblessedNapoleon’slifeandcareerwhichpe
rhapsnootherFrenchmaneverachieved.Forexample,hewasluckytohavehadhishomeisland-
CorsicaannexedtoFrancejustayearbeforehewasborn.ThisenabledhimgetinvolvedintoFrencha
ffairslegallyasaFrenchman.Hewasalsoluckytobeamongtheeightchildrenthatsurviveddeathout
ofthethirteeninhisfamily.HewasalsoluckytohaveattendedtheprestigiousmilitaryacademiesofB
rienneandPariswhichwereonlyreservedforthesonsofthenobles.Hewasalsoluckythathesurvive
dtheReignofTerrorwhichclaimedcountlesslivesofmanyofhisfriendsincludingRobespierre.Hew
asalsoluckythathesurvivedtheEgyptiancampaignof1798whentheBritishsurroundedthembuth
eescaped.HewasalsoluckythathisbrotherLucienBonapartewasthePresidentofthecouncilof500
memberswhichsupportedhisrisetopowerby1799.ItwasalsobysheerluckforNapoleontohaveor
ganizedasuccessfulcoupde’tatofBrumaireinNovember1799againsttheDirectorygovernment.A
lltheseopenedhischancesofsuccessandtherefore,nowonderhetookoverpowerin1799.
TheweaknessesoftheDirectoryGovernmentassistedNapoleontorisetopower.AfterthefallofRob
espierrein1794,Francewasruledby5(five)Directorsupto1799.However,theDirectorsfailedtoful
filltheexpectationsoftheFrenchmen.Forexample,corruption,inflation,unemploymentandthelo
ssofterritorieslikeSwitzerlandwereamongtheweaknessesoftheDirectoryGovernment.Suchwe
aknessesmadethegovernmentunpopularandthereforetheFrenchmensupportedNapoleontoca
rryoutacoupinNovember1799thatbroughthimtopower.
ThesuccessoftheItaliancampaignof1796-
1797wasalsoparamountinNapoleon’srisetopower.Duringthiscampaign,NapoleondefeatedAu
striainItalyandextendedtheFrenchinfluencethere.ItthereforemanifestedamilitarygeniusinNap
oleonandtomanyFrenchmenhepromotedthecountry’sgloryandpride.Hence,theFrenchmensu
pportedhimtocometopowerin1799.
TheinfluenceoftheEgyptiancampaignof1798–
1799alsoassistedNapoleonrisetopower.Napoleon’spopularityandsupportincreasedwhenheun
dertooktheEgyptiancampaignagainstBritainin1798.Duringthiscampaign,heachievedinitialsuc
cessinEgyptagainstBritainbytakingoverthetownofAlexandria.Thoughhismissionorplanortak
eovertheentireEgyptfailed,thefailuresofthecampaignweresimplyattributedbymanyFrenchme

ntotheweaknessesoftheDirectorygovernment.Thispartlyexplainshisheroicwelcomefromtheca
mpaignbyagreatmajorityoftheFrenchpeoplewhothereforesupportedhimorganizeacoupthatbr
oughthimtopowerin1799.
Thecoupd’étatof18thBrumaireor9thNovember1799isconsideredasthemostimmediatefact
ortohaveopeneddoorsforNapoleon’srisetopower.Havingfounddeterioratingsocialandeconomi
cconditions,Napoleonconspiredwithsomedirectorsandamajorityofthecouncilofelderstooverth
rowthedirectorygovernment.Arumorwasthusputthattherewasaserousplotagainsttherepublic.
ThecouncilofeldersproposedthatNapoleonbeputincommandofthetroopstoprotectthedirector
y.Thecouncilof500opposedthisandwhenheappearedtoaddressthehousetheyshoutedhimdow
n.InascufflethatensuedLuciencalledonthearmywhichstormedtheassemblyanddrovethememb
ersout.Mostofthememberssuccumbedandthefewwhoresistedwerearrested.Thismarkedthebe
ginningofthereignofNapoleon.
a)TowhatextentdidtheFrenchRevolutionof1789contributetotheriseofNapoleonB
onapartetopower?
b)“NapoleonBonapartewasaproductofcircumstancesbeyondhisownmaking”.D
iscuss.
NAPOLEONBONAPARTE’SDOMESTICPOLICY,1800–1814
Afterhiscoup,NapoleonpromisedtostabilizeFrancepolitically,sociallyandeconomically,followin
gtheFrenchrevolutionof1789,andendtheanarchywhichheinheritedfromtheDirectorygovernm
ent.Francewascharacterizedbyashatteredeconomy,religiousconflicts,inefficiencyandcorrupti
on.Withsuchabackground,theFrenchmassesexpectedfundamentalreformsfromNapoleon.Lat
erNapoleonwasseencommittinghisenergytofulfillwhathehadpromised.Manyofhisdomesticpoli
ciesconformedtotherevolutionaryidealsespeciallyinthefieldofadministration,Finance,educatio
nandlaw.However,insomeaspectsNapoleonbetrayedtheidealsoftheFrenchrevolutionwhichco
nstitutedhisweaknesses.Let’stakealookatthefollowingfeatures;
ACHIEVEMENTSOFNAPOLEONBONAPARTE
NapoleonmadeConstitutionalreformsinFrance.Napoleonmadethe1799constitutionwhi
chfavoredhisrule.Afterhiscoup,hechangedtheearlierDirectorygovernmentconstitutionintoane
wconstitution.Inthisconstitution,allexecutivepowerswerevestedintheFirstConsulwhowastobe
Napoleonhimself.ItgaveNapoleonpowerstoappointallstateofficialsandtodirectforeignpolicy.H
ewasgivenone10yearsterminoffice.TheconstitutionsetuptheLegislativeAssemblywhichhad3c
hambersthat’stheSenate,TribunateandtheLegislativebody,eachwithdefinedroles.However,th
eactualworkofmakinglawswasentrustedtothecouncilofthestatethatwasappointedbyNapol
eonhimselfandwasdirectlyanswerabletohim.AllinallNapoleonfulfilledtheidealsoftheFrenchrev
olutionbypromotingconstitutionalismwhenhestartedhisadministrationwithanewconstitution.
Heestablishedastrongfinancialsystemasawaytoovercomethefinancialandeconomiccrisi
sinFrance.Thiswasachievedbyregulatingstateexpenditureandbycentralizingthetaxationpolicy

.TaxcollectionwasputunderthestaterepresentedbytheDirectorGeneralinParis.TheDeputyDire
ctor,inspectorsandassessorsinthecommunesweregiventhetaskofensuringthesafetyofthestat
erevenue.Thisledtoincreasedrevenuethatenabledthestatetostabilizetheeconomy.Similarly,co
rruptionwascurbedandtheculprits(victims)wereimprisoned.
Healsointroducedbankingreforms.InordertoeffectivelymanageFrenchfinances,heestablished
theBankofFrancein1800.Itwasresponsibleforthegovernmentloansandrevenueplusissuingcurr
ency.ThisstabilizedtheFrenchcurrencyandencouragedmoreinvestmentsinFrancewhichwasa
majorachievement.
NapoleonpromotedIndustryandcommerceinFrance.HetriedtodeveloptheFrenchindus
trialsector.By1814,Francehadsome2000cottonmillsemployingcloseto40,000workerswhileLin
enproductionoccupiedanestimated58,000homeorfactorylaborers.HeestablishedaChamberof
CommerceandIndustrythatwasresponsibleforadvisingthemanufacturers,encouragetheestabl
ishmentofnewindustries,andprovideemploymenttotheFrenchmen.Thelocalindustrieswerepro
tectedbyimposinghightariffsonimportsfromothercountriessoastoencourageandpromotewide
rindustrialproduction.Thisincreasedtheoveralldevelopmentofthecountry’seconomy.
NapoleonalsopromotedAgriculturaldevelopment.Agriculturewasencouragedbyofficial
societies,publicationsandprizesforsuccessfulinnovations.SugarbeetandfoodcropslikeWheata
ndpotatoesroseswiftlywhileFlaxseedandHempproductiondeclined.Theefforttoimprovecotton
productionwaskeptinproportiontothegrowingpopulation.Newtechniquesofproductionwerede
velopedfromthescientificresearch.Agriculturewasimprovedwiththeintroductionofnewmethod
soffarmingfromBelgiumandEngland.Morecanalsweredugtopromotetheirrigationschemes.Thi
sincreasedfoodproductionandthereforesolvedtheproblemoffaminethatFrancehadexperience
dsincethedaysoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.
HealsoimprovedonthepublicworksorinfrastructuresinFrance.Heestablishedafairlyreliablesyst
emoftransportandcommunicationwhichwasnecessaryforastrongeconomy.Anumberofrailway
lines,roads,canals,portsandbridgeswereconstructedinordertodevelopFrance.ToulonandHano
verportswerealsoexpanded.TheroyalpalaceslikeSt.Claude,FontainebleauandRambouilletwer
erenovatedandrefurbished.Similarly,hebeautifiedtheFrenchmuseumbyfillingitupwithbeautifu
lartworksandmasterpiecesofpaintingandsculpturewhichhehimselfstolefromItalyin1796.Heals
obuiltandimprovedonhispalacesinFrance,townswereenlargedandsecuritylightsinstalledwhich
inturnreducedinsecurityandincreasedhispopularityinFrance.
NapoleonintroducedadministrativereformswhichstrengthenedFrance’sadministrativestructur
e.Heabolishedaweakfeudaladministrativestructureofthepastandcentralizedthelocalgovernm
entunderhimself.Forexample,hemaintainedthedivisionofFranceinto83departmentseachhead
edbyPrefects,workwhichhadbeenstartedbytherevolutionaries.Thesewerefurthersub-
dividedintodistricts(arondisements)headedbysub-
prefectswhowerealsoappointedbyandanswerabletohim.Thesewerefurtherdividedintocommu
neswhichwereadministeredbymayors.Heappointedefficientcivilservantstorunthegovernment
departments.ThisgaveFranceanefficientgovernmentundermenwithadministrativeskillsandre

ducedthebureaucracywhichhadconsolidatedcorruptionandembezzlementinthepastregimes.T
hesereformswereacontinuationoftherevolutionaryadministrativestructureandthereforemanif
estedNapoleonasatruesonoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.
NapoleonmadevitalreformsinthefieldofeducationinFranceandEuropeaswhole.Heopeneduppu
blicsecondaryschoolsandsemimilitarysecondaryschools(Lycees)runbythegovernmentmostly
emphasizingtheteachingofMathematics,geography,ScienceandMilitarytraining.Heencourage
dtechnicalschoolsasameasuretoproducelocalmanpowerthatcouldbeusedinthedevelopmentof
theFrencheconomy.In1808,hegaveFranceanationaluniversitycalledtheUniversityofPariswhic
hoperated17academies(branches)acrossFrance.Theuniversitywasdirectlyunderthecontroloft
hegovernment.By1813,Napoleon’ssecondarysystemwasthebestinthewholecontinentandattr
actedmayEuropeans,thuspromotingtheFrenchglory.
NapoleonalsopromotedreconciliationwiththeCatholicChurchin1801.HereconciledtheCatholic
ChurchwiththestatethroughanagreementknownastheConcordatwithPopePiusVIIin1801.Th
erelationshipbetweenthechurchandthestatestrainedorworsenedsincetheenactmentoftheCivil
ConstitutionoftheClergyinthe1790swhichattackedthepositionofthePopeandchurch.Napoleon
promisedtoendthisconflictsoastowinthesupportoftheCatholics.Accordingtohim, astatewithout
religionwasavesselwithoutacompass.Thus,in1801boththeEmperorandthePopesignedanagre
ement(theconcordat)bywhichCatholicismwasrecognizedasthereligionofmajoritybutallowedfr
eedomofworship.AllchurchofficialsweretobenominatedbythestateandapprovedbythePope.T
hePoperecognizedtheownershipoflandbythepeasantsandPapalStateswererecognizedbyFran
ceasdominionsofthePope.Fromtheconcordat,boththestateandthechurchgainedbutthestateg
ainedmore.ItincreasedthepopularityofNapoleonfrommostoftheCatholicswhohadhatedtheFre
nchrevolutionandthestateasawhole.Thisbroughtpeaceandreinstatedthechurch-
staterelationswhichhaddeterioratedforyears.
NapoleonintroducedthepolicyofCareeropentoTalentsortheLegionofHonorinhisadministrati
on.Heobservedtherevolutionaryprincipleofmeritasabasisforappointmentsandpromotionsothe
rthantheancientcriterionofbasingonsocialorder.Hehadrealizedthattheancientgovernmentsha
dsufferedpoliticalandfinancialdifficultiespartlyduetotheunmeritedpersonnelwhosurvivedonco
rruptionandembezzlement.Thusunderthispolicy,Napoleonappointedandpromotedpeopletohi
ghofficesonmeritregardlessoftheirsocialbackgrounds.Forexample,GeneralMurat,asonofpeas
antwasappointedaGermanDukeandlaterKingofNaples,MartinGandinwasappointedMinisterof
FinanceandhadservedunderLouisXVI’sgovernment.ThisgaveFranceanefficientadministration
,encouragedhardworkandpatriotism,whichwaslackinginthepreviousregimes.
HealsointroducedNapoleonicCode(theCodeNapoleon).NapoleongaveFranceacodeoflawwhic
hbroughtharmonythatlackedintheancientregime.Beforehisrisetopower,Francehadnocommo
ncodeoflaw.Whatexistedwerejusthanginglawswhichcouldtimeovertimebemanipulatedbythel
eaderstoachievetheiraims.Napoleonthusattemptedtocodifythelawsinaccordancewiththedesir
esandaspirationoftherevolutionaries.TheCodeNapoleonwasthereforeasimple,clear,logicalan
ddefinitesummaryofthelawsofFrancewhichtouchedthebasicrightsanddutiesofmanlikeinherita
nce,landownership,marriageage,divorceetc.Thecodewastohavefivecodes;thecivilcodewhich

dealtwithrelationshipbetweenpeople,thecodeofcivilprocedurewhichdealtwithhowjudgesshou
ldsettlecases,thecodeofcriminalprocedurewhichdealtwithoffencesagainstthestate,thepenalc
odewhichspecifiedthepunishmentsforthedifferentcrimesandcommercialcodewhichdealtwitht
radeandotherrelatedissues.Theseruleswereuniformandequalbeforeall.Bydoingthis,hemanag
edtoclearthepastjudicialconfusionandreplaceitwithpermanentJusticeinFrance.Theselawsbec
ameeffectivenotonlyinFrancebutalloverEuropeincountrieslikeBelgium,SwitzerlandandevenU.
S.A.Theyrestoredpeace,lawandorderinFranceandrestoftheworld.
NapoleonrestoredpeaceandorderinFrance.Thiswasdonebysettingupaspecialstateprisona
ndstrictcourtsoflaw.Heemployedarmiesandspiestocaptureleadersperpetuatingchaos.Indoing
so,allthepastdisordersfromtheroyalistsandJacobins,highwayrobberyandotherirregularitieswe
recontained.PeacewasrestoredwhichpleasedtheFrenchmentherebyconsolidatinghisposition.
Healsointroducedmilitaryreforms.Throughthesemilitaryreforms,Napoleonbuiltastronga
rmyforFrance.Thearmywasveryefficientanddisciplinedthaneverbefore.Hedidsobyrecruitingm
oreFrenchmenandequippingthemwithmodernweapons.Heusedtheconscriptionpolicywhereal
lFrenchmenwereforcedtojoinhisarmy.Militarytrainingwascompulsoryinthesecondaryschoolsa
ndthisbroughtaboutefficiency.Promotioninthearmywasbasedonmeritandthisencouragedhard
workanddisciplineamonghissoldiers.HisforcewasusedtobringlawandorderinFranceandtosave
thecountryfromtheexternalenemies.
NAPOLEON’SWEAKNESSESORFAILURESINTHEDOMESTICPOLICY
Napoleonimposedheavypunishmentsonthecriminals.Heputinplaceasecretpolicethatwasco
mmandedbyForche.Thispolicearrested,tortured,imprisonedandkilledtheopponentsofNap
oleon’sregime.Hethereforesuppressedpeople’sfreedomwhichmadehimunpopularinFrance.
TheConcordatoragreementthatNapoleonBonaparteIsignedwiththePopein1801tosomeext
entrestoredtheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchinstateaffairs.Forexample,alltheFrenchrulers
weresupposedtobeCatholicsandthePopewastoinstalltheBishopsinFrance.Thisannoyedthos
erevolutionarieswhohadfoughtagainsttheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchinthestateaffairsdu
ringthe1789Frenchrevolution.
Heestablishedadiscriminatoryeducationsystem.Forexample,thesystemignoredwomenedu
cationclaimingthatthewomenwereonlyfitfordomesticworkandthereforedidnotneedtogotos
chool.Healsoemphasizedtheteachingofsciencesandmilitaryeducationandignoredliberalsub
jectslikeHistory,PhilosophyandLiterature.Healsoignoredprimaryeducationwhichheleftinthe
handsoftheCatholicChurch.ThisthereforeunderminedhispopularityinFrance.
NapoleonpromoteddictatorshipinFrance.HedeclaredhimselfEmperorofFranceforlifein180
4,andhetookonthetitleEmperorNapoleonBonaparteIhavingallthepowerslikeappointin
gadministratorsinthelocalgovernment.HethereforeovercentralizedpowerinFrance.Healsou
sedtoimprisonpeoplewithouttrialsimilartowhatwashappeninginFranceduringtheAncientRe
gime.

TheCodeNapoleonof1804alsohadweaknessesandthereforeitcausedresentment.Forexam
ple,itgavemorepowerstothehusbandsasHeadsoffamiliesandthisledtooppressionormistreat
mentofthewomenandchildren.Thiswasagainsttheprincipleofequalityasadvocatedforbyth
eFrenchrevolutionof1789.
NapoleonpromotednepotisminFrance.Heappointedmostlyhisfriendsandrelativestoposition
sofresponsibility.Forexample,hemadehisbrothersrulersoftheconqueredstates.Acaseinpoin
twasJeromeBonapartewhoruledthestateofNaplesinItalywhileLouisBonapartewasinH
olland.ThismadeNapoleonBonaparteIunpopularinFrance.
Theestablishmentofthe“LegionofHonour”byNapoleonBonaparteIledtothereturnofthesocial
classesinFrance.Thiswasbecauseitledtothecreationoftheclassoftalentedpeoplewhoprovide
ddistinguishedservicestotheclassstate.Therefore,bybringingbackthesocialclasseswhichha
dcausedtheFrenchrevolutionof1789,Napoleonwentagainsttherevolutionaryprincipleofequ
ality.
NOTE:TheweaknessesinthedomesticpolicyofNapoleonBonapartepartlycontributedtohisdow
nfallin1815becausetheycausedresentmentandmadehimunpopularinFrance.
THEFOREIGNPOLICYOFNAPOLEONBONAPARTE
Intheforeignpolicy,NapoleonusedwarstoestablishalargeempireinEuropeanditwasthroughwar
thatthisempirewasdestroyed.AtthepeakofNapoleon’spowerinFrance,theFrenchEmpireinclud
edstateslikeItaly,Holland,theGermanConfederationoftheRhine,NaplesandAustrianNetherlan
ds(Belgium).ItwasthereforethemostpowerfulcountryinEuropeandtheforeignpolicycontribute
dtothedownfallofNapoleonin1815.
Throughouthisregime,NapoleoninvolvedFranceintowarswithEuropeannations.In1815,Eur
opeancountrieslikeBritain,Russia,Prussia,theItalianstates,Sweden,Spain,Portugalandeven
FranceitselfbecamedisgustedwithNapoleon’sregimeandtheythereforeoverthrewhimfromp
ower.
Before1815,EuropeancountrieshadformedseveralcoalitionssoastodefeatNapoleonBonapar
teI.Forexample,NapoleonBonaparteIwasfacedwiththeproblemoftheSecondcoalition.Thisc
oalitionhadbeenformedin1799tofightagainstFrancepriortoNapoleonBonaparteI’srisetopow
erandithadcountrieslikeAustria,Russia,Portugal,NaplesandBritain.However,thecoalitioncol
lapsedwhenNapoleonBonaparteIdefeatedAustria.Austriawasdefeatedmainlybecauseofthe
divisionthatexistedinthearmiesoftheSecondCoalition.NapoleonBonaparteIthenforcedAustr
iatosigntheTreatyofLUNEVILLEof1801.ThistreatyconfirmedtheTreatyofCampo-
FormioofOctober1797aftertheItaliancampaignandthereforeAustriagaveupBelgium,the
LeftBankoftheRhineandalsowithdrewfromItaly.TheseterritorieswereputundertheFrenchco

ntrolanditwasamajorachievementofNapoleonBonaparteIintheforeignpolicyofexpandingth
eFrenchinfluenceabroad.
TheonlypowerthatremainedatwarwithFrancewasBritain.ThisforcedNapoleonBonaparteIto
directhisattentiontowardsdefeatingBritainbyinterferingwiththeBritishtradeandcommerciali
nterestswhichwerepillarsofherpower.NapoleonBonapartepersuadedRussia,Sweden,Prussi
aandDenmarkwhichhehaddefeatedatwartoformaleaguewhichcametobeknownasthe “Arm
edLeagueofNeutrality”.Consequently,warsbrokeoutbetweenBritainandthemembersoft
heLeagueforexamplewithDenmarkandSwedenin1801whichNapoleonhadconvincedtoclose
theentrancetotheBlackSea.AttheBattleofCopenhagen,BritaindestroyedtheDanishfleetin18
01andbrokethearmedleagueofneutrality.ThisincreasedBritain’sstrength.Thusby1801,Brita
inwastoopowerfultobechallengedbyFranceandtheonlyoptionforthetwopowerswastomake
peaceandendtheconflictsbetweenthetwocountries.
THETREATYOFAMIENSOF1802
InMarch1802,BritainandFrancedecidedtosignapeacetreatysoastosettletheconflictsbetwee
nthetwocountries.Bythistreaty,BritainwastoreturntheFrenchcoloniescapturedfromherlike
MaltaexceptCeylonandTrinidad.However,NapoleonBonaparteIregardedthetreatyasatemp
orarymeasuretopeacebecausehewantedtoprepareforwarthatwouldleadtothedefeatofBrita
inwhichwasbythenregardedasthemostpowerfulcountryonwaterandalsothemosteconomica
llypowerfulstateinEurope.ThetreatythereforedidnotcreatepermanentpeaceinEurope.
NAPOLEONBONAPARTERESUMESWARWITHBRITAIN(THEBATTLEOFTRAFALG
AR,OCTOBER1805)
ThePeaceTreatyofAmiensof1802turnedouttobetemporarybecausebothcountriesfailedtoliv
euptotheirpromiseofcreatingpeace.Forexample,BritainrefusedtheFrenchoccupationofAust
rianNetherlands(Belgium)in1801.ThiswasbecauseBritainneverwanteditsenemiestocomec
losertotheBelgiancoastlinesincethatcountrywouldgetthestrategicadvantageofattackingBrit
ain.NapoleonalsoimposedaseveretariffortaxationsystemontheBritishgoodsenteringFrance
whichaffectedtheBritishcommerceortrade.ThisgeneratedconflictsbetweenBritainandFranc
ewhichunderminedanyhopesforpeacebetweenthetwocountries.
BritainthereforestartedsupportingtheenemiesofNapoleon,capturedtheFrenchshipsandsto
ppedtheneutralshipsofothernationsfromreachingtheFrenchports.Inreaction,Napoleondeci
dedtoattackBritainthroughtheEnglishChannelhavingoccupiedthecoastline.However,Britain
defeatedNapoleonatTRAFALGARin1805.WiththedefeatofFrance,Britainremainedthemo
stpowerfulnationontheseaandNapoleonthereforegaveupfightingBritainforsometime.

THEFORMATIONOFTHETHIRDCOALITION,1805
In1805,theThirdCoalitionwasformedagainstNapoleonI’sexcessiveambitionanditincluded
Britain,Austria,RussiaandSweden.However,thecoalitioncollapsedwhenNapoleonIdefeated
someofthemembers.Forexample,hedefeatedAustriain1805atULMonRiverDanube.Healso
defeatedacombinedforceofAustriaandRussiaattheBattleofAUSTERLITZinDecember180
5.
Afterthisdefeat,AustriawasforcedagaintosignthePeaceTreatyofPressburgof1805bywh
ichAustrialostallherterritoriesinItalyaswellastheGermanstatesintheRhinelands.NapoleonB
onaparteIthenorganizedtheseGermanstatesintotheConfederationoftheRhineandthisw
asanotherachievementintheforeignpolicybecausetheConfederationoftheRhinewasputund
erthecontrolofFrance.HewentaheadandinvadedSouthernItalyandoverthrewtheautocraticr
egimeinNaplesandreplacedKingFerdinandIofNapleswithhisbrotherJosefBonaparte.Heal
soconqueredHolland(Netherlands)andputitunderhisbrotherLouisBonaparte.Therefore,
Napoleoncreatedthe“Bonapartedynasty”inEuropebasingonhisrelativesandfriendsasKin
gsoftheconqueredstates.
NapoleonBonaparteIthenturnedtoPrussiawhichhealsodefeatedattheBattleofJenain180
6andforcedhertogiveuplargeterritoriestoFrance.
HavingdefeatedAustriaandPrussia,NapoleonBonaparteIturnedhisattentiontoRussia.InJun
e1807,hedefeatedRussiaattheBattleofFriedland.ThisforcedtheTsarofRussiaAlexande
rItomakepeacewithNapoleonBonaparteIandRussiabecameanallyofFranceforsometime.Th
iswasconcludedinthePeaceTreatyofTilsitofJuly1807.Bythistreaty,AlexanderIrecogniz
edNapoleonI’sterritorialconquestsinEurope,includingtheConfederationoftheRhine.Inretur
n,NapoleonassuredTsarAlexanderIofsupportincasehewantedtoextendRussianinfluenceinE
asternEuropeespeciallyhavingashareintheTurkishEmpire.Therefore,intheforeignpolicyofN
apoleonhewasabletodefeatthemembersoftheThirdCoalitionexceptBritain.Asaresult,Brit
ainremainedthestrongestenemyofNapoleon.HethereforeplannedtodefeatBritainusinganec
onomicpolicyknownastheContinentalSystem.
THECONTINENTALSYSTEM
ThiswasacommercialblockadeoreconomicalwarthatwasdeclaredbyNapoleonBonaparteIon
Britain.ThesystemwasdeclaredbyNapoleoninNovember1806byissuingtheBerlinDecrees
andlatertheMilanDecreesofDecember1807thatpreventedthecountriesonthemainlandEuro
pefromtradingwithBritain.ThesedecreesstipulatedthatallcountriesunderFrenchcontrolandt

hosealliedtoFrancewerenottotradewithBritainandthatalltheBritishgoodsfoundontheEurope
ancontinentweretobeconfiscated.
NapoleonIhopedthatprohibitingtheBritishgoodsfromcrossingtomainlandEuropewasenoug
htodisorganizetheBritisheconomy.Consequently,therewastobegeneralsufferinginBritainan
dtheEnglishpeoplewouldputpressureontheirgovernmenttogoforpeacewithFrance.Itwasas
sumedthatNapoleonBonaparteIwouldthenusetheopportunitytodictatetermsthatwouldlead
tothedefeatofBritainandtherecognitionofFranceasthemostpowerfulcountryinthewholeofE
urope.
Inreaction,Britainissuedwhatwasknownasthe“OrdersinCouncil”of1807whereBritaindecl
aredablockadeonallEuropeancountriesandcontinentalportsthatacceptedNapoleon’sdecree
s.Thisdeprivedthemofanyothersourcesofcommoditiesthuscreatingscarcityandgeneralsuffe
ringinmostEuropeancountries.Eventually,thewholesystemproveddangerousandthewholeo
fEuropewasaffectedbyproblemslikescarcityofgoods,unemploymentandhighpriceswhichma
deNapoleonunpopular.
EFFECTSOFTHECONTINENTALSYSTEM
ItledtogreatsufferinginEuropeduetoinflationandunemployment.Forexample,inFrancethes
ystemcausedscarcityoftheBritishgoodsandtheybecameveryexpensive.Similarly,thoseFren
chbusinessmenwhotradedinBritishgoodshadtoclosetheirbusinessesbecausetheywouldnot
sellanymore,thusleadingunemployment.Asaresult,Napoleonbecameunpopular.
TheEuropeanmerchantscontinuedtotradewithBritain.TheysmuggledBritishgoodsintotheEu
ropeancontinent.Thisledtothelossoftaxrevenue,thusmakingNapoleonunpopularandeventu
allycontributedtohisdownfallby1815.
TheEuropeanbusinessmenwereannoyedbythepolicyofNapoleonwhichdeniedthemachance
totradeintheBritishgoodsandtherefore,manymerchantsturnedagainstNapoleon.Itwasthiscl
assofpeoplethatfinancedtheresistancemovementsagainstNapoleonwhichcontributedtohis
downfall.
ThesystemcausedconflictsbetweenNapoleonandthePope.PopePiusVIIrefusedtoabideby
Napoleon’ssystemandthereforeheremainedneutral.Consequently,Britainwouldtradewithth
ePopalStatesinCentralItalywhichwereunderthepoliticalcontrolofthePope.ThisannoyedNap
oleonwhorespondedbyimprisoningPopePiusVIIin1809.Asaresult,Napoleonbecameveryun
popularamongalltheCatholicstatesinEuropeincludingFrancewhicheventuallycontributedto
hisdownfallin1815.

ThesystemforcedNapoleontofightthePeninsularWarof1808-
1813.Forlong,PortugalhadbeencommercialallywithBritainandthereforesherefusedtoabide
bytheContinentalSystem.NapoleondecidedtoinvadePortugalwiththeassistanceofSpainin18
08.Bythistime,NapoleonhadoverthrowntheSpanishMonarchyandforcedtheSpanishKingC
harlesVtoresignbecausehewasunpopularamongthepeople.However,theSpaniardsdesired
theking’ssonFerdinandVIIbutNapoleoninsteadimposedhisbrotherJosefBonapartewho
wasinNaplesastheKingofSpain.ThistogetherwithNapoleon’simprisonmentofthePopeannoy
edtheSpaniards.TheythereforeroseupagainstNapoleonusingtheguerillawarfareandtheyma
nagedtodefeattheFrenchforcesatBaylenin1808.TheFrenchforcesthereforefoundthemselve
sfightingagainstbothPortugalandSpaininwhatcametobeknownasthePeninsularWar.
Duringthewar,BritainsupportedPortugalandSpain.BritainfearedthatifFranceoccupiedthePe
ninsula,itwouldbeinpositiontoaccesstheentranceoftheMediterraneanSeaandinterferewitht
heBritishcommercialsearoutetotheFarEast.ThistogetherwiththeruggedormountainousSpa
nishlandscapemadeithardforNapoleontowinthewarandtherefore,theFrenchforcesweredef
eatedanddrivenoutofthePeninsulaafterfiveyearsofheavyfighting.
EFFECTSOFTHEPENINSULARWARONNAPOLEON
ThePeninsularwarledtothedeathofmanyFrenchsoldiersatatimeNapoleonneededthemelsew
hereinEurope.Thisthereforeweakenedhismilitarystrength,thusleadingtohisdownfallin1815
.
ThesuccessofthePeninsularWarinspiredthenationalistsinothercountrieslikeItalytoresistNap
oleon.ThisincreasedonthenumberofwarswhichNapoleonhadtofightandeventuallycontribut
edtohisdownfall.
ThewarprovidedBritainwithalandbasewhichshelacked.Therefore,theBritishoccupationofPo
rtugaleasilyassistedhertochecktheinfluenceofNapoleononEurope,whichlatercontributedto
hisdownfall.
THEMOSCOWCAMPAIGNOF1812(NAPOLEONINVADESRUSSIA)
InJune1807,NapoleonhaddefeatedRussiaatthebattleofFRIEDLAND.InJuly1807,Napoleo
nforcedRussiatosignthetreatyofTILSITinwhichtheRussianTsarAlexanderIwasforcedtoacc
eptjoiningNapoleon’scontinentalsystemagainstBritain.
In1811,therelationsbetweenRussiaandFranceworsenedwhenRussiabrokeawayfromtheco
ntinentalsystemandstartedtradingwithBritain.NapoleonwhofearedthatRussiamightmakea

nalliancewithBritaindecidedtoendthethreatbyattackingRussiaandthisattackinknownasthe
MoscowCampaignof1812.
In1812,alargeFrencharmyofabout610,000meninvadedRussia.Thisarmywascomposedofso
ldierswhohadbeenrecruitedfromalloverEuropeliketheFrench,Italians,Germans,Swedishan
dDutch.TheRussianarmywhichcouldnotfightsuchahugeforcedecidedtowithdrawtowardsth
eEastbutintheprocess,theycarriedoutthescorchedearthpolicybywhichcrops,livestockan
dwholevillagesweredestroyed.TheFrencharmywhohadhopedtofeedontheRussianfoodther
eforefacedshortageoffoodsupplieswhileinRussia.Consequently,manyFrenchsoldiersdiedof
starvationorhungeranddiseases.Napoleon’sarmyhowever,managedtoreachMoscowafterd
efeatingtheRussiansattheBattleofBorodinoof1812onlytofindthecitydestroyedanddeser
ted.
Whileinthecity,thepoorlydressedFrenchsoldierswerehitbythesevereRussianwinterinOctob
er1812,leadingtothedeathofthousandsofFrenchsoldiers.Giventheseharshconditions,Napol
eonproposedapeacetreatywithTsarAlexanderIbuttherewasnoreply.Napoleondecidedtoretr
eatwestwardsgoingbacktoFrancebutashedidso,hisforceswereconstantlyattackedandkilled
bytheRussianguerillas.Consequently,ofthe610,000menwhostartedthecampaign,only20,0
00soldierssurvivedofwhichmanywerecrippledandthereforewerenotfitforanyfurthermilitary
use.ThiscampaignthereforewasadisastertoNapoleon.
EFFECTSOFTHEMOSCOWCAMPAIGNOF1812
ItledtothedeathofthousandsoftheFrenchsoldierswhichgreatlyreducedNapoleon’smilitarya
bility.Indeed,theFrenchweresomuchweakenedthattheyneverrecoveredandthiseventuallyc
ontributedtothedownfallofNapoleon.
Itsparkedoffseriousoppositionathome.ThedeathofmanyFrenchsoldiersduringthewargreatl
yannoyedtheFrenchmen.Similarly,thewarcausedaneconomiccrisisinFranceduetotheheavy
expenditurethatwasinvolved.ThecampaignthereforemadeNapoleonunpopularathomeandt
hiseventuallycontributedtohisdownfallby1815.
ItforcedNapoleontoresorttoforcedconscriptionevenfromotherEuropeancountries.Thiswas
becausetheFrencharmyhadalmostbeencompletelywipedout.Consequently,Napoleon’sarm
ybecameheterogeneouscomposingofconscriptsfromItaly,Germany,Holland,DenmarkandB
elgium.TheseconscriptsneverdedicatedtheireffortstofightanddefendNapoleon’sinterestsb
ecausetheywereforcedandtheircountrieswereundertheFrenchcontrol.Theythereforefough
tforNapoleon’sdownfall.

ItmademanyofNapoleon’sGeneralstodeserthim.Duringthecampaign,Napoleondesertedhis
forcesleavingthemunderGeneralMuratandhetravelledtoParisincognito(unrecognized).This
annoyedtheFrenchGeneralsandthereforemanyofthemdesertedhim.Forexample,MarshalBe
rnadotteescapedtoSwedenandleakedNapoleon’smilitarysecretstoNapoleon’senemies.The
enemiesthereforeusedsuchinformationtodefeatNapoleonandthiscontributedtohisdownfall.
ItincreasednationalismandpatriotismEurope.ThedefeatofNapoleonbyRussiainspiredtheEu
ropeanstatestoriseupandfightagainstNapoleonwhothreatenedtheirindependenceandterrit
orialintegrity.ThiseventuallycontributedtothedownfallofNapoleon.
ItexposedtheweaknessofNapoleonduetothemistakesthathecommittedduringthewar.Forex
ample,thewarexposedNapoleon’sshortsightednessbecausehefailedtoforeseethesevereRus
sianwinterandconsequentlymadeFrenchsoldierswerefrozentodeath.Thisweaknessencoura
gedtheEuropeancountriestofightanddefeatNapoleon,thusleadingtohisdownfall.
ItledtotheformationoftheFourthCoalitionin1813.TheFrenchdefeatinMoscowencouragedEu
ropeancountriestoformacoalitionthatincludedPrussia,Austria,BritainandSweden.Thesepo
wersagreedtofightanddefeatNapoleonwhichtheyfinallydidattheBattleofWaterlooin1815
andthismarkedtheendofNapoleon.
ItlaidafoundationforfutureconflictsbetweenFranceandRussia.ThedefeatthatFrancesuffere
dintheMoscowcampaigninfluencedhertodeveloparevengingattitudetowardsRussia.Thisev
entuallycontributedtotheoutbreakoftheCrimeanWarof1854–
1856asFrancedeclaredwaronRussiasoastorevengeforthe1812Moscowcampaigndefeat.
Question
Examinethesignificanceofthe1812MoscowCampaignintheHistoryofEurope.
THEFORMATIONOFTHEFOURTHCOALITIONANDTHEWAROFLIBERATION,1813
-1814
TheFrenchdefeatintheMoscowcampaignof1812convincedtheEuropeanpowersthatNapoleo
ncouldeasilybedefeated.Consequently,PrussiaandlaterAustriajoinedRussiaintoanalliance1
813.BritainalsojoinedthemandthismarkedtheformationoftheFourthCoalition.Theallieswere
alsojoinedbySwedenheadedbyoneofNapoleon’sMarshalsBernadottewhohaddesertedhim.
HehadbeenpromisedtheterritoryofNorwaybythealliesifheassistedthemagainstNapoleon.In
1813,PrussiadeclaredwaronFrancewhichmarkedthebeginningoftheWarofLiberation.Napol
eonhowevermanagedtodefeatPrussia.Inthesameyear,thealliedforcesofPrussia,Austria,Ru

ssiaandSwedendefeatedNapoleoninthefamous“BattleoftheNations”ataplaceknownasL
eipziginGermany.
InMarch1814,Britain,Prussia,AustriasignedaTreatyofChaumontwheretheyagreedtow
orkfortheoverthrowofNapoleonandremaininalliancefor20(twenty)yearsinordertomaintaint
hepoliticalandterritorialsettlementthatwastobeagreeduponafterthedefeatofNapoleon.The
signatoriesweretorestoretheformerBourbondynastyinFrancetopower.
ThealliesnowinvadedFranceandtheyreachedPariswheretheyforcedNapoleontosurrenderp
ower.TheythereforecrownedLouisXVIIIastheKingofFranceandNapoleonwasexiledtoasmall
MediterraneanIslandofElbaoffthecoastofItaly.
THEFIRSTTREATYOFPARIS,1814
ThetreatywassignedinMay1814betweenthealliedpowersandFranceunderLouisXVIIIan
dthetermsofthetreatywereverylenientorgeneroustoFrancewhichhadcausedalotoftrouble
inEurope.ThefirstTreatyofParishadthefollowingterms;
 NapoleonwasexiledintheIslandofElba.
 FrancelostherterritorieslikeBelgium,PolandaswellastheItalianandGermanstateswhi
chhadbeenconqueredbyNapoleon.
 TheboundariesofFranceweretobereducedtothosewhichshehadbyJanuary1792.
NOTE:TheEuropeanpowerswerelenientbecausetheyfearedthatitwasaharshtreatyisimpose
donFranceitwouldcauseresentmentinFranceandthiswouldleadtoanotherwarinEuropeyetth
eEuropeanpowerswantedpeaceandunity.
THELASTHUNDREDDAYSOFNAPOLEONBONAPARTE
Attheageof44years,Napoleonstilllongedforbattleexcitement,cheersfromhissoldiersplusvict
oryandgloryforFrance.HeknewthatmanyFrenchmenhatedLouisXVIIIsincetheFrenchmenha
dgotridofKingsfollowingtheexecutionofKingLouisXVIin1793andNapoleonhadnotrestoredt
heancientregimetopower.Therefore,NapoleonescapedfromtheIslandofElbaandlandedinSo
uthernFranceon1stMarch1815withafewsoldiers.LouisXVIIIsenthistroopstoarrestNapoleo
nbutthetroopsrefusedtoarresttheirEmperor.Theyinsteadwishedhimlonglifeandjoinedhisfor
ces.ThisforcedLouisXVIIItorunawayfromFranceandon20thMarch1815,Napoleonentered
Pariswherehereceivedahero’swelcomeandheruledforonehundreddaysuptoJune1815.
AllthishappenedwhentheEuropeanallieswhohaddefeatedNapoleonin1814wereholdingaco
ngressatViennawhichwasthecapitalcityofAustria.ThisinternationalcongresshadstartedinN

ovember1814andtheyweretryingtofindoutwhattodowithFranceandtherestofEuropefollo
wingtheFrenchrevolutionof1789andNapoleonicWars.TheyweredisturbedbythenewsofNap
oleon’sreturnandtheythereforemobilizedtheirforcesagaintofightNapoleon.Finally,Napoleo
nwasdefeatedatthe“BattleofWaterloo”ofJune1815inBelgium.Thisbattlemarkedthedo
wnfallofNapoleonandtheeventualcollapseoftheFrenchEmpire.
NapoleonsurrenderedhimselftotheBritishforcesandhewasexiledontheIslandofSt.Helenawh
ichwasaverylonelyIslandlocatedintheSouthAtlantic.Napoleonspenthislastsixyearsthereand
in1821hedied.
THESECONDTREATYOFPARIS,1815
ThistreatychangedtheFirstTreatyofParisof1814anditwassignedbetweenFranceandEurope
on20thNovember1815afterthefinaldefeattoNapoleon.ThistreatywasveryharshtoFranceb
ecausetheallieswantedtoensurethatFrancedidn’treviveherpowersoastodisturbpeaceandse
curityinEuropeagain.TheyalsowantedtoensurethatNapoleondidnotreturntoFranceasacitize
nandaruler.Thetreatyhadthefollowingterms;
 Francewastopaywardamagesorfineof700millionFrancstothealliedpowerstopayforth
elossesthattheyhadincurred.Thiswasaveryheavypunishmentforacountrywhichhadb
eenatwarforover20(twenty)years.
 TheboundariesofFrancewerepushedbacktothoseof1790andthereforeFrancelostalo
tofterritoriesincludingSaarregionwhichwasthenlosttoPrussiayetithadalotofcoal.
 ThealliedarmywastoremainintheNorthEastofFranceforthreeyearsandonlytoberemo
vedafterFrancehadcompletedthepaymentofwardamages.
REASONSFORTHEDOWNFALLOFNAPOLEONBONAPARTE
Napoleon’sexcessiveoroverwhelmingambitionledtohisdownfall.Thisambitionwasdemonstr
atedbythecreationofaverylargeempireoverEuropewhichincludedcountrieslikeSpain,Belgiu
maswellastheItalianstatesandGermanstatesamongothers.Thisbroughthimintoconflictswit
hEuropeanpowerslikeRussiaandBritainastheyresistedagainsttheexpansionofFrenchpoweri
nEuropewhichthreatenedtheirindependence.Further,theempirewastoobigtobecontrolledb
yNapoleonasoneman.Thisweakenedhisadministrationwhicheventuallycontributedtohisdo
wnfall.
TheeffectsofcontinentalsystemledtothedownfallofNapoleon.Thissystemwasmeanttodestr
oytheBritishcommercebynotallowingBritaintotradewiththemainlandEuropeancontinent.Th
esystemledtothedownfallofNapoleonbecauseitcreatedscarcityofBritishgoodsandthisledtoi
nflationthroughoutEurope.TherewasalsounemploymentcausedbytheabsenceoftheBritishg

oodsinEurope.ThesufferingthatresultedfromthecontinentalsystemthereforemadeNapoleo
nunpopular,thuscontributingtohisdownfall.
TheimprisonmentofPopePiusVIIin1809alsoledtothedownfallofNapoleon.Napoleonimpris
onedthePopebecausehehadrefusedtoabidebythecontinentalsystem.ThismadeNapoleontol
osesympathyandsupportfromthecatholicstatesinEuropelikeSpain,Portugal,Italianstates,A
ustriaandFranceherself.Asaresult,thesecountriesunitedtofightagainstNapoleonwhichevent
uallycontributedtohisdownfall.
ThePeninsularwarof1808–
1813alsocontributedtothedownfallofNapoleon.ThiswarwasfoughtbyFranceagainstSpainan
dPortugallocatedintheIberianPeninsulabecausetheywerefailinghiscontinentalsystemby
tradingwithBritain.Duringthiswar,Napoleonlostmanysoldiersbecausetheguerillafightingme
thodsthatwereadoptedbySpainandPortugalwereveryunfamiliartotheFrenchforces.France
wasthereforedefeatedbyPortugalandSpainwiththehelpofBritain.Thisinspiredevenweakerst
atestoriseupagainstNapoleonandthiseventuallycontributedtohisdownfall.
TheMoscowcampaignof1812alsocontributedtothedownfallofNapoleon.NapoleoninvadedR
ussiasoastodefeatitbecauseithadviolatedthecontinentalsystem.Duringthiscampaign,Napol
eonlostmanysoldiers,includingsomeofhisexperiencedcommandersduetotheRussianwinter,
hungeranddisease,thusweakeningtheFrenchmilitaryability.Thiscampaignalsoencouraged
Napoleon’scontinentalenemiestoformtheFourthcoalitionwhicheventuallydefeatedhimin18
15.
TheincreasingwarfrontsledtothedownfallofNapoleon.From1810,NapoleonengagedFrancei
nmanybattles.Forexample,duringthePeninsularWarhisforceshadtofightagainstPortugal,Sp
ainandBritain.Similarly,whilehisforceswerestillfightingthePeninsulawar,hedeclaredtheMos
cowCampaignof1812onRussia.Becauseofthistherefore,theFrenchforcesfailedtodefeattheir
enemiesandinsteadtheyweredefeatedwhicheventuallycontributedtothedownfallofNapoleo
n.
MilitaryexhaustionoftheFrenchsoldiersledtothedownfallofNapoleon.TheFrenchsoldiersby1
815hadbeenatwarforover20(twenty)years.ThesewarsexhaustedtheFrenchtroopsandthere
foretheybecametired.Consequently,Napoleonlostmostofthebattlesthathefoughtespeciallyi
nthelateryearsliketheMoscowcampaignof1812,theBattleoftheNationsof1813aswellastheB
attleofWaterlooof1815becausehissoldierswereexhausted.Thiseventuallycontributedtothe
downfallofNapoleon.

DesertionalsoledtothedownfallofNapoleon.By1814,Napoleonhadbeendesertedbysomeofhi
scommanders,soldiersandclosefriends(allies)wholeakedhismilitarytacticsandsecretstohise
nemies.Forexample,aftertheMoscowCampaignof1812,NapoleonI’sfriendMarshalBernadot
tewhowasinSwedenjoinedthealliedpowersandrevealedNapoleon’smilitarytacticstotheman
dhowtodefeathim.TalleyrandalsorevealedNapoleonI’spoliticalambitionsinEuropetotheene
my.ThisstrengthenedthealliesandthereforeassistedthemtodefeatNapoleonwhicheventuall
yledtohisdownfall.
Napoleon’sdownfallwasalsoasresultofbetterfightingmethodswhichwereadoptedbyhisene
mies.Forexample,inPeninsularWarandMoscowcampaign,theFrenchtroopsweredefeateddu
etotheuseofguerillafightingmethodsyettheFrenchforceswereusedtotheregularwarfare.Rus
siaalsodeniedtheFrenchtroopsfoodwhileinRussiaandtherefore,theywerehitbyhunger,beca
meweakandtheywereeasilydefeatedwhichcontributedtothedownfallofNapoleon.
UnderestimationoftheenemiesledtothedownfallofNapoleon.Napoleonusedtounderestimat
ehisopponentswhichenabledthemtofightanddefeathim.Forexample,duringthePeninsularW
ar,NapoleonhadunderestimatedthemilitarystrengthoftheSpaniardswhoeventuallydefeated
himwiththesupportofBritain.ThisdefeatweakenedNapoleon’smilitaryabilitywhicheventually
ledtohisdownfall.
ThenavalsuperiorityofBritainledtothedownfallofNapoleon.WhileFranceonseveraloccasions
defeatedcountrieslikeAustria,RussiaandPrussia,sheneverdefeated.ThiswasbecauseBritain
wasverysuperiorattheseacomparedtoFranceandthisisdemonstratedbytheBattleofTrafal
garof1805.ThisiswhenNapoleondecidedtoattackBritainonwaterbuttheFrenchtroopswere
totallydefeated.Fromthattime,NapoleongaveupanyattackonBritainusingwater.Thisnavalin
feriorityonthepartofFrancethereforegaveBritaintheadvantageofdefeatingandweakeningN
apoleon,thuscontributingtohisdownfall.
TheformationoftheFourthCoalitionledtothedownfallofNapoleon.Thiscoalitionwasformedin
1813byPrussia,Austria,Russia,BritainandSweden.Thesecountriesweredeterminedtofighta
nddefeatNapoleononceandforall.Consequently,theyfoughtanddefeatedNapoleonintheBatt
leoftheNationsin1813atLeipzigaswellasatWaterlooin1815whichmarkedtheendofNapoleon’
sregime.
TheriseofnationalismintheconqueredstatesledtoNapoleon’sdownfall.Thiswasthedesireb
ythepeopleofthesamehistoricalbackground,languageandgeographicallocationtogetindepe
ndencefromforeigncontrol.Consequently,thespiritofnationalismmadeSpain,RussiaandItali
anstatestofightwarsagainsttheFrenchcontroloftheirterritories.Thesewarsledtothedeathof

manyFrenchsoldierswhichweakenedNapoleon’smilitaryabilityandthereforecontributedtohi
sdownfallby1815.
TheriseofliberalisminEuropealsoledtothedownfallofNapoleon.Thiswasthedesireforthefun
damentalfreedomsofmanlikefreedomofworship,pressandassociation.Italsoinvolvedthedes
ireforparliamentarygovernanceandconstitutionalruletoavoiddictatorship.However,Napole
onhadturnedouttobeadictatorbothinFranceandtheconqueredstateslikeSpainandtheItalian
states.Asaresult,theliberalsdecidedtofightagainstNapoleon’sdictatorshipwhicheventuallyc
ontributedtohisdownfall.
FatiguecontributedtoNapoleon’sdownfall.By1814,Napoleonhadlosthisintelligence,foresigh
tandorganizationalabilitiesduetofatiguebroughtaboutbytheendlesswarsandthisisdemonstr
atedbythemanyblundershemadeinthelatercampaigns.Forexample,duringtheMoscowcamp
aignhefailedtoforeseewinterinRussiaandasaresultmanyofhissoldierswerefrozentodeathbe
causetheylackedwinterclothesthatwouldkeepthemwarminthecoldseason.ThedeathoftheFr
enchsoldiersthereforeweakenedtheFrencharmyandthealliesfounditeasytodefeatNapoleon
by1815.
EconomicweaknessledtothedownfallofNapoleon.By1815,theFrencheconomyhaddeclinedb
ecauseoftherevolutionaryandNapoleonicWarswhichdrainedtheFrenchresources.Thiscause
deconomicproblemslikeindustrialbreakdown,unemploymentandinflation.Suchadeteriorati
ngeconomicsituationmadeFranceunabletoproperlysustainanywaragainsttheeconomicallyp
owerfulEuropeancountriesespeciallyBritain.ThisledtothedefeatofNapoleonwhicheventuall
ycontributedtohisdownfall.
OverrelianceonNapoleon’scommandbytheFrenchsoldiersledtothedefeatofthearmywhiche
quallycontributedtothedownfallofNapoleon.TheFrenchforceswereusedtowinningbattleswh
enNapoleonwasincommandandmanyEuropeancountriesusedtofearthemilitarypowerofNap
oleon.However,theFrenchforceswerelesseffectiveinthosebattleswhereNapoleonwasnotinc
ommandandtheywerealwaysdefeated.Hisenemiesalsolearntthatitwasalwayseasytodefeatt
heFrenchforcesaslongastheywerenotcommandedbyNapoleon.Therefore,theywouldconce
ntratetheirforcesinsuchbattleswhichledtothedefeatandsubsequentdownfallofNapoleon.
TheweaknessesinthedomesticpolicyofNapoleoncontributedtohisdownfall.Forexample,by1
815,Napoleonhadbecomeadictatorwhocensoredthepressaswellasoppressinghispoliticalop
ponents.HiseducationsystemandtheCodeNapoleonwerealsoagainsttherevolutionaryprinci
pleofequalitybetweenthemenandwomen.Napoleonalsopracticednepotismandfavouritism
whenheemployedhisclosefriendsandfamilymemberslikeJosefBonaparte,LouisBonapartean
dJeromeBonaparte.Healsorevivedovertaxationsoastofinancehisendlesswars.Allthesedom

esticweaknessesmadeNapoleonunpopularamongtheFrenchmenandthereforecontributedt
ohisdownfall.
THEROLEOFEUROPEANCOUNTRIESINTHEDOWNFALLOFNAPOLEONBONAPAR
TE
ThedownfallofNapoleonin1815wasaresultoftheeffortsofseveralEuropeancountriesasnoted
below;
BRITAIN
 BritainwasagainsttheFrenchrevolutionof1789andNapoleon’spolicies.Forexample,Br
itishjournalistslikeGibbonandBurkealwaystalkedillagainsttheFrenchrevolutionof178
9.ThisthereforeinfluencedtheBritishpublictoturnagainstNapoleonI.
 Britain’smilitarysuccessoverNapoleonIlikeintheEgyptianCampaignof1798–
1799aswellasintheBattleofTrafalgarof1805finallyweakenedNapoleonBonaparteI.
 Britain’ssuperiorityattheseaoverNapoleonBonaparteIledtohisdownfall.
 Britain’sdefeatoftheContinentalSystemthroughissuingtheOrdersinCouncilof1807we
akenedNapoleonBonaparteI.
 Britain’seconomicpoweroverNapoleonBonaparteIchallengedhim.
 BritainplayedabigroleintheformationoftheThirdcoalitionof1805aswellastheFourthco
alitionof1813.
 BritainplayedaroleinthePeninsularWarof1808–
1813bysupportingSpainandPortugalwhichledtothedefeatofNapoleon.
 BritainarousedEuropeannationalismagainstNapoleoninstateslikeSpain,Denmarketc
.SheencouragedsuchconqueredstatestoriseupagainstNapoleon.
 BritainparticipatedintheBattleofAllNationsortheWarofLiberationof1813–
1814whichledtoNapoleon’sdefeatatLeipzigin1813andalsoatWaterlooin1815.
 ItwasBritainthatexiledNapoleontoSt.Helenain1815whichmarkedhisend.
RUSSIA
 RussiawasamemberoftheThirdandFourthcoalitionsagainstFrance.
 RussiaresentedNapoleon’scontinentalsystem.
 RussiadeniedfoodtotheFrenchsoldiersduringtheMoscowcampaignthroughthescorc
hedearthpolicy.
 ItusedunfamiliarmethodsoffightingontheFrenchtroops.
 ItreducedNapoleon’sforcesfromover610,000soldiersto20,000soldiersleadingtoher
militarydecline.

 RussiaasacountrywastoolargefortheFrenchforces.
SPAIN
 SpainresentedNapoleon’sdictatorship.
 ItalsofoughtFranceduetotheimprisonmentofthePope.
 TheSpanishmountainousnaturedisenabledtheFrenchfightersasitmadecommunicati
ondifficult.
 TherewasSpanishnationalismagainsttheFrenchcountry.
 SpainalliedwithBritainandPortugalinthepeninsularwar.
PORTUGAL
 ItalliedwithSpainandBritaininthePeninsularWar.
 PortugalwasamemberoftheFourthcoalition.
 ItssoldiersusedunfamiliarfightingmethodsagainsttheFrenchforces.
PRUSSIA
 ItwasamemberoftheThirdandFourthcoalitionsagainstNapoleon.
 ItfoughtagainstFranceintheBattleoftheNationsof1813.
 TherewasnationalisminPrussiaagainsttheFrenchcontrol.
 ItwasalsoadvancedmilitarilycomparedtoFrance.
AUSTRIA
 FoughtagainstFranceinthe“BattleofNations”of1813.
 ItwasamemberoftheThirdandFourthcoalitions.
 ItalsoresentedtheimprisonmentofthePopebyNapoleonbecauseitwasamajorcatholic
stateinEurope.
 ItresentedNapoleon’sexpansionpolicyinEuropewhichthreatenedhersurvivalasanEm
pireespeciallywhenNapoleontookoversomeAustrianterritorieslikeItalyandBelgium.
 IthostedtheCongressofViennafrom1814to1815fromwheretheEuropeanpowersresol
vedtofinallydefeatNapoleononceandforall.
THEITALIANSTATES
 TheyopposedthearrestandimprisonmentofthePope.
 Theyrejectedthecontinentalsystem.
 TherewasanItaliannationalismagainsttheFrenchcontrol.

 Theydemandedfortheirfreedomsorliberties.
 TheyresentedtheexploitationoftheireconomicresourcesbyNapoleon.
FRANCE
 TheunpopularityresultingfromthecontinentalsystemmadeNapoleontoberejectedby
France.
 TheFrenchmilitarygeneralsandparliamentforcedhimtosurrenderbecausetheywereti
redofhisunendingwars.
 Francewasalsodisgustedwithhisdictatorship.
 FrancehadoverreliedonthecommandofNapoleonwefailedthecountrywithincreasing
warfronts.
 WeaknessesinNapoleon’sdomesticpolicy.
 FrancealsoopposedNapoleonbecauseofimprisonmentofthePope.
ReferenceQuestions:
TowhatextentwasBritainresponsibleforthedownfallofNapoleontheGreatin1815?
“RussiawasprimarilyresponsibleforthedownfallofNapoleonin1815”.Discuss.
THEIMPACTOFNAPOLEONBONAPARTEIONEUROPE
 Heplayedabigroleinthe1789FrenchrevolutionasasoldierforexampleintheItalianandE
gyptiancampaigns.
 HisroleintheWhiffofGrapeshotof1795inwhichhesuppressedtheroyalistswhowerede
monstratingagainsttheDirectoryGovernment.
 HecontributedtotheFrenchconquestofBelgiumandtheItalianstateswhichpromotedth
eFrenchgloryinEurope.
 HecontributedtothespreadoftherepublicanideologyinEurope.Thiswasthroughtheest
ablishmentofrepublicsliketheCisalpineRepublicinItaly.
 HemadeeconomicreformsinFrancewhichsavedthecountryfromeconomicdecline(giv
eexamples).
 HemadeadministrativereformsinFrance.
 HemadejudicialreformsinFranceliketheCodeNapoleon.
 Hemadereformsinpublicworks.
 HemadereligiousreformsinFrance.
 HecreatedtheNapoleonicDynastyinEuropewhichensuredthathisrelativescontrolledt
heconqueredstatesinEurope.

 HepromotedagriculturaldevelopmentinFrance.
 Hecarriedoutmilitaryreforms.
 HeledtothespreadoftheNapoleonicwarsandunrestorinstabilityinEurope.
 Heimprisonedthepopein1809whichgeneratedhatredfromtheCatholicsalloverEurope
.
 HedeclaredtheContinentalSystemwhichcreatedeconomicdifficultiesbothinFrancean
dEuropeasawhole.
 HeledtotheriseofnationalisminEuropeamongtheconqueredstatesliketheGermanand
Italianstates.ThislaidafoundationfortheunificationstrugglesofItalyandGermany.
 HeledtotheriseofliberalisminEuropeespeciallywhenhebecameadictatorintheconque
redstates.
 Throughthewars,NapoleonconqueredmanystatesandmadeFrancethemostpowerful
countryEurope.ThischangedthebalanceofpowerinEuropewhichthreatenedotherEur
opeanpowers.
 HeledtothecallingoftheViennaCongressof1814–
1815whichsubsequentlygavebirthtothesigningoftheViennaSettlementof1815.
Questions:
ExplainthesignificanceofNapoleonBonaparteIinthehistoryofEuropebetween1789and1821.
HowdidNapoleonBonaparteIconsolidatepowerinFrance?
TowhatextentdidNapoleonliveuptotheexpectationsoftheFrenchrevolutionaries?
ExaminemethodsusedbyNapoleontodominateEuropebetween1800and1814.
THEVIENNACONGRESSORSETTLEMENT(1814-1815)
TheViennaCongresswasaninternationalmeetingthattookplaceinViennatheCapitalofAustria
anditwasthefirstmeetingofitskindinEurope.Itwasheldfrom1stNovember1814upto8thJun
e1815.AllEuropeanstatesattendedthiscongressexceptTurkeyorOttomanEmpire.However,
thenegotiationsanddecisionsweredominatedbytherepresentativesofthefourmajorpowersw
hoincludedPrinceMETTERNICHofAustria,LordCASTLEREAGHofBritain,TsarALEXAN
DERIofRussiaandKingFREDRICKWILLIAMIIIofPrussia.Francewhichwasthedefeatedn
ationwasrepresentedatthiscongressbyBishopTALLEYRAND.
NOTE:

AttheendoftheViennaCongress,atreatywassignedandthistreatyhadalltheresolutionsthatth
edelegatesthatattendedthecongresshadreachedupon.ThistreatycametobeknownastheVie
nnaSettlementof1815.
AIMSOROBJECTIVESOFTHEVIENNACONGRESS(SETTLEMENT):
ThedelegateswantedtorestorepeaceinEuropeandalsotoavoidwarslikethosethathadbeenca
usedbyFrenchrevolutionof1789andNapoleonBonaparteI.
TobuildlargeandstrongstatesinEuropethatwouldguardagainstfurtherFrenchaggression.Du
ringNapoleonI’sregime,hehadinvadedterritorieslikeBelgium,ItalianandGermanstatesamon
gotherswhichwerelaterannexedtoFrance.Suchaggressionhadtobechecked.
ItaimedatrestoringthebalanceofpowerinEurope.Theywantedtostopanyonecountryfrombe
comingsopowerfultodominateEuropeanaffairsasFranceunderNapoleonhaddone.Neitherdi
dtheywantcountriesthatweresoweaktotheextentthattheywerebeingeasilydominated.
Theywantedtorestoretheoldregimesorlegitimaterulerstopowerandprotectthemfrombeingo
verthrown.TheFrenchrevolutionof1789andtheNapoleonicwarshadoverthrowntheoldregim
esinEurope.Therefore,therepresentativeswantedtheserulerstoberestoredbeginningwithFr
ance.
TheywantedtoredrawthepoliticalmapofEuropewhichhadbeendistortedorchangedbyNapole
on’sEmpire.
TheywantedtopunishthosecountrieswhichhadcollaboratedwithNapoleonandatthesametim
erewardthosecountriesthathadparticipatedalongsidethegreatpowersinbringingaboutthefa
llofNapoleonBonaparteIlikeHolland.
Thedesiretomaintainineffectiveallianceorthecongressspiritwasamongtheissuesthatledtoth
ecallingoftheViennacongress.Theyagreedtomeetperiodicallytodiscussmattersthataffected
Europe.
Theywantedtodividethedisputedterritoriesamongthegreatpowersinawayacceptabletoall.
ACHIEVEMENTSOFTHEVIENNACONGRESS(SETTLEMENT)
TheViennacongressledtothedefeatofNapoleonBonaparteI.NapoleonescapedfromElbaafter
thefirstdefeatwhilethedelegateswereatViennadiscussingwhattodowiththedefeatedFrance.
ThepeacemakersatViennadecidedtomobilizealargeforcethatdefeatedNapoleonatWaterloo

on8thJune1815.HewassubsequentlyexiledtotheIslandofSt.Helenawhichmarkedtheendof
theNapoleoniceraandchaosorwarsinEurope.
ThecongresscheckedfurtherFrenchaggressionthroughthecreationofbufferordefensivestat
esaroundFrance.ThesestatesreducedFrance’sabilitytoconductactsofaggressioninEurope.F
orexample,intheNorthofFrance,theUnitedKingdomofNetherlandsthatcombinedBelgiuman
dNetherlandswascreated.
IntheEastofFrance,aConfederationorUnionconsistingofthirtynine(39)Germanstateswascre
atedknownastheGermanConfederation.ThisunionwascreatedtoguardagainstfurtherFre
nchaggressionintheEastofFrance.TheunionwasputunderAustria.Austriaalsotookoverthest
atesofLombardyandVenetiainNorthernItaly.
PrussiawasgivenmoreterritoriesintheRhinelandstocreateabiggerandstrongerstatewhichwo
uldguardagainstfurtherFrenchaggressionintheRhinelands.
Similarly,intheSouthEastofFrance,theItalianterritoriesofGenoaandSavoywereaddedtotheIt
aliankingdomofSardinia.ThepurposewastocheckagainstfurtherFrenchaggressioninItalybe
causeNapoleonIhadinvadedandconqueredItalybeforehisdefeat.
IntheBalticSearegion,FinlandwhichwaspartofSwedenwastransferredtoRussia.Thepurpose
wastocreateastrongRussiathatextendedintoEuropesoastocheckagainsttheFrenchaggressi
onintheBalticlands–
(BalticSea)likeNorway,SwedenandFinland.Allinall,theabovebufferstatesweresostrongthat
FrenchaggressionwasbroughttoanendwhichcreatedpeaceinEurope.
ThecongressofViennarestoredbalanceofpowerinEurope.Forexample,Russiahadwantedtoa
nnexthewholeofPolandduringthecongress.However,thedelegatesgaveRussiajusthalfofPol
andbecausetheyfearedthatRussiawastobecomeaverypowerfulstatetoupsetorchangetheba
lanceofpowerinEurope.
Inaddition,PrussiahadalsowantedtotakeoverthewholeofSaxony.However,thedelegateswh
ofearedthatPrussiawouldemergebiggerandmorepowerfulthanbeforegaveitonlyhalfofSaxo
ny.ThishelpedtocreatebalanceofpowerinEurope.
Similarly,thecreationoftheUnitedKingdomofNetherlandsintheNorthofFranceandthemergin
gofGenoaandSavoyintheSouthEastofFranceaswellasthegivingofLombardyandVenetiainNo
rthernItalytoAustriawerealsointendedtocreatestatesthatweremorepowerfulthanbefore.Th
erefore,therewasbalanceofpowerinEurope.

TheViennaCongressrestoredrelativepeaceinEurope.FrancehadbeenatwarwithEuropeanco
untriesduringtheFrenchrevolutionof1789andtheregimeofNapoleon.However,aftertheBattl
eofWaterlooof1815,therewasnomajorwarthatinvolvedallthemajorpowersEurope.Thiswasb
ecausetheViennaCongresshadrestoredthebalanceofpoweraswellasstoppingfurtherFrench
aggressioninEurope.ThisthereforecreatedrelativepeaceinEuropeforabout40(fourty)yearsu
ntiltheoutbreakoftheCrimeanWarof1854–
1856inwhichRussiafoughtTurkey,BritainandFrance.
TheViennacongress(settlement)restoredtheoldorlegitimaterulersinEurope.Thesehadbeen
overthrownbytheFrenchrevolutionof1789andNapoleon.InFranceforexample,LouisXVIIIwa
srestoredwhileinPortugalJohnIVwasrestoredasking.Inaddition,thePopewhohadbeenovert
hrownbyNapoleonwasrestoredinthePopalstates.InthekingdomofNaplesinSouthernItaly,Ki
ngFerdinandIwhohadbeenoverthrownbyNapoleonwasrestored.InCentralItaly,theAustrian
PrinceswererestoredintheprovincesofModena,ParmaandTuscanywhileinSpain,FerdinandV
IIwasrestored.Becausetheserulerswereveryconservative,theysuppressedrevolutionaryide
asandrevolutionswhichcreatedpeaceinEurope.
InthecaseofFrance,thedelegatesrestoredLouisXVIIIasaconstitutionalkingwhowassuppose
dtogovernaccordingtothe1814constitutionalCharter.Thiswasimportantbecausethedelegat
esatViennadidnotwantthepeopleofFrancetogetbacktotheoldtimeswhentheBourbonsexerci
seddictatorialruleovertheFrenchmenwhichhadledtotheoutbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionof1
789.TheFrenchrevolutionhadcausedturmoilinEurope.
TheViennacongressre-
drewthepoliticalmapofEurope.Before1841,NapoleonBonaparteIhaddistortedthepoliticalm
apofEuropethroughannexingterritoriestocreatealargeFrenchEmpire.AtVienna,theNapoleo
nicEmpirewasdisintegratedorbrokenupandconsequentlytheFrenchboarderswerereducedt
othosethatshehadin1792.Therefore,FrancelostanumberofterritorieslikeBelgium,theItalia
nstatesandGermanstatesoftheRhinelandsamongothers.
TheViennaCongressrevivedinternationaleconomicco-
operationinEurope.Before1814,internationaleconomicco-
operationhadcollapsedparticularlywhenNapoleondeclaredtheContinentalSystem.AtVienna
,thedelegatesallowedfreenavigationontheinternationalwaterwaysliketheBlackSea,theMedi
terraneanSea,RiverRhineandRiverDanubeamongothers.Thisthereforeavoidedconflictsand
warsthatwereboundtoemergeinEuropeduetotherestrictionovertheuseofsuchwaters.
TheViennacongresssucceededindividingthedisputedterritoriesinawayacceptabletoallcount
ries.Duringthecongresstherewereterritoriesthatgeneratedconflictsamongsomedelegatesb

utthesewerepeacefullysettled.Forexample,ontheissueofPolandandSaxony,Russiawantedt
otakeoverthewholeofPolandwhilePrussiawantedtotakeoverthewholeofSaxony.Thiswasresi
stedbyotherpowerslikeBritainandAustriawhodidnotwantRussiaandPrussiatochangethebal
anceofpowerinEurope.Consequently,RussiawasgivenonlypartofPolandwhilePrussiaalsotoo
khalfofSaxony.
TheViennaCongressledtothereconciliationofFrancewithotherEuropeanpowers.MuchasFra
ncehadbeendefeatedbythealliedpowersin1814andthereforewasacontinentalenemy,shewa
sinvitedtoattendthiscongress.Consequently,BishopTalleyrandrepresentedFranceatthemee
tingwhichpromotedreconciliationinEurope.
ItgrantedindependencetoSwitzerland.NapoleonBonapartehadgoneaheadtoextendtheFren
chcontrolinSwitzerlandintheSouthEastofFrance.However,thecongressmenatViennadecide
dtochangethepoliticalmapofFranceandEuropebydeclaringtheindependenceandneutralityo
fSwitzerland.ItmustbenotedthatthisdeclarationmadeSwitzerlandthemostpeacefulandstabl
enationinEurope.
ItalsocompensatedandrewardedsomecountriesthathadcontributedtothedownfallofNapole
onBonaparteI.Britainforexample,wasrecognizedasthecontrollerofIndia,WestIndiesandthe
CapeofGoodHopeinSouthAfricabecauseofhercontributiontothedefeatofNapoleonI.Thesete
rritorieswerenotinEurope.
Inaddition,besidesguardingagainstfurtherFrenchaggression,AustriagotLombardyandVene
tiawhichwerefoundinItalybecauseAustriahadlostBelgiumandNetherlands.Thesestateswer
enotrestoredtoAustriancontrolandthereforeAustriawhichhadcontributedtothedefeatofNap
oleonwascompensatedwithLombardyandVenetia.
Similarly,Swedenwhichhadfoughtonthesideoftheallieswasalsorewarded.ShewasgivenDen
markbecauseSwedendefectedandjoinedthestruggleagainstNapoleon.Ontheotherhand,De
nmarkwaspunished.ThiswasbecauseDenmarkhadsupportedNapoleonBonaparteandtheref
oreshewasannexedtoSweden.SwedenwasalsobeingrewardedbecauseshehadlostFinlandto
Russia.
ItgavebirthtotheCongressSystemalsoreferredtoasthe“ConcertofEurope”.InNovember1815
,followingtheViennaCongressBritain,Russia,AustriaandPrussiasignedatreatyknownastheQ
uadrupleAlliance.Inthistreaty,theyagreedtomeetinperiodicmeetingsorcongressesandseeh
owtomaintaintheresolutionsreachedatinJune1815.ThisresultedintotheCongressSysteminE
uropewhichstretchedfrom1818upto1825.

TheexampleoftheViennaCongress(settlement)alsoledtotheformationoffutureinternational
organizationsliketheLeagueofNationsin1920afterWorldWarIandtheUnitedNationsOrganiza
tion(UNO)in1945afterWorldWarII.TheseorganizationswerefoundedtoseewhattodowithEu
ropeandtherestoftheworldafteraperiodofseriousfightingthesamewaytheViennaCongressdi
daftertherevolutionaryandNapoleonicwars.
FAILURESOFTHEVIENNACONGRESS(SETTEMENT)
TheViennaCongressignoredorsuffocatednationalisminEuropewhenitputsomestatesunderf
oreigndomination.IntheNorthofFranceforexample,theBelgianswereputundertheDutchtocr
eateabufferstate.TheItalianstateswerealsoputunderAustriaandabigpartofPolandwasgiven
toRussia.Thiseventuallycontributedtotheoutbreakofnationalisticrevolutionsin1830and184
8astheabovestatesdemandedfortheirindependence.
ItalsorestoredunpopularlegitimaterulersinEurope.TheseoldrulerswhowererestoredinFranc
e,Portugal,SpainandNaplesamongothercountriesweretheworstrulersEuropehadeverhadbe
causetheyexercisedoppressionoverthesubjectsandtotaldictatorship.Consequently,revoluti
onswerestagedintheabovecountriesfromthe1820’supto1848tooverthrowtherestoredlegiti
materulers.TheserevolutionscontributedtopoliticalunrestwhichunderminedpeaceinEurope
.
TheViennaCongress(settlement)delayedtheunificationofItaly.ItalyasaUnitedKingdomeme
rgedonthepoliticalmapofEuropein1871whichwasfiftysixyearsaftertheViennaCongress.This
wasbecausethecongressdisunitedItalybythecreationofstatesunderdifferentrulers.Forexam
ple,therewasthePopeinthePopalstates,KingFerdinandIinNaplesandSicilyaswellasAustriain
LombardyandVenetiaamongothers.ItwasthereforedifficulttohaveasingleItalianstateunder
oneruleruntil1871.
ItalsodelayedtheunificationofGermany.Germanyasasinglestatealsoemergedonthepolitical
mapofEuropein1871justlikeItaly.ThecongressmenatViennahadlefttheGermanstateofPruss
iaasanindependentkingdomwhiletheotherthirtynine(39)Germanstatesthatwereformedinto
theGermanConfederationorUnionwereputundertheAustriancontrol.TheGermanstherefore
tooklongtofightandundotheworkoftheViennaCongressorSettlementsoastoaunitedGerman
nation.
TheViennaCongressignoredsmallstates.AlthoughallEuropeanstatesattended,throughoutth
econgressthediscussionsanddecisionsweredominatedbythefourbigpowersthatincludedRus
sia,Britain,AustriaandPrussia.Thisthereforecauseddiscontentandunpopularityofthesettlem
entbecausethewishesofthesmallpowerswereignored.

ItsuffocatedliberalisminEurope.InthekingdomofNaplesforexample,KingFerdinandIwasrest
oredwithoutaconstitution.Consequently,FerdinandIruledNaplesasadictatoryetin1812,Napl
eshadbeengrantedaliberalconstitutionbyNapoleonBonaparteI.Consequently,in1821arevol
utionbrokeoutinNaplesdemandingforliberalreformslikefreedomofworship,pressandfairtrial
amongotherliberties.
TheViennaCongresspromotedtheinfluenceordominanceofPrinceMetternichinEurope.Since
Austriahadhostedthecongress,Metternichtookadvantageofthistochairthediscussions.Thise
nabledMetternichtodominateEuropebetween1815and1848.However,whileinchargeofEuro
peanaffairs,MetternichsuppressedliberalismandnationalismespeciallyintheItalianandGerm
anstatesthatwereunderAustria.Thispartlycontributedtotheoutbreakofliberalandnationalisti
crevolutionsbetween1820and1848whichunderminedpeaceinEurope.
TheViennaCongressalsobroughtRussiaintoEuropeanaffairs.Thislatercausedconflictsbetwe
entheWesternEuropeanpowersandRussiaespeciallyinEasternEurope.AtViennaRussiawasgi
venterritoriesinEasternEuropelikePoland.Russialaterusedthischancetoannexmoreterritorie
sinEasternEuropefromtheOttomanorTurkishEmpiresoastogainaccesstotheMediterraneanS
ea.Asaresult,RussiaconflictedwiththeWesternpowerslikeBritainbecauseBritainfearedthatR
ussiawouldaffecttheBritishSearoutetohercommercialempireintheFarEast.
TheViennacongressonlyfocusedonFranceandignoredtheOttomanorTurkishEmpire.Locate
dinEasternEurope,theOttomanEmpirewasfacingmanyproblemsby1815butthedelegatesatV
iennacompletelyignoredthispartofEurope.Forexample,theconqueredstatesintheempirelike
Greece,SerbiaandBosniaamongothersweredemandingforindependencebutwhichtheVienn
acongressdidn’tgrant.Similarly,Russiawasnotrestrictedfrominterveningintheaffairsofthise
mpirewhichwasinherneighbourhood.Russiathereforestarteddoingsoandthisledtoconflictsb
etweenRussiaandotherpowerslikeBritain.
Questions:
a)AssesstheimpactoftheViennaCongressof1814to1815onEurope.
b)HowsuccessfulwastheViennasettlementof1815?
a)“TheViennasettlementof1815wasanunfairpeacesettlement”.Discuss

THECONGRESSSYSTEMORTHECONCERTOFEUROPE,1818-1830
TheCongressSystemwasaseriesofperiodicmeetingsorcongressesoftheEuropeanpowersint
endedtosolveEuropeanproblemsdiplomaticallyanditstretchedbetween1818and1830.Thec
ongresssystemwasbornoutofatreatyoralliancebetweenfourcountriesi.e.Britain,Russia,Aust
riaandPrussia.ThistreatyoralliancewasknownastheQuadrupleAllianceof1815.Thetreaty
wassignedon20thNovember1815anditwassignedonthesamedaywiththesecondtreatyofP
ariswhichpunishedFrancefollowingthedefeatofNapoleonIattheBattleofWaterlooof1815.
Amongotherthings,thequadruplealliancestatedthat“thefourkings,unitedforthegoodofthew
orld,haveagreedtocontinuemeeting“.Becausethosecountriesweretotakeacollectiveeffortin
handlingEuropeanmatters,thentheCongressSystemcametobeknownasthe“ConcertofEur
ope”
OBJECTIVESOFTHECONGRESSSYSTEM
 Toensurethatthesignatories(thosepowersthathadsignedthealliance)continuedtoco
operateandthereforetheaimwastopromoteinternationalcooperation.
 Thefourcountriesi.e.Austria,Russia,BritainandPrussiaagreedtoexcludetheBonapart
edynastyorfamilyfromthepoliticalaffairsofFranceandEurope.
 ToensurethatthetermsoftheSecondTreatyofParisofNovember1815wereimplemente
d.
 TomaintainpeaceinEurope.Theaimherewastoavoidotherwarssimilartothe“Napoleon
icWars”whichwoulddisturbEuropeanPeace.
 ToprotectandmaintainthepowerofthelegitimaterulersinEurope.
 TomaintainallthedecisionsthathadbeenagreeduponintheViennasettlementthatwass
ignedinJune1815.
THECOMPOSITIONOFTHECONGRESSSYSTEM
TheCongressSystemwascomposedofthefollowingcongressesnamedaftertheplaceswheret
heywereheld;
 ThecongressofAix–la–chapelleof1818
 ThecongressofTroppauof1820
 ThecongressofLaibachof1821
 ThecongressofVeronaof1822
 ThecongressofSt.Petersburgof1825.

NOTE:ThecongressofViennawasnotpartofpartoftheCongressSystembecauseitendeditswo
rkon9thJune1815andtheCongressSystemwasbornoutoftheQuadrupleAllianceon20 thNovem
ber1815,severalmonthsaftertheViennaCongresshadendeditswork.
THECONGRESSOFAXI-LA-CHAPELLE,1818
ThiscongresswasheldinPrussiaandithadanumberofissuestodealwithamongwhichwasthepo
sitionofFrance.By1818,FrancehadpaidthewardamageswhichweredemandedintheSecondtr
eatyofParisofNovember1815.ItwasthereforenolongernecessarytokeepFranceapermanent
enemyandforthatmatterthearmyoccupationwasremovedfromFranceandtomaintainpeace
withFrance,themembersoftheQuadrupleallianceadmittedFranceintotheirallianceandnowit
wasanallianceoffivecountries.Therefore,thenamewaschangedtotheQuintupleAlliance.
Also,itwasnotedatthiscongressthattheJewshadbeenpersecutedforalongtimeanddeniedciti
zenshipwherevertheysettled.ItwasthereforeagreedintheAix-la-
chapellethattheJewshadtobegivenfreedomandarighttosettlepeacefullyinallareaswherethe
yhadbeenlivingbeforeandnottobepersecutedanymore.
Atthiscongress,themembersalsoapprovedthemeasuresforthesecurityofNapoleonBonapart
eontheIslandofSt.HelenabecausetheydidnotwantNapoleon’sinfluenceinEuropeagainasthe
yhadanexperiencewhenNapoleonescapedfromtheIslandofElbaandruledFranceagainforso
metime.ThiswasachieveduntilthedeathofNapoleonIin1821.
Atthiscongress,PrussiaandRussiasuggestedthataninternationalarmybeestablished.Thatthi
sarmywastobeusedtoprotecttheexistingrulers(legitimate)frombeingoverthrownbyrevoluti
onsandalsoforthepurposeofmaintainingpeace.ThissuggestionwasmadebytheKingofPrussi
aknownasFredrickWilliamIIIandTsarAlexanderIofRussia.
AtthesamecongresstheissueoftheBarbarypirateswasbrought.Thesepiratesorrobberswer
eoperatingontheMediterraneanSea.Theyusedtocaptureshipsandstealtheirweaponsandthe
reforeRussiasuggestedthataninternationalarmywasnecessarytofightagainstthesepirates.
Therewasalsotheissueslavetradeofatthesamecongress.Countriessuggestedthatitwasnece
ssarytocooperateandstopthepracticeofslavetrade.Russia,PrussiaandFranceforexamplesug
gestedthattheinternationalarmywastobeusedtolookforthoseshipsthatwerecarryingslavesa
crossthecontinentsandgivepunishmentstotheslavetraders.
REACTIONS

PrinceMetternichofAustriarejectedtheformationofaninternationalarmy.Hereasonedthatthe
creationofthisarmywouldbringaboutthespreadofRussianinfluenceinEurope.HefearedthatR
ussiansoldierswouldgettheadvantageofbeingstationedacrossthecontinentofEuropeandRu
ssiawouldbecomethemostpowerfulstateandthereforewouldupsetorchangethebalanceofpo
werinEurope.
TheBritishrepresentativeLordCastlereaghalsoopposedtheideaofTsarAlexanderItocreate
aninternationalarmyforthepurposeofmaintainingthelegitimaterulersinpower.TheBritishrep
resentativefearedthatthecongresssystemwastobeusedtointerveneinthedomesticaffairsofo
therEuropeancountriesforthepurposeofprotectingtheexistingrulersevenwhenthoserulersw
ereunpopular.Therefore,RussiaandPrussiawithdrewtheirproposaloncreatinganinternation
alarmy.
OntheissueofslavetradeBritainproposedthatotherEuropeanpowersgiveherpermissiontosto
pslavetrade.TheBritishrepresentativeLordCastlereaghsuggestedthatBritainwastohuntands
earchforshipsthatwerecarryingslavesinthewatersofWestAfrica.HestatedthatBritainwastos
ettheslavesfreebutarrestthecrewandchargethemintheBritishcourtsoflawthathadbeenesta
blishedontheWestAfricancoastespeciallyinSierraLeone.
OthercountriesrejectedtheproposalbyBritainbecauseofnationalprideandnationalinterests.
ThecountriesthathadtheirsovereigntyorindependencerefusedbecauseifBritainstartedtocap
tureandsearchtheirshipsandtheshipsthathadflagsoftheirnations,theywouldhaveabusedthe
irsovereigntyorindependence.TheyalsorejectedBritishinterferenceintheirtradewithcountri
esofWestAfricawhereBritainalreadyhadanupperhand.TheyevenwonderedastowhyBritainw
hichhadoriginallybenefitedfromslavetradewasdenyingthemtobenefitfromthesame.
TheBritishgovernmentandpublicbecameannoyedbecausetheotherpowershadrefusedtosup
porttheirproposalsandthereforethegapbetweenBritainandotherpowersstartedtowidenandi
tbecameverydifficultforthecongresssystemtoachieveitsobjectiveofinternationalcooperatio
n.Itshouldhoweverbenotedthatthecongressendedindisagreementovertheissueofthecreati
onofaninternationalarmy.
THECONGRESSOFTROPAU,1820
ThecongresswascalledbyTsarAlexanderIofRussia.Hewasscaredofaliberalrevolutionthatbro
keoutinSpainwhichwasSouthofFranceagainstKingFerdinandVII.ThisFerdinandVIIhadbeen
restoredbytheViennacongress.TsarAlexanderIwasalsoscaredbytheoutbreakofotherrevolut
ionsinPortugal,NaplesandPiedmont.NaplesandPiedmontwerestatesinItalywhichwasnotyet
aunitedkingdom.

TsarAlexanderIwantedthealliedpowerstomeetanddealwiththerevolutionsbecausetheythre
atenedthesurvivaloftheexistinglegitimaterulers.InJanuary1820,arevolutionbrokeoutinSpai
n.TherevolutionwasledbytheSpanishsoldierswholivedinverypoorconditionsattheSpanishpo
rtsastheywaitedtobeshippedtoSouthAmericawhereSpainandPortugalhadcoloniesandthese
colonieswantedindependence.TherevolutionstartedinMadridandspreadtoothertownslikeB
arcelona.
KingFerdinandVIIofSpainfearedthattherevolutionarieswereremovinghimfrompowerandina
desperatemovetosavehisseat,hegavetheSpanishtheliberalconstitutionof1812theyhadgotfr
omNapoleonIofFrancewhenheinvadedSpain.Whenthishappened,TsarAlexanderIwhowasv
eryconservative(beliefinnochange)fearedthatsuchamovewastoencourageliberalsinotherc
ountriesofEuropetodemandforsimilarconstitutionsincludingthoseofRussia.Therefore,hewa
ntedthemembersoftheCongressSystemtocrashtherevolutioninSpainandwithdrewtheconsti
tution.
REACTION
LordCastlereaghreactedbypresentingapaperon5thMay1820andthisbecamethefutureBriti
shforeignpolicy.Inthispaper,hestatedthatBritainwasn’ttointerveneinthedomesticaffairsofa
nyEuropeanstateandthatBritainwasn’ttoignoreasituationwhenotherpowersintervened.The
BritishrepresentativeinsistedthattheSpanishrevolutionwasa“Spanishaffair”andherejectedt
hesuggestionofAlexanderItosendsoldiers(alliedforces)toSpain.Asaresult,thegapbetweenB
ritainandotherpowerswidenedfurthersuchthatitwasdifficulttopromotetheobjectiveofintern
ationalcooperation.
LordCastlereaghrefusedtoattendtheCongressofTroppaubutsentanobserver.EvenFranceals
osentanobserver.However,AlexanderIpersuadedtherepresentativesofAustriaandPrussiato
accepthisviewofinterveningintheinternalaffairsofothercountriesandkeepinpowerthoserule
rswhowerethreatenedbyrevolutions.
PrinceMetternichusedtheopportunitytoissueapaperhecalledthePROTOCOLOFTROPPAU
of1820whichturnedtobeanagreementthatwassignedbyPrussia,AustriaandRussia.Inthispro
tocol,PrinceMetternichdeclaredthatnochangesweretobebroughtaboutbyrevolutions.Heals
ostatedthatthesignatoriesweretoenterintothosecountriesthatfacedrevolutions,suppressth
erevolutionsandrestorethelegitimaterulers.
TheprotocolwasrejectedbyBritainandFrancebecausetheydidnotwanttheirsoldierstodieinfor
eigncountrieswhilemaintainingunpopularregimesandthecongressendedindisagreement.
THECONGRESSOFLAIBACH,1821

ThecongresswasheldinAustriaandwascalledbyPrinceMetternichinthecityofLaibach.Thecon
gresswascalledtodiscusstheliberalrevolutioninNaplesandatthiscongress,BritainandFrancer
efusedtosendrepresentativesandthereforeitwasattendedbytheconservativecountriesofRus
sia,AustriaandPrussiawhohadacceptedthe“ProtocolofTroppau”of1820whichacceptedin
terveninginthemattersordomesticaffairsofotherstates.
TheconservativesagreedtointerveneinNaplesandsaveKingFerdinandIfrombeingoverthrow
ninMarch1821.AustriawasthefirsttosendhertroopsinNapleswhichwasinSouthernItalyandw
hilethere,therevolutionarieswerearrested,torturedandotherswerekilledandthosewhosurviv
edwenttoliveabroad.Britainstronglyopposedthisactionandthiswasanotherdemonstrationth
atBritainwasnotreadytopromoteinternationalcooperationandalsotomaintainunpopularregi
mesthathadbeenrestoredbytheViennasettlement.
THECONGRESSOFVERONA,OCTOBER1822
InMarch1821,theGreeksintheOttomanEmpirestagedarevolutionagainsttheirrulers.TheGre
ekswereChristiansandtheyrevoltedagainsttheirmasterstheTurkishwhowereMuslims.TheTu
rkishrulersweremistreatingthemwithimprisonment,overtaxation,arbitraryarrestsetc.When
therevolutionbroke,outbothPrinceMetternichandLordCastlereaghfearedthatAlexanderIofR
ussiawhoregardedhimselfasaguardiantotheGreekChristianswouldgotowarwithTurkeyinsu
pportoftheGreekChristians.Ifthishappened,itwouldincreasetheinfluenceofRussiainEastern
EuropeincaseRussiadefeatedTurkeyandthiswouldupsetorchangethebalanceofpowerinEur
ope.ThiswassomethingwhichthosepowersdidnotwanttohappenandthereforetheCongresso
fVeronahadtodiscussthisissue.Asthemeetingstarted,therevolutioninSpainagainstKingFerdi
nandVIIintensified.FrancewhichsharedtheSouthernborderwithSpainfearedthatthe“revolut
ionaryvirus”inSpainwouldinfecthercitizensandoverthrowtheytherestoredregimeofLouisVII
I.
Inreaction,Francechangedherpositionfromnon-
interferenceandthereforehertroopsenteredSpainin1823tocrashtherevolutionandrestoreKi
ngFerdinandVIItofullcontrol.TheconsequencewasthatthecongressofVeronadiscussedmore
oftheSpanishrevoltthantheGreekrevolt.
THECHANGEOFREPRESENTATIVES
Asthecongresssystemcontinuedinitsoperations,itwashitbymisfortunes.InAugust1820,Lord
CastlereaghofBritaindiedandhewasreplacedbyGeorgeCanning.ThenewBritishrepresenta
tivehadverylittleexperienceinEuropeanaffairs.

TsarAlexanderIofRussiaalsodiedin1825andwasreplacedbyTsarNicholasI.LikeGeorgeCanni
ngofBritain,NicholasIhadverylittleexperienceinEuropeanaffairs.
GeorgeCanninghatedarmedinterventioninothercountriesandthereforehewasnotdifferentfr
omLordCastlereaghwhomhesucceeded.HedidnotevenattendtheCongressofVeronabutsent
arepresentativecalledtheDukeofWellington.HeinstructedtheDuketoprotesttheintended
useoftheFrenchtroopstocrashtherevolutioninSpainandwhenthealliesrejectedtheprotest,th
eDukewithdrewimmediatelybeforetheVeronacongressendeditsdiscussions.
FranceinvadedSpainin1823withaforceof200,000soldiers.TheFrenchforcesdefeatedtheliber
alswithlessdifficultyandabolishedtheliberalconstitution.Thereafter,KingFerdinandVIIwasre
storedtofullcontrolandthisannoyedBritainthemore.Unfortunately,theallieswerenotabletose
ndtroopstoSouthAmericatoassistSpainkeeptheSpanishcolonieswhichhadrevoltedagainstth
eSpanishrule.
Inanattempttorevenge,GeorgeCanningencouragedthePresidentofUSAJamesMonroetos
upporttheSpanishcoloniesinSouthAmericaintheirstruggleforindependenceagainstSpain.Co
nsequently,thePresidentofUSAcameoutwithhisdocumentknownastheMonroedoctrineof
1823inwhichhestatedthat“theAmericancontinentwasnotaterritoryforfutureforeigncolonial
ismandthatthestatesofthecontinentshouldbeleftalonetoruntheirownpoliticalsystems”.USAt
hereforewouldregardanycolonialattemptontheAmericancontinentasadangertoitspeaceand
securityandaveryunfriendlyact.
InthecaseoftheGreekrevoltwhichwasdiscussedatVerona,BritaingotapromisefromtheSultan
ofTurkeythathewouldreducethemistreatmentoftheGreeksandbecauseofthispromise,theda
ngeroftheRussianinterventionwasavoided.However,theGreekrevoltcontinueduntill1832wh
enGreecegotherindependence.TheGreekwarofindependencedividedupthemembersofthe
QuintuplealliancebecauseBritainrejectedinterferenceandsupportedtheGreekrevolutionof1
821to1832.
THECONGRESSOFST.PETERSBURG,1825
ThecongresswasheldinRussiaanditwasattendedbyRussiaandAustria.Thiscongressdidnotdi
scussanyissueregardingEuropeanpowersbecausethememberstatesfailedtoreachanagree
ment.Thiswasbecauseoflackoffullmembership.Therefore,thecongresswasaborted.
THEACHIEVEMENTSOFTHECONGRESSSYSTEM
ThecongresssystemmaintainedpeaceinEurope.ThemembersofthesystemforexamplePrinc
eMetternichofAustriaandTsarAlexanderIofRussiawereabletosuppressrevoltsin1820,1821a

nd1823inSpain,PortugalandNaples.TherewasnomajorwarthatinvolvedallthegreatEuropea
npowersuntiltheoutbreakoftheCrimeanWarof1854to1856whenRussiafoughtagainstBritain
,FranceandTurkey.
ItgavebirthtoEuropeandiplomacy.Thiswaspromotedthroughtheholdingofcongressestosett
leconflictsotherthangoingforwar.Forexampleanumberofcongresseswereheldbetween1818
and1825whichincludedthecongressofAix-la-
chapelleof,Laibach,VeronaandtheabortedSt.Petersburg.
ItledtothereconciliationofthevictoriousnationswiththedefeatednationwhichwasFrance.In1
818forexampleatthecongressofAix-la-
chapelle,FrancewasallowedtojointheQuadruplealliancebytheGreatpowers.Theydidnotwan
tFrancetoremainapermanentenemymostespeciallythatFrancehadfulfilledthetermsofSecon
dtreatyofParisof1815andthearmyofoccupationhadtoberemovedfromFrance.
ThecongresssystemledtotheimplementationofthetermsoftheSecondTreatyofParisof1815.
Forexample,Francewasforcedtopaywardamagestothevictoriousnationsafterwhichanarmy
ofoccupationwastoberemovedfromFrancewithinaperiodofthreeyears.Therefore,thegovern
mentinFrancewascompelledtopaylargeamountsofmoneytothevictoriousnationsbytheCong
ressSystemandconsequentlythearmyofoccupationthathadbeenstationedinFrancefrom181
5waswithdrawn.
ThecongresssystemmaintainedthepoliticalmapofEuropeasithadbeendecidedorredrawnatt
heViennacongressof1814to1815.Forexample,theboundariesofFranceweremaintainedasth
eyhadbeenreducedtothosethatFrancehadin1790.Inaddition,itmaintainedthebufferstates
whichhadbeenformedtoguardagainstfurtherFrenchaggression.Forexample,theKingdomof
NetherlandsintheNorthandtheGermanConfederationintheEastweremaintained.
ThesystemmaintainedandprotectedtheoldrulerswhohadbeenrestoredbytheViennasettlem
entof1815.InSpainforexample,KingFerdinandVIIwassavedfrombeingoverthrownbytherev
olutionariesbyFranceandAustriabecausetheydidnotsupportchangesbroughtaboutbyrevolu
tions.InNaples,KingFerdinandIwasalsosavedbyAustriafrombeingoverthrownbytherevoluti
onariesandthedecisiontoprotecttherestoredrulerswastakenattheCongressofTroppauof
1820.
ThecongresssystemkeptthefamilyofNapoleonIoutofthepoliticsofEurope.AttheCongressofA
ix-la-
Chapelleof1818forexample,thecongressmenagreedonthesecuritymeasuresthatprevented
NapoleonIfromescapingallthewayfromtheislandofSt.HelenatoreturntoFrancethewayheha

descapedfromtheislandofElbaandruledFranceagainforonehundredyears.Itonlybecamepos
sibleforamemberoftheBonapartedynastytoruleFrancein1848whenthecongresssystemw
asnomore.
ThesystemmaintainedaconstitutionalmonarchyinFrance.LouisXVIIIhadbeenrestoredinFra
ncewithaconstitutionandamongotherthingstheconstitutionprovidedforaparliamentandper
sonalfreedomslikefreedomofworship,pressandassociation.ThiswasimportantbecauseLouis
XVIIIcouldnotimposehisownruleontheFrenchmenthewayLouisXVIhaddonebeforehewasov
erthrownbytherevolutionaries.
ThesystemmaintainedthebalanceofpowerinEurope.AttheCongressofAix-la-
chapelleof1818forexample,Prussiahadsuggestedthecreationofaninternationalarmysoastof
ightagainsttheSeapiratesthatwereoperatingontheMediterraneanSea.Theproposalwasreje
ctedbecauseRussiawantedtogettheopportunityofstationinghersoldiersinothercountriesan
dthereforeRussiawouldgainalotofinfluenceinthosecountrieswhichwouldhaveledtoupsettin
gofthebalanceofpower.However,theRussianproposalwasrejectedbyotherpowerslikeBritain
whichthereforehelpedtomaintainbalanceofpowerinEurope.
Thesystemcontributedtoeconomicco-
operationinEurope.Thesystemforexampleallowedfreenavigationontheinternationalwaterw
aysliketheBlackSeaandtheMediterraneanSea,RiverRhineandRiverDanubeamongothers.Na
vigationhadbeendisorganizedbythecontinentalsystemofNapoleonIandthereforethiswasam
ajorachievement.
TheCongressSystemlaidafoundationforotherworldinternationalbodiesinfuture.Thesuccess
oftheCongressSystemforexamplecontributedtotheformationoftheLeagueofNationsin19
20afterWorldWarIaswellastheformationoftheUnitedNationsOrganizationin1945after
WorldWarII.Alltheseorganizationswereintendedtoresolveinternationalconflictspeacefullyw
ithoutgoingtowar.
THEFAILURESOFTHECONGRESSSYSTEM
ThesystemfailedtopromoteunityandinternationalcooperationinEurope.Thiswassobecauset
herepresentativeshaddifferentviewsonsomeofthemajorissues.Forexample,attheCongress
ofVeronaof1822,thecongressmenweredividedovertheissueoftheGreekrevoltwhichwasbein
gsupportedbyBritainwhileAustriawantedtherevolttobecrashed.AttheCongressofAix-la-
Chapelleof1818,thepowersalsodisagreedontheissueofslavetradeinwhichBritainwantedtota
keoverfullcontroloverthesuppressionorabolitionofslavetradewhichwasnotacceptbyotherco
untrieslikePrussiaandRussia.

TheCongressSystemignoredtheforcesofnationalism.Thiswassobecauseitmaintainedforei
gnruleinsomeoftheEuropeancountries.Forexample,itmaintainedAustriancontrolintheItalia
nandGermanstatesanditalsomaintainedthecontroloftheBelgiansbytheDutch.Consequently
,therewerenationalisticrevolutionsthatchallengedtheCongressSystembetween1820and18
30andeventuallyledtoitscollapseby1830.
Thecongresssystemignoredforcesofliberalism.UnlikeinFrancewhereLouisXVIIIwasrestor
edwithaconstitutionwhichprovidedforfreedomofexpression,aparliament,freedomofworshi
pandassociationamongotherliberties,itwasnotthesamecaseinsomeoftheEuropeancountrie
s.InthecaseofNaplesandSpainforexample,thecongressmenoverthrewpopularliberalconstit
utionsthathadbeengrantedtopeopleandrestoredunconstitutionalgovernmentsoftheFerdin
ands.Consequently,therewereliberalrevolutionsthatchallengedtheCongressSystembetwe
en1820and1830andeventuallyledtoitscollapseby1830.
TheCongressSystemunderminedtheinterestsofthesmallpowers.Thesmallstateshadmajorit
yofthepeopleinEuropebutthemajorissuesinEuropeundertheCongressSystemwerealwaysdi
scussedandresolvedbythefivemajorpowersoftheQuintuplealliancei.e.Britain,France,Prussi
a,AustriaandRussia.
TheCongressSystemmaintaineddespoticmonarchsorleadersinEuropewhocauseduntoldsuf
feringtothepeopletheygoverned.InSpainandNaplesforexample,KingFerdinandVIIandFerdi
nandIrespectivelyconductedarbitraryarrests,imprisonment,tortureandkillingofsuspectedo
pponentsandtheCongressSystemalwaysprotectedtheseunpopularmonarchsfrombeingove
rthrown.
TheCongressSystemcontributedtounrestorinstabilityinEurope.Manyrevolutionsbrokeoutin
anattempttooverthrowtheunpopularregimeswhichwerebeingmaintainedbythecongresssys
temforexampleinSpain,NaplesandBelgium.CountrieslikeFrance,RussiaandAustriawerecom
mittedtocrashtherevolutionariesinthosecountriesandmaintainedthelegitimaterulers.
ThemembersfailedtoagreeonthemajorrevolutionswhichfinallychangedtheworkoftheVienn
asettlementwhichtheyweretoprotect.Forexample,in1821arevolutionbrokeoutinGreeceinw
hichtheGreeksrevoltedagainsttheTurkishruleandin1832withthesupportofsomeEuropeanco
untrieslikeBritain,theGreeksweregivenfullindependence.In1830,theBelgiansstagedanatio
nalisticrevolutionagainsttheDutchandsurprisinglyBritainandFrancesupportedtheBelgiansa
ndin1839,theBelgiansgotfullindependence.Therefore,theserevolutionsshowedthatsomeof
theEuropeancountriessupportedundoingtheworkoftheViennasettlementwhileothersdidnot
supportchangingtheworkoftheViennasettlementespeciallyAustriaandRussia.

REASONSFORTHECOLLAPSEOFTHECONGRESSSYSTEM
ThethreatofNapoleonIwasnolongeranissueby1830andthiscontributedtothecollapseofthec
ongresssystem.ThecongressmenhadsucceededinkeepingNapoleonIawayfromEuropefollo
winghisdefeatin1815andhehaddiedin1821.TheaggressionbyNapoleonIhadbeenaunifyingf
actorbecauseitwasathreattothesurvivaloftheEuropeanmonarchsforexampleinBritain,Russi
aandAustria.ThedeathofNapoleonIin1821thereforecreatedconditionsoflackofafactortokee
ptheEuropeanpowerstogetherbecausethereafterwhatwasathreattoAustrialikearevolutioni
nItalywasnotseenasatreattoBritainandthespiritofcooperationdeclined.
Thecongresssystemlackedresourcesandthereforeitwasboundtocollapse.Thesystemforexa
mpledidnothaveasecretariattorunitsdaytodaybusiness.Italsolackedfundsbecausethemem
bercountriesdidnotcontributefinancialresources.Thisunderminedtheoperationofthecongre
sssystem.
Thedeathofthefoundingmembersledtothecollapseofthecongresssystem.Forexample,Lord
CastlereaghofBritaindiedinAugust1820andwassucceededbyGeorgeCanning.TsarAlexande
rIofRussiaalsodiedin1825andwassucceededbyTsarNicholasI.Thosewhosucceededlackedp
racticalpoliticalexperienceintheEuropeanaffairsandtheywerenotcommittedenoughtoseeth
esurvivalofthesystemtheydidnotlabourtoputinplace.
AtthecongressofVeronaof1820forexampletherewasdisagreementbetweenBritainandother
membersasBritainopposedinterventionintheaffairsofotherstateswhiletheotherssupportedi
tandasaresultGeorgeCanningmadethisstatement,“ Thingsweregettingtothewholeso
mestateagain,everynationforitselfandGodforallofus”.Thisstatementmeantthatthe
rewasnomoreinternationalcooperationaseverynationwastobeonitsown.
Itlackedaninternationalarmytoimplementitsresolutions.Thearmiesofindividualcountrieswe
reusedtocrashrevolutionsbetween1820and1830.Theproblemwiththiswasthatnosinglecou
ntrywouldraiseenoughforcetoguardagainstsuccessfulrevolutionsinEurope.Forexample,wh
entherevolutionbrokeoutinBelgiumin1830,RussiaandAustriacouldnotsendtheirsoldierstoB
elgiumbecauseRussiahadtakenhersoldierstofightinPolandwhileAustriahadherforcesfightin
gagainsttherevolutionariesintheItalianandGermanstates.
Therewasmistrustamongthememberstatesandthiscontributedtothecollapseofthecongress
system.AtthecongressofAix-la-
chapellein1818forexample,TsarAlexanderIofRussiaproposedthecreationofaninternational
armytosuppresstheseapiratesorrobbersontheMediterraneanSea.Thearmywasalsotobeuse
dtoprotectthelegitimaterulersagainstrevolutions.ThisproposalwasrejectedbyBritainandAu

striaastheyfearedthatRussiawastotakeadvantageofstationingherforcesincountriesofWeste
rnEuropewhichwastobefollowedbyRussiagainingmoreinfluence.Therefore,BritainandAustr
iarefusedtocooperatewithRussiawhichwidenedthegapbetweenRussiaandtheabovepowers
andledtothecollapseofthecongresssystemby1830.
Britain’sisolationistpolicyalsocontributedtothecollapseofthecongresssystem.Britainforexa
mplerefusedtoattendsomeofthecongressesforexamplethatofVeronaof1822andSt.Petersb
urgof1825becauseshedidnotagreewiththepolicyofinterveninginthedomesticaffairsofothers
tatestoprotectunpopularregimes.
BritainalsounderminedthespiritofinternationalcooperationbyindirectlysupportingtheSpanis
hcoloniesinSouthAmericatogetindependence.Forexample,GeorgeCanningofBritainencour
agedPresidentJamesMonroeofUSAtostopanyattemptbySpainandherallieslikeRussia,Franc
e,andAustriatogotoSouthAmericaanddefeattherevolutionariesintheSpanishcoloniesandco
nsequentlymembersofthecongresssystemfearedgoingtoSouthAmericaandthecoloniesgott
heirindependence.
Theselfishinterestsofthecongressmenandtheircountriesalsounderminedthespiritofinternat
ionalcooperationhenceleadingtothecollapseofthecongresssystem.Britainforexampledidnot
wanttocommithersoldierstodieinforeigncountriesforthepurposeofmaintainingtheViennase
ttlementof1815yetinthosecountriesBritaindidnothaveeconomicinterests.Anotherexamplei
sshownbytheproposaltoabolishslavetrade.TherewasdisagreementbecauseBritainwantedt
osearchtheshipsofothernationsincasetheycarriedslaves.Theothernationsrefusedthatthisw
asviolationoftheirindependencewhileontheotherhandtheyquestionedastowhyBritainwhich
hadbenefitedfromslavetradewasnotgivingthemachancetodealinthesametrade.
TheoutbreakoftheGreekwarofindependencein1821alsoledtothecollapseofthesystem.Thec
ongressofVeronawascalledin1822todiscussthisrevolutionoftheGreeksagainstTurkishrule.H
owever,withoutconsultingothermembers,Britain,FranceandRussiasupportedtheGreekrebe
lsandthiscausedaconflictbetweenAustria,PrussiaandothercountriesbecausetheRussianinte
rventionintheGreekaffairswasanexpansionoftheRussianinfluenceinEasternEurope.TheGre
ekrevolutionthereforedividedthecongresssystemandeventuallyledtoitscollapseby1830
ThecongressbecameveryunpopularbecauseitmaintainedunpopularregimesinEurope.In18
20sforexample,KingFerdinandVIIofSpainandFerdinandIofNapleswerethreatenedbyrevolut
ions.Underthecongresssystem,therevolutionariesweredefeatedandthedespoticFerdinands
wererestoredtofullcontrolinSpainandNaples.

Thecongresssystemwasalsoshortlivedbecauseoftheideologicaldifferencesbetweenthecons
ervatives(nochange)andtheliberals.Britainforexample,believedinliberalismi.e.constitution
algovernanceandrespectforhumanfreedomslikefreedomofworshipandpress.Therefore,wh
entheliberalrevolutionswerestagedforexampleinNaplesandSpain,Britaingavethemsupport
yettheconservativeslikeAustriaandRussiadidnotsupportchangesbroughtaboutbytherevolut
ions.It’snotsurprisingthereforethatBritaindidnotsupporttheProtocolofTroppauof1820whic
hsupportedfightingagainstallrevolutionsinEuropethatthreatenedthesurvivalofautocraticre
gimes.
Thesystemlackedclearguidingprinciplesandthereforecouldnotliveforalongtimeasanorganiz
ation.Besideslackofasecretariat,thesystemdidnothaveaconstitution,noworkplanorprogram
meandmanytimeslackedaproperagenda.Itwasnotveryclearastowhatwastobeconsideredas
acrisistocallacongressanditwasnotstatedclearlyastowhowasthatcongressmantocallameeti
ngandthereforethecongressmenwerecrisismanagers.
Thecongresssystemignoredthesmallnations.Thesystemwasbasedondiscussionsandresolut
ionsofthemembersoftheQuintuplealliancethatconsistedAustria,Russia,Britain,FranceandPr
ussia.Therefore,thesmallerstatesrefusedtoaccepttheresolutionsofthecongresssystemandi
nsteadtheyworkedforthedownfallofthecongresssystem.
The“MetternichSystem”wasveryunpopularandthisledtothecollapseofthecongresssyste
m.ThissystemwasputinplacebyPrinceKlemensMetternichwhowastheChancelloroftheAustri
anEmpireupto1848.ItincludedanefficientspyingnetworkinthosestateswhereAustriahadcon
trolliketheItalianandGermanstates,readingofcorrespondencesormailsandthebrutalsuppres
sionofrevolutionsamongothers.ThissystemwaslinkedtothecongresssystembecauseMetter
nichhaddeclaredthatitwasnotnecessarytoacceptchangesfromthemajoritypeopleofEuropea
ndespeciallyifthosepeoplerevoltedagainsttheirrulers.Hewantedthestatusquotobemaintain
ed.Thissystemthereforeledtotheoutbreakofliberalrevolutionstochallengeitandtheserevolut
ionsdividedupthemembersofthecongresssystemleadingtoitscollapse.
TheriseofnationalisminEuropecontributedtothecollapseofthesystem.Thecongresssyste
mtriedtomaintainforeignruleamongsomeEuropeanpeopleyetpeoplewantedtogetindepend
encewhichforcedthemtoriseupdemandingforindependence.Forexample,theGreeksfoughta
gainstTurkishrulein1821.TheItaliansalsofoughtagainstAustrianrulein1830andtheBelgiansf
oughtagainsttheDutchandallthesenationalisticrevolutionsdiscreditedtheworkofthecongres
sinanattempttoprotecttheViennasettlementbecausetherevoltingpeoplewereabletogetinde
pendence.

TheBelgianrevolutionof1830ledtothecollapseofthecongresssystem.TheBelgiansrevoltedag
ainsttheDutchdemandingforindependence.ThiswastoundotheworkoftheViennasettlement
of1815whichthecongresssystemhadanobligationtoprotect.However,BritainandFrancesupp
ortedtheBelgianswhichwasagainstthewishesoftheconservativeslikeAustriaandRussia.Britai
ncalledacongressinLondonin1839wheretheBelgianindependenceandneutralitywere.There
fore,theBelgianrevolutionofdividedthememberstatesofthecongresssystemleadingtoitscoll
apse.
Theriseofliberalismalsoledtothecollapseofthecongress.TheexampleofthesuccessoftheFr
enchrevolutionof1789haddemonstratedthattheEuropeanpeopleweredisgustedwithabsolut
eruleandtheypreferredconstitutionalgovernance,freedomofthepress,association,parliame
ntarydemocracy,equalitybeforethelawetc.however,thecongresssystembecameveryunpop
ularbecauseitwasprotectingabsoluterulersfrombeingoverthrownforexampleinSpain,Naple
sandAustria.
Thelackofpastexperiencebythecongresssystemledtoitscollapse.Thecongresssystemwasth
efirstofitskindinthehistoryofEuropetobeestablished.Itthereforelackedafoundationfromwhe
retodrawexamples.Asaresult,itoperatedonanexperimentalbasiswhicheventuallyledtoitscoll
apseby1830.
The“MonroeDoctrine”of1823ledtothecollapseofthecongresssystem.In1823,thePreside
ntofUSAJamesMonroeissuedthefamousMonroeDoctrinewhichstronglywarnedtheGreatPo
wersofEuropeagainstanyattempttointerveneinSouthAmericatohelpSpainrecoverhercoloni
es.ThisdoctrinewassupportedbyBritainwhichthereforewidenedthegapbetweenBritainandt
heothercongresspowers,thusleadingtothecollapseofthecongresssystem.
Questions:
AssesstheachievementsoftheCongressSysteminEuropebetween1818and1830.
Approach
 DefinitionoftheCongressSystemincludingthecongressesinvolved.
 Identifytheobjectivesofthecongresssystem.
 Achievementsandfailuresofthesystemshouldbegiven.
 Aclearstandpointisneeded.
“TheCongressSystemwasboundtocollapseby1830.”Discuss.
Approach

 DefinitionoftheCongressSystem
 AimsoftheCongressSystem
 ReasonswhytheCongressSystemcollapsed
 AchievementsoftheCongressSystemmustbegiven
 Aclearstandpointisneeded
FRANCEUNDERTHERESTOREDBOURBONMONARCHY,1815–1830
AfterthefallofNapoleonIandtheconclusionoftheViennaCongressin1815,theBourbonswererestored
inFranceundertheprincipleoflegitimacy.TherestoredBourbonsruledFranceeffectivelyfrom1815upt
o1830whenanotherrevolutionbrokeoutinFranceanditbroughtaboutthecompleteendoftheBourbon
ruleinFrance.TwokingsruledFrancebetween1815and1830andthesewereLouisXVIIIeffectivelyfr
om1815to1824andCharlesXfrom1824to1830.
TheBourbonsinFrancewererestoredwithaConstitutionalCharterof1814.Thiswasadocumentthatde
scribedtherightstheFrenchpeopleweretoenjoyaswellastherulesandregulationsthattheBourbonsw
eremeanttofollow.InordertounderstandbettertheregimeoftherestoredBourbonsinFrance,it’simpo
rtanttonotethefollowing;
 WhatweretheexpectationsoftheFrenchmenfromtheserestoredBourbons?
 WhatweretheachievementsoftherestoredBourbonsinFrance?
 WhatwerethemajorissuesintheConstitutionalCharterof1814andhowdidtherestored
Bourbonsrespondtothedemandsofthecharter?

 TheFrenchrevolutionof1789brokeoutagainsttheruleoftheBourbonsandithadcausedf
undamentalchangesinFrance.WhatshowsthenthattherestoredBourbonshadlearnts
omelessonsordidnotlearnanylessonsfromtheFrenchrevolutionof1789?
LOUISXVIII,1815-1824
LouisXVIIIwastheeldestsurvivingbrotherofLouisXVIwhowasexecutedbytherevolutionariesi
n1793.Atthetimeofhisrestoration,hewasexpectedtobringaboutpeaceandstabilityinFrancea
ndbetweenFranceandtherestofEurope.Hewasalsoexpectedtoacceptaparliamentarysystem
ofgovernmentwhichembracedallthepoliticalgroupsthatexistedinFranceatthattimeforexam
pletheBonapartists,RepublicansandtheUltra-royalistsamongothers.
TherepublicansforexamplewantedFrancetobeaRepublicagainotherthanbeingaMonarchyw
hiletheUltra-
royalistswantedtherevivalorrestorationofthecompletepowerofthemonarchyasithadbeenbe
foretheFrenchrevolutionof1789.Therewasalsoagroupoftheliberalswhowantedconstitution
algovernanceinFrance.Healsohadtobalancetheinterestsofespeciallytheliberals(revolutiona
ries)androyalists(hisbrothers).
ThenewkinghadnotforgottenthegloryandcustomsoftheBourbonmonarchy.Headoptedthetr
aditionaltitle-”KingofFrancebyGod’sgrace”,henceemphasizinghisattachmenttothecustoms
ofhisancestorsi.e.absolutemonarchismandstrongrelationshipbetweenthecrownandthechu
rch.HereturnedasLouisXVIIIandinsistedondatinghisreignfrom1795theyearinwhichLouisXV
I’ssonandheirdiedinprison.Healsoretainedthebeliefinthedivinerightsofkings.Thisworriedth
eliberalsormiddleclass.
Despitetheabove,LouisXVIIIdidnothaveanydesiretorevengeagainstthesupportersoftheFre
nchrevolutionandNapoleonI.HewentaheadandallowedallthoseFrenchmenwhowerelivingin
exiletoreturntoFranceasawayofreconciliation.ThisshowsthatLouisXVIIIhadlearntsomethin
gfromtherevolutionof1789,henceanachievement.
LouisXVIIIacceptedandpreservedthechangesthatwerebroughtaboutbytheFrenchrevolutio
nof1789.Forexample,hedidnotallowtheCatholicChurchinmattersofthestateandthepeasant
sretainedthelandtheyhadgotfromthechurchduringthecourseoftherevolutionaspertheCivilC
onstitutionoftheClergyofJuly1790.
LouisXVIIIalsopreservedsomeofthechangesorreformsthatwerebroughtaboutbyNapoleonI
.Heforexamplemaintainedthelocalgovernmentsystemwhichwascomposedofdepartmentst
hathadbeencreatedbytheFrenchrevolutionof1789andretainedbyNapoleonI.Healsomaintai
nedthecommunesandtheprovincialsub-
divisionstogetherwiththelocalcouncilsfortheefficientadministrationanddecentralizingofad
ministrativepowers.
LouisXVIIIworkedveryhardtoseethattheideasoftheFrenchrevolutionofdidnotspreadtoothe
rcountriesofEurope.Hefearedthatifthiswastohappen,theEuropeanpowerswouldformanoth

ermilitarycoalitionagainstFranceasithadhappenedduringthecourseoftherevolutionandund
erNapoleonI’sregime.Therefore,LouisXVIIImaintainedpeacebetweenFranceandherneighb
ours.
LOUISXVIIIANDTHECONSTITUTIONALCHARTEROF1814
LouisXVIIIruledFrancewithaliberalCharterknownastheCONSTITUTIONALCHARTERof1814
whichwasputinplacebytheGreatPowersatViennaastheBourbonswerebeingrestoredinFranc
e.ThecharterwasintendedtopreventanyreturntoabsoluteruleinFrance.LouisXVIIIacceptedt
hecharterwhichsetupaparliamentarysystemofgovernmentforFrance.TheparliamentinFran
cehadtwobodieswhichwereknown“Chambers”.Therewasthechamberofthe“Peers”whichse
rvedastheexecutiveandthemembersofthischamberwerenominatedbytheKing.Therewasals
othechamberofthe“Deputies”andthesememberswereelectedbythevotersorFrenchmen.Thi
swasimportantbecausethepresenceofaparliamentinFrancemeantthatLouisXVIIIwouldnoti
mposehisownrulethewayLouisXVIhaddonebeforehisoverthrow.Itwasalsoinrespectofrevol
utionarygainsimplyinghehadlearntsomething.
ThechartergrantedimportantpersonalfreedomsasestablishedbytheFrenchrevolutionof178
9likeexampleequalitybeforethelaw.LouisXVIIIputinplaceajudicialsystemwhereallFrenchm
enweresubjectedtothesamelaw.ThiswasimportantbecauseduringtheAncientregimethepea
santsusedtosufferbecauseoftheunfairjudicialsysteminwhichthenoblesandclergyappearedt
obeabovethelawandonmanyoccasionsinnocentFrenchmenwouldbearrestedandimprisone
d.
ThecharteralsostatedthateveryFrenchmanhadarighttoparticipateinrunningtheaffairsofthe
government.LouisXVIIIputthisinpracticebydeclaringthateveryFrenchmanhadarighttoquali
fyforcivilandmilitaryappointments.ThiswasagoodachievementonthepartofLouisXVIIIbeca
usehedidnotrestoretheoldsystemoftheAncientregimewhereitwastheclergythatdominatedt
hecivilservicewhiletheseniormilitaryofficersweremainlyfromthenobility.
Thechartercondemnedthearrestandimprisonmentofpeoplewithouttrial.LouisXVIoftheAnci
entregimeandhisministersusedtoissuewarrantsofarrestandimprisonmentofthearrestedop
ponentsoftheregime.LouisVIIIdidnotwantthistohappenagainandtoshowthathedidnotwant
toviolatethecharterheabolishedarbitraryarrestsandimprisonmentoftheFrenchmen.
Throughthecharter,LouisXVIIIallowedfreedomofworship.Thisshowsthathehadlearntsomel
essonsfromtheFrenchrevolutionof1789.Therevolutionhadabolishedreligiousintolerancewh
ichwasapracticeoftheAncientregimewherebyitwasonlythecatholicfaithwhichwasallowedin
France.Althoughthecatholicfaithremainedthestatereligion,otherreligionswereallowedinFra
ncebyLouisXVIII.
Throughthecharter,LouisXVIIIallowedfreedomofexpressionorpress.Heabolishedcensorshi
pofthepresswhichNapoleonBonaparteIhadputinplace.Thenewspapersandotherpublication

soperatedfreelyinFrance.Thiswassomethingthatthe1814constitutionalcharterhademphasi
zedandthereforeitwasanimportantachievementbyLouisXVIII.
Throughthecharter,LouisXVIIImaintainedthestatusoflandownershipinFrance.Allthosepeo
pleespeciallytheformerpeasantswhohadobtainedlandfromthechurchduringthecourseofthe
Frenchrevolutionwereallowedtoretaintheland.Healsoallowedthosewhohadpurchasedthela
ndandpropertyfromthechurchandfromthenobilitytoretainthelandandotherpropertyandthis
wasalsoprovidedforintheconstitutionalcharterof1814.
Besidestheconstitutionalcharterof1814,LouisXVIIIscoredotherachievementsforFrance.For
example,althoughheencouragedthemembersoftheroyalfamily,theclergyandnobleswhoha
drantoexileduringthecourseoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789toreturntoFrance,hedidnotrestor
etheirprivilegesthattheyhadenjoyedduringtheAncientregimelikeexemptionfromtaxationan
ddominationofgovernmentofficesamongothers.Therefore,LouisXIIIdidnotrestorethesocial
classesinFranceastheyhadbeenabolishedbytheFrenchrevolutionof1789.
HeappointedmoderateroyalistsasChiefMinisterslikeRichelieuwhowastheChieforPrimeMinis
terofFrancefrom1815-
1818.ThisPrimeMinisteraimedatmaintainingallthelibertiesthatwereguaranteedintheconstit
utionalcharterof1814.LouisXVIIIandhisPrimeMinistertriedtoavoidrevengeagainstthosepoli
ticiansthathadcarriedoutthe1789Frenchrevolutionwhichledtotheiroverthrow.TheKingandt
hePrimeMinisterforexamplemadesurethatnoinvestigationsaboutthepoliticalactionsbefore1
814werecarriedout.
LouisXVIIIandhisChiefMinisterpersuadedthegreatpowerstoreducethewarindemnityorfine
whichhadbeenimposedonFrance.ThiswarindemnityorfinehadbeenimposedonFrancefollow
ingthereturnandoverthrowofNapoleonIandthiswasintheSecondTreatyofParisof1815.Thew
arindemnityof700millionFrancswasreducedtotwothirdsanditwaspaidbythegovernmentofL
ouisXVIII.
ThegovernmentofLouisXVIIIalsopersuadedtheGreatpowerstoremovethearmyofoccupatio
nfromFrance.ThisarmyhadbeenputinNorthernFrancetomakesurethatFrancefulfilledthepro
visionsoftheSecondTreatyofParisof1815.Forexample,whenFrancepaidthewarindemnity,th
earmyofoccupationwasremovedandthisrestoredtheindependenceandprideofFrance.
HealsorestoredtheinfluenceofFranceinEuropeanaffairs.Followingthepaymentofthewarind
emnityandthesubsequentremovaloftheforeigntroopsfromFrance,thegreatpowersattheCo
ngressofAix-la-
Chapelleof1818wereforcedtoadmitFranceintotheallianceofthemajorfour(Britain,Austria,R
ussiaandPrussia)toformtheQuintupleAlliance.FrancethenrejoinedEuropeanaffairsasapartn
erratherthantheenemy.ItwasinthisnewimagethatshesentFrenchtroopsintoSpainin1823tos
uppressaliberalrevolution.PeacewasrestoredandFerdinandVIIrecoveredhislegitimatepow
ers.Thismovehoweverdisappointedtheliberals.

LouisXVIIIputupsomeeconomicdevelopmentsduringhisregime.Hisgovernmentimposedhig
htaxesonimportsandthisprotectedthelocalindustrialmanufacturersandagriculturalproduce
rs.TheirmarketswereprotectedfromthesuperiorforeigngoodsthatenteredFrancebecauseth
eyturnedouttobeexpensivecomparedtothelocalproducts.
ItwasduringhisregimethattheFrenchmenbenefitedfromtheparliamentarydebates.TheFren
chmenthroughthemediaaccessedinformationfromtheparliamentandbecameeducatedthro
ughthespeechesofitsmanytalentedmembersonmostofthegreatissuesofthetime.
ThegovernmentofLouisXVIIIre–
organizedtheFrenchmenarmy.ThisarmyhadfoughttherevolutionaryandNapoleonicWarsan
dby1814manysoldiershadbeenkilledandthesurvivorshadbeendemoralized.Thegovernmen
tofLouisXVIIIrecruitedmoresoldiers,trainedthemandtheywereequippedandtheywerealsop
utunderthecommandofMarshalCyr.Therefore,Francehadamodernarmy.
FAILURESOFTHEREGIMEOFLOUISXVIII
LouisXVIIIfailedtocontrolthepoweroftheUltraroyalists.Thiswasagroupofpeoplecomposedo
fthemembersoftheroyalfamily,formerclergyandnoblesaswellastheirfamilies.Someofthemli
vedinexilewhileotherswereinFrance.Thosewholivedinexilewereencouragedtocomebackan
dthisgroupwasledbythebrotherofLouisXVIIIwhowasknownasComtedeArtois(laterCharles
X).TheUltraroyaliststhoughtthatthe1814constitutionalcharterwastoworkforaveryshortperi
odoftimebecausetheybelievedintherestorationofthegloryoftheAncientregimei.e.allwhatha
dbeentherebeforetheiroverthrowbytheFrenchrevolutionof1789.
Theyforexamplewantedtheconfiscatedpropertylikelandtoberestoredtothemandtheyalsow
antedalltheprivilegesthathadbeenenjoyedbythenoblesandclergytoberestored.Inaddition,t
heyspecificallywantedtorestorethepowersoftheCatholicChurchandtheyopposedallthechan
gesthatwerebroughtaboutbytheFrenchrevolutionof1789andNapoleonBonaparteI.LouisXV
IIIfollowedthepolicyofcompromiseandreconciliation(moderatepolicy)whichdisappointedth
esepeople.Asaresult,theactivitiesofthisgroupunderminedthepopularityoftherestoredBourb
onMonarchyinFranceandsubsequentlyledtoitscollapsein1830.
TheWhiteTerrorof1815–
1816alsounderminedthepopularityofLouisXVIII’sregime.Between1815and1816,theUltrar
oyalistspursuedapolicyofrevengeontheiropponentsinFrancewhichwasknownasthe“WhiteT
error”.TheseUltraroyalistsformedastrongpoliticalforceinFranceandfollowingtheirvictoryint
heelectionsof1815,theyweremajoritymembersintheChamberofDeputies.Intheirpolicy,allth
eformergeneralscreatedbyNapoleonIwerekilledlikeMarshalNey.Theyalsomurderedthesup
portersofNapoleonIandsomeofthosewhosupportedtheFrenchrevolution.Theyalsokilledthe
commanderoftheFrencharmyMarshalCyrandthiswasagreatchallengetoLouisXVIIIwhodidn
otwantthepasttoberestoredinFrance.Thisformofviolencewasthereforeresponsiblefortheun
popularityandeventualdownfalloftherestoredmonarchyinFranceby1830.

TheGrenoblerevoltof1816alsounderminedthecredibilityofLouisXVIII.In1816,apeasantrevo
ltbrokeoutinGrenobleagainsttheregimeofLouisXVIII.ThepeasantsrevoltedbecausetheUltra
royalistswantedtoconfiscatethelandwhichtheyhadgotduringthecourseofthe1789Frenchre
volution.Inreaction,LouisXVIIIsuppressedtherevoltwithgreatbrutality,thusleavingmanype
asantsdeadandthiswasagreatweaknessbecauseheappearedasifhewasnotrespectingthegai
nsoftherevolution.
LouisXVIIIfailedtowinpermanentsupportfromtheliberalsandrepublicansbecausehefailedto
eliminatethecustomsofhisancestorsfromhisreign.Quiteofteninhisruleliberalismwasunderm
ined.Forexample,theconstitutionalcharterof1814maintainedtheabsolutepowersoftheKing.
Hehadexecutivepowers,commandedthearmyandnavyandthereforehemadewarandpeace.
HeappointedtheministersandtheChamberofPeers.Similarly,thelocalgovernmentwascentra
lizedinthehandsofthekingasthecasewasduringthedaysofNapoleonI.Asaresult,by1819there
gimefacedalotofoppositionfromtheliberalsandrepublicans.TherepublicansledbyGregoryfel
tthemonarchyhadfailedandthereforeshouldcometoanend.In1819,Gregorywaselectedtoth
eparliamentbutLouisnullifiedorcancelledhiselectionvictoryandthereforehewasdeniedtotak
easeatintheparliament.
TheregimeofLouisXVIIIprovidedforanarrowFranchise(electorate).Foronetobecomeaneligi
blecandidateinanelection,hehadtobeoverfourtyyearsofageandtopay1000Francsperyearin
directtaxes.Voterswererequiredtobeoverthirtyyearsofageandtopay300Francsayearindirec
ttaxes.ThedenialoftherighttovotetothemajorityFrenchmenwassobadtotheextentthatoutof
the29millionpeoplebythen,only100,000peoplequalifiedtovote.ThiswasaviolationtotheCon
stitutionalCharterof1814.
THEMURDEROFDUCDEBERRIANDTHEERAOFREACTION
In1820,liberalisminFrancesufferedanothersetback.On13thFebruary1820, DucdeBerri,ane
phewofthekingandapparentheirtothethronewasassassinatedorkilledby Louvel,aBornaparti
stfanaticwhoopposedtherestorationoftheBourbonruleinFrance.Thisactionwasinterpretedb
ytheUltra-
royalistsasanattempttowipeouttheBourbonline.ThismurderforcedLouisXVIIItoshiftfromco
nstitutionaltodictatorialrule.In1820,Richelieu,hisChiefMinisterissuedapackageofanti-
liberalmeasureslikedetentionofpoliticalsuspectsforuptothreemonthswithouttrialandrevival
ofpresscensorship.ManyofficialsopposedtotheBourbonmonarchywerepushedintoretireme
nt.TheUltra-
royalistsnowdominatedtheChamberofDeputies.ThiswasthereforeareturntotheAncientRegi
me.
In1822,LouisXVIIIforcedthemoderateChiefMinister,Richelieutoresignandhereplacedhimw
ithComtedeVillelebecausetheUltraroyalistsfeltthattheformerwastooslowandcautiousinrest
oringthegloryofthemonarchy.Villleletightenedthepresslawsfurther.Forexample,itwasnowa
criminaloffencetowriteanyarticlewhichhadthepotentialofprovokingpublicdisturbance.

LouisXVIIIbroughtbacktheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchinthestateaffairs.Thechurchforex
ample,tookoverthecontrolofUniversityeducation.In1822,heappointedacatholicBishopFray
ssinousasPresidentoftheUniversityofParisandheeffectivelybecamethegovernmentminister
ofeducation.ThiswasopposedbytheFrenchmenwhohadfoughtagainsttheinfluenceoftheCat
holicChurchinthefieldofeducationandotheraffairsofthestate.
ThegovernmentofLouisXVIIIwentaheadtonarrowtheFranchise.Thenewelectorallawgavea
doublevote(twovotes)tothosewithlargepiecesoflandandmostofthesewerestaunchsupport
ersoftheBourbonmonarchyliketheUltra-
royalists.TheythereforecametodominatethelastphaseofLouisXVIII’seraofreactionandthisc
reateddiscontentamongthepeasants.
In1824,aftertheestablishmentofthesemeasures,electionstothechamberofDeputieswereor
ganizedinwhichthenumberofliberalseatsinparliamentfellfrom110to19(outof430seatsintota
l)i.etheliberalinfluenceintheparliamentgreatlydeclined.Inthesameyear(1824)adecreewasp
assedwhichscrappedoffinterimelectionsanddeclaredthecurrentchamberinsessionforthene
xtsevenyears(nomoreparliamentaryelectionsforthatperiod).Theseactionsdisassociatedthe
monarchyfromtheFrenchliberalsandeventuallypreparedgroundforthe1830revolutioninFra
nce.
Inresponsetotheabovereactionarymeasures,secretoppositionandundergroundmovement
swereformedagainsttheBourbonmonarchyandthedesireforchangebecamemorepronounce
d,thusgivingbirthtotheideaofanotherrevolution.Luckilyenough,theoldKingLouisXVIIIdiedo
n16thSeptember1824beforetherevolutionhadmatured.
CHARLESX,1824–1830
LouisXVIIIwassucceededbyhisbrotherComtedeArtoiswhocontinuedwiththeBourbonline.H
ewascrownedasCharlesX.Hewasastaunchcatholicandstrongadvocateofabsolutemonarchis
m.HehatedtheFrenchrevolutionof1789andwenttoexilebecauseofit.Consequently,regimeof
CharlesXwascharacterizedbyundoingwhattheFrenchrevolutionhaddone,hencejustifyingth
eaccusationagainsttheBourbonfamilythat “theyhadlearntnothingandforgotnothingfromthe
FrenchRevolutionof1789”.Damagesdonetothechurchandlandedaristocracyduringthecours
eoftherevolutionwererepairedbyCharlesX.Itisduringthisperiodthatthemonarchyassumeda
moredefinableshapethanunderLouisXVIII.Withinfiveyearshowever,CharlesXwasoverthro
wnbecauseofsuchpoliciesthatweredeemedunrealistic.
Hewasofficiallycrownedon29thMay1825atRheimsCathedralinaccordancewitholdfashioned
ceremonies.Thisreflectedhisstrongattachmenttothetraditionsofhisancestorswithastrongb
eliefinthedivinerighttokingship.Soonaftertheceremonies,hevisitedhospitalsclaimingpower
stohealpatientswithdivinepowershehadjustreceived.Thiscontrastedsharplywiththenewide
asoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.

HedisregardedtheConstitutionalCharterof1814andruledashewished.Hesaid“ Iratherchopw
oodthanbecomingakingoftheEnglishtype”.TheEnglishKingruledconstitutionallywhichCharl
esrefusedtodoimplyingthathehadlearntnothingandforgotnothing.Althoughhetookanoatht
odefendtheCharter,heprostratedhimselfbeforeanarch-
bishopwhohadearlierusedthesameoccasiontocondemnthesamei.e.hewasnotcommittedtor
ulebytheconstitutionalcharterpromulgatedorsetupin1814.Thisgreatlydisappointedtherevo
lutionarieswhothereforeplannedanotherrevolution.
CharlesXrevivedtheruleoftheNobilityandClergyorhebroughtbackthetraditionalsocialclasssy
stembyrestoringtheancientprivileges.In1825,hecompensatedallthosepeoplewhohadlostth
eirpropertyduringtherevolution(formerémigrés).Onethousandmillionfrancswereallocatedt
othisexercisethoughonlyabout630millionFrancswerepaidout.Thefactthattheémigréswerec
ompensatedwithpublicmoneyannoyedmanyFrenchmen.Themoneywasraisedbyloweringth
einterestratesongovernmentbonds,thusdisappointingthemiddleclassbusinessmenwhohel
dsuchsecurities.
TheinfluenceoftheRomanCatholicChurchinthepoliticalaffairsofFrancewasstrengthenedbyC
harlesX.CharlesXwasstronglydeterminedtobasehisgovernanceonastrongrelationshipbetw
eenthechurchandthestate(crown).In1826,thelawofsacrilege(thetheftorvandalismofsacre
dobjectsusedinchurchservices)waspassed.Suchactsweremadepunishablebylifeimprisonm
entandinsomecasesdeath.Thiswasintendedtosafeguardthepositionofthechurch.CharlesX
madeitclearthatthechurchwasuntouchableandcouldexpectthefullprotectionofthestateagai
nstthosewhoopposeditsroleandinfluenceinFrance.ThisiswhattheFrenchmenhaddoneaway
withfrom1789.Itthereforepreparedgroundforthe1830JulyrevolutioninFrance.
In1827,CharlesxdisbandedtheNationalGuardorthenationalarmyofFrance.Thisarmystillhad
soldiersthathadfoughtintheFrenchrevolutionagainsttheBourbonruleandotherswereacreati
onofNapoleonI.Thisisbecausewhenheassembledthesoldiersforsupervision,aminorityecho
edoppositionstatementsagainstgovernment.TheBonapartistsandliberalsexpectedthisarmy
toprotectthe1814constitutionalcharterandotherrevolutionarygains.Thedissolutionofthear
mythereforehurtmanyinFranceandnodoubtcausedthedownfalloftherestoredBourbonsinFr
ance.
CharlesXalsoabolishedtherevolutionaryTri-
colorflagofRed,whiteandbluecolors.ThisflaghadbeenadoptedduringthecourseoftheFrench
revolutionof1789andthereforeitwasoneoftherevolutionarygainstotheFrenchmen.However
,CharlesXabolisheditandinsteadreintroducedthe“Whitecolor”orBourbonflagwhichwasgrea
tlyopposedbytheLiberals,RepublicansandBonapartists.
CharlesXadoptedconservativeorharshmeansofdealingwiththeopposition.Thisrepressionw
asadoptedin1827whichcausedmorediscontent.Forexample,herigidlycensoredthepressand
thereforenewspapersandotherpublicationsinFrancewerenotallowedtooperatefreelywithou
tthestrictapprovalofthegovernmentofCharlesX.Thiswasgreatlyopposedbytheliberals.

Realisingthathewaslosinggriponhisthrone,CharlesXdissolvedthechamberofdeputieswhich
wasfullofoppositionandheorganizedfreshelections.Unfortunatelyhowever,theliberalsswep
tthepollsinNovember1827despiteasharplylimitedFranchise(theliberalswon180seats).Ther
esultsoftheelectionsalarmedVillelewhothereforeresigned.Villelewasreplacedbyamoderate
–royalistknownasMartignacastheChiefMinisterforthenexttwoyears(1828–
1829.WhenMartignacfailedtocontrolthesituation,hewasalsodroppedin1829.
In1829,KingCharlesXblunderedfurtherwhenheappointedashischiefminister,thenotoriousul
tra-prince-
JulesdePolignac,aformerémigréandtheKing’spersonaladvisorandtogetherwithCharlesX,th
etwomadeaterriblecombinationforFrance.Polignacwasopposedtoconstitutionalgovernanc
eandthusherefusedtosweartheoathtotheCharter.Hewasarrogant,tooconservativeandinse
nsitivetotheinterestsoftheordinarypeople.HewashatedbyalmostthewholeofFrance.Hisapp
ointmentthereforeincreaseddiscontentinFranceagainsttheBourbonMonarchywhichgavech
ancetotheoppositiontopreparethe1830revolution.
Duringthesameperiod,Francewashithardbyaneconomicrecessionwhichaffectedthepeasan
tsmainly.Therecessionledtomanysocialandproblemsandthegovernmentfailedtohandlethes
eproblems.Thedepressioncharacterizedbypoorharvestsandfoodshortagesleadingtoincrea
seinthepricesoffood.Forexample,inEasternFrancebetween1826and1830,wheatpricesrose
by66%.Otherproblemsincludedpoorhousing,taxationaswellashighunemploymentespeciall
yinindustrialtowns.Sucheconomicproblemsaddedtothepoliticalgrievancesmadearevolutio
ninevitableinFranceby1830asthemassesroseuptooverthrowtheBourbonMonarchywhichth
eyaccusedoffailingtoneutralizetheeffectsofthedepression.
InMarch1830CharlesX’sregimesufferedanotherseriousblowfromtheopposition.Byamajorit
yof221to181,theChamberofDeputiesinsistedthattheonlylegitimategovernmentwasthaten
dorsedbythemajorityinParliament.Thisimpliedthatpeoplehadgottiredofmonarchicalrulean
dthereforetheywantedthevoiceofthemajoritytoprevail.Inresponsetotheabove,Polignacdiss
olvedtheChamberofDeputiesandfreshelectionswereheldinMay1830.TheKing’ssupporterss
ecured143seatswhilethenumberoftheoppositiondeputieswenttoupto274.
THEORDINANCESOFST.CLOUD
FinallyCharlesblunderedbyissuingtheORDINANCESofST.CLOUD.On25thJuly1830,CharlesXi
ssuedfourordinances(decrees)knownasordinancesofSt.Cloud.Bytheseordinances,Charles
Xsuspendedthefreedomofthepress,dissolvedthenewlyelectedChamberofDeputies,reduce
dthelifeofthelegislaturefromsevenyearstofiveyearsandorderedfornewelectionsunderarest
rictedfranchisei.e.theelectoratewasreducedfrom100,000to25,000voters.Inthepoliticalatm
osphereof1830,theordinancesweremeanttosilencegrowingoppositionbuttheyinsteadfuele
dit.Asaresult,theysparkedoffthe1830JulyrevolutionthatforcedCharlesXoutpower.
THEJULYREVOLUTIONOF1830

Twodaysaftertheissuingoftheordinances,peoplewereupinarmsinthestreetsofParis.Rioters
organizedbythemiddleandworkingclassestogetherwiththeRepublicansandjournalistsunder
theleadershipofLafayetteandAdolphThierswhowereopposedtopresscensorshiptooktothest
reets.TheywerejoinedbythedisbandedNationalGuardstillinpossessionoftheirarmsandon27 t
h
July1830,thecapitalwasunderrebelcontrol.CharlesXrealizingtheneedforactionofferedtowit
hdrawtheordinancesandtodismissPolignac.Theseconcessionswereunsatisfactory.CharlesX
wasforcedtoabdicateinfavourofhisgrandsontheDuc-
deBordeaux(ComtedeChambord).CharlesXandhisfamilyfledtoEnglandandPolignacwasarr
ested.Charles’grandsonwasignoredandninedayslater,anewKingknownasLouisPhilippewas
proclaimedKingofFrance.
ACHIEVEMENTSOFCHARLESX
Despitehismanymistakes,CharlesXdeservescreditinthefewareasthathehandledrelativelybe
tter.Inthefirstcase,herespectedalittletheworkoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.Forexample,th
epeasants’landacquiredduringtherevolutionwasnotconfiscated,parliamentaryruleestablish
edbythe1789FrenchrevolutionwasnoterodedduringCharlesX’sreign.Electionswereheldduri
nghisregimein1827and1829forparliamentarydeputies.
HealsopromotedtheFrenchgloryorprestigeabroadbypursuingavigorousforeignpolicy.Forex
ample,in1830beforehisoverthrowAlgeriawasconqueredbyFrance.Inaddition,Francejoined
handswiththeBritishwhohelpedtheGreeksagainsttheTurks.WhentheTurkishfleetwasdestro
yedintheBattleofNavarinoin1827,theFrenchfleetalsotookpartinit.Eventuallythisledtotheind
ependenceofGreece.TheseachievementshoweverarefarlessthanthemanymistakesofCharl
esX’sgovernmentandthisthereforeexplainstheoutbreakoftheJulyRevolution1830.
SampleQuestions;-
1. WhydidtheBourbonsfailtorestorethegloryoftheancientmonarchy?
2. WhytheregimeofCharlesXsoshortwaslived?
3. Whatwerethecausesofthe1830JulyRevolution?
4. “TheBourbonslearntnothingandforgotnothingfromtheFrenchrevolutionof1789”.Dis
cuss.
5. ExaminetheachievementsofLouisXVIIIintheperiod1814–1824.
REASONSFORTHECOLLAPSEOFTHERESTOREDBOURBONMONARCHYINFRANC
EBY1830
AccountforthecollapseortherestoredBourbonMonarchyin1830
ThelimitedfranchiseestablishedbyLouisXVIIIcontributedtothecollapseoftherestoredBourb
onMonarchy.Accordingtoof1814constitutionalcharter,themajorityofthepeopleofFranceesp
eciallythepeasantsweredeniedarighttovoteortobevoted.Forexample,foronetovoteorqualif
ytobevotedheorshehadtopay300Francsinformoftaxesand1000Francsweretobepaidbyone

whowastostandasamemberoftheChambersofDeputies.ThisdeniedofthepeopleofFranceari
ghttovoteandthereforecontributedtothedownfalloftheBourbonMonarchy.
TheactivitiesoftheUltra-
RoyalistsalsocontributedtothedownfalloftheBourbonMonarchy.Theseweretheformerémigr
éswhoreturnedtoFranceafterthedefeatofNapoleonIin1815andtheywantedFrancetoreturnt
othepre-
1789period.TheycarriedoutpoliciesofrevengeagainstthesupportersofFrenchRevolutionof1
789andNapoleonI.Thisledtotheperiodof“WhiteTerror”of1816duringwhichmanyFrench
menlosttheirlivesespeciallytheBonapartists,hencemakingtherestoredBourbonMonarchyun
popular.
TheriseofliberalisminFranceledtothecollapseoftherestoredBourbonMonarchy.TheBourb
onMonarchyfailedtoaccommodatetheforcesofliberalismanddemocracybyrefusingtograntc
onstitutionallibertytothepeopleofFranceespeciallyCharlesXwhoabolishedthe1814Constitut
ionalCharter.ThisforcedtheliberalstodecampaigntheBourbonMonarchy,thusleadingtothec
ollapseofrestoredtheBourbonMonarchy.
ThepeopleofFrancewouldnotwishtheBourbonMonarchytobecometheirleadersonceagainb
ecausetheBourbonMonarchybefore1789emphasizedsocialdivisions,feudalismordespotism
,corruptionetc.ThismeantthattheBourbonrulersin1814werejustimposedontheFrenchmass
esandthereforetheyhadtoopposethem.
TherestoredBourbonslikeCharlesXignoredtheconditionsoftheworkersanddidnothingtoimpr
oveontheirlivingandworkingconditions.Thisledtoriseofsocialismastheworkersstartedadv
ocatingforstateownershipofpropertyandpromotionoftheirrights.Thisincreasedoppositiona
gainsttheBourbonMonarchywhicheventuallyledtoitscollapsein1830.
ThepresenceofdifferentpoliticalpartiesinFrancewithdifferentinterestsalsoledtothecollapse
oftheBourbonMonarchyin1830.InFrance,thereweredifferentpoliticalgroupslikethe Republ
icanswhowantedarepublicangovernment,theBonapartistswhowantedtorevivetheFrenc
hglory,theLiberalswhobelievedinliberalismandLegitimateswhobelievedintheoldorder.T
herefore,theBourbonMonarchycouldnotmeetallthedemandsofthesepoliticalgroupswhichcr
eatedoppositionagainstit,thusleadingtothecollapseoftherestoredBourbonMonarchyin1830
.
ThedictatorshipanddespotismoftherestoredBourbonkingscontributedtotheircollapsein183
0.Forexample,CharlesXdidnotbelieveinconstitutionalkingshipi.e.hewantedtobeabovethela
wandnotcontrolledbyit.Itisthiskindofdictatorshipthatmadehisgovernmentunpopular,thusl
eadingtothecollapseoftherestoredBourbonMonarchyin1830.
ThepolicyofcompensatingtheémigrésforthelossesincurredduringtheFrenchRevolutionof17
89ledtothecollapseoftherestoredBourbonMonarchy.CharlesXpaidtheUltra-
royalists40millionFrancsascompensationforthelossesandhegotthemoneythroughoverta

xingthepeasantsandmiddleclasswhichmadetherestoredBourbonrulerunpopularandtherefo
recontributedtoitsdownfall.
TherestorationoftheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchinthestateaffairsalsoledtothedownfalloft
heBourbonMonarchy.Forexample,thechurchcontrollededucationandchargedtaxesfromthe
people,religioussinswereequatedtocrimeandbreakingchurchlawswouldleadtoadeathpenal
tywhichmadetherestoredBourbonsunpopularandthereforeledtoitsdownfallby1830.
ThedismissalofthemoderategovernmentofficialslikeMartignacasaChiefMinisterwhobeliev
edinreconciliationandtheappointmentofPoliganacwhowasconservativeledtothecollapseo
ftheBourbonMonarchy.Poliganacbelievedintheoldorderandhethereforereviveditwhichann
oyedtheFrenchmenandthusledtothecollapseoftheBourbonMonarchyby1830.
Thenullificationorcancellationoftheelectionsof1830alsoledtothecollapseoftherestoredBour
bonMonarchy.Forexample,intheseelectionstheUltra-
RoyalistslostandCharlesXnullifiedorcancelledtheresultsandreducedthe Franchiseofthepe
opleintheOrdinancesofSt.CloudofJuly,anactionwhichsparkedoffthe1830Frenchrevolution.
TheroleplayedbyintellectualsalsoledtothedownfalloftheBourbonMonarchy.Theintellectual
swrotenewspapersandmagazineswhichinspiredthemassestostagearevolutionin1830.Fore
xample,strongJournalistslikeAdolfThiersdidaremarkableworkbymobilizingthemassestoo
verthrownBourbonMonarchyin1830.
Theimpactofthe1789FrenchrevolutionandNapoleonIledtothecollapseoftherestoredBourbo
nMonarchy.Therevolutionintroducedtherevolutionaryideasofliberty,equalityandfraternitya
ndbroughtaboutaneworderinFrancewhichwasfreefromsocialstratificationanddespotism.H
owever,therestoredBourbonsforgetthemistakescommittedbytheAncientKingsandbrought
backfullytheperiodbefore1789especiallyCharlesX.Asaresultoftheinfluenceoftherevolutiona
ryideas,therewasthe1830FrenchrevolutionwhichoverthrewtheBourbonMonarchy.
TheinfluenceofBritainalsoledtothecollapseoftherestoredBourbonrulersin1830.Britainsymp
athizedwithliberalinstitutionssinceshewasaliberalcountry.ThisencouragedtheliberalsinFra
ncetostagearevolutionagainsttherestoredBourbonsin1830whicheventuallycontributedtoth
eircollapse.
TheweaknessandlatercollapseoftheCongressSystemalsocontributedtothecollapseoftheres
toredBourbonsin1830.OneoftheobjectivesbehindtheformationoftheCongressSystemwast
oprotecttherestoredlegitimaterulersinEuropefrombeingoverthrownbyrevolutions.Indeed,
duringitsexistencetheCongressSystemsavedanumbersofrulersfrombeingoverthrownlikeFe
rdinandIandFerdinandVIIofNaplesandSpainrespectively.Therefore,hadtheCongressSyste
mbeeninexistenceby1830,itisunlikelythatCharlesXwouldhavebeenoverthrownbytherevolu
tionaries.
EFFECTSOFTHE1830REVOLUTIONINFRANCE

ItledtotheabdicationorresignationofCharlesXinJuly1830becausehetriedtosuppresstherevo
lutionandhefailed.CharlesXfledfromFranceandwenttoEngland,thusmarkingtheendofthere
storedBourbonMonarchyinFrance.
ItledtotheriseoftheMonarchytopowerin1830.TheBourbonMonarchywasreplacedbytheOrle
ansMonarchyunderLouisPhilippewhosegovernmentlastedupto1848whenitwasalsooverthr
owninarevolution.
Itledtotheestablishmentoftherevised1830ConstitutionalCharter.Bythisnewconstitution,th
enumberofvoterswasincreasedbyreducingontheageandtaxqualificationsfrom300to200Fra
ncs.Asaresult,thenumberofvotersincreasedfrom100,000to200,000people.
Freedomofworshipwasalsore-
introducedbythisnewconstitutionof1830.TheRomanCatholicChurchwasrecognizedasthest
atereligionbutotherreligionswerealsoallowedtooperateinFrance.
Evencensorshipofpresswasabolishedandcasesinvolvingthepressweretobehandledcarefull
ybythegovernment.
Also,accordingtothe1830constitutioncabinetministersweretobenominatedbythekingwitht
herecommendationoftheparliamentandthiswasdonetoreducecorruptionfromtheNationalA
ssembly.
Thecontrolofeducationbythechurchwasalsoabolishedandtherewasestablishmentofgovern
mentaidedschools.ThisthereforeledtotheimprovementineducationsystemofFrance.
TheOrleansMonarchyunderLouisPhilippeundertookreformsintheindustrialsectorofFranceb
ysettingupmanyindustries.Inaddition,infrastructuraldevelopmentlikerailwayconstructionw
asundertakenwhichledtotheeconomicrecoveryofFrance.
TheOrdinancesofSt.CloudintroducedbyCharlesXwereabolishedin1830.Forexample,therew
asnomorestateofemergencyandthereforeabsolutismwasabolished.
Therewaslossoflivesanddestructionofpropertyduringthecourseoftherevolution.
Thesuccessofthisrevolutionencouragedtheoutbreakofother1830revolutionsinEuropeanco
untrieslikeBelgium,Poland,aswellastheItalianandGermanstates.
Question:“Theviolationofthe1814constitutionalcharterledtotheoutbreakof18
30revolutioninFrance.“Discuss.

THE1830REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE
In1830,revolutionsbrokeoutindifferentpartsofEurope.InFrance,arevolutionbrokeoutagain
sttheregimeofCharlesXwhileinBelgium,theBelgiansrevoltedagainsttheDutch.Revolutionsw
erealsostagedintheItalianstates,theGermanstatesaswellasinPoland.
THEBELGIANREVOLUTIONOF1830
TheBelgianRevolutionof1830wasanuprisingthatwasorganizedbytheBelgiansagainsttheirD
utchmastersin1830inreactiontotheforcedunionofthetwoountriesbytheViennasettlementof
1815intotheUnitedKingdomofNetherlandsorHolland.ThisunionwasledbyKingWilliamIwh
owasaDutch.ThetwocountrieshadbeenunitedtocreateastrongnationintheNorthEastofFran
cethatwouldresistagainsttheFrenchaggression.TherevolutionwasstagedagainsttheDutchi
nBrusselswhichwasthecapitalofBelgium.By1839,Belgiumwasaneutralandindependentsta
te.
THECAUSESOFTHEBELGIANREVOLUTIONOF1830
Thedesireforindependence(nationalism)ledtotheoutbreakoftheBelgianrevolutionof1830.B
elgiumhadbeenputundertheDutchruleaccordingtotheViennasettlementof1815.Itshouldbe
notedthattheBelgianshadbeenunderforeignruleforalongtimei.e.theypassedfromtheSpanis
htoAustrianrule,totheFrenchruleandfinallytotheDutchrule.By1830therefore,duetothefactt
hattheyhadnotenjoyedanydegreeofindependence,theyroseupagainsttheDutch.
TheViennasettlementof1815causedtheBelgianrevolutionof1830.TheViennasettlementma
deamistakeofformingaunionofBelgiumandHollandsoastocreateastrongbufferstateintheNo

rthEastofFranceknownastheUnitedKingdomofNetherlands.ThecongressmenatViennaigno
redthefactthatthosetwostateswereofdifferenthistoricalbackgroundsandhaddifferentcultur
es.ThisthereforecausedarevolutionastheBelgiansdemandedforanindependentandseparat
estatefromtheDutch.
ThereligiousdifferencesbetweentheDutchandBelgianscausedthe1830Belgianrevolution.T
heDutchwereProtestantswhiletheBelgiansweremainlyCatholics.TheCatholicBelgianshated
dominationbytheProtestantDutchwhoweretheirmasters.Thisthereforeinspiredthemtostag
earevolutionin1830.
ThepoliticaldiscriminationoftheBelgianscausedtherevolution.TheDutchmonopolizedallthe
officialpositionsinthegovernmentlikethearmy,thecivilserviceandthediplomaticmissionorde
partment.Forexample,outofthesevencabinetministers,sixwereDutchandonlyonewasaBelgi
an.Also,thirtyoutofthethirty-
nineambassadorswereDutchandalltheGeneralsinthearmyoftheKingdomwereDutch.Theref
ore,thisfavouritismbyKingWilliamIannoyedtheBelgians,henceinspiringthemtorisein1830as
theydemandedforequalityinthepoliticalaffairs.
TheconflictovertheeducationcontrolcausedtheBelgianrevolutionof1830.TheBelgiansfavou
redthecontrolofeducationbytheCatholicChurchbutintheunionwithDutch,KingWilliamIpute
ducationunderthecontroloftheprotestantChurch.Therefore,thedominanceoftheeducations
ystembytheDutchannoyedtheBelgiansandhencetheyrevoltedagainsttheDutchin1830.
TheunfairorunequalrepresentationintheparliamentcausedtheBelgianrevolutionof1830.Int
heUnitedKingdomoftheBelgiansandtheDutch,therewerethreemillionBelgiansandtwomillio
nDutch.WhatcauseddiscontentwasthattheBelgiansweregivenequalrepresentationwiththe
DutchintheparliamentwhichwasfoundatHagueinHollandyettheBelgianswerethemajority.T
heythereforeregardedthisasunfairrepresentation,thusinspiringthemtoriseupagainsttheirm
astersin1830.
TheunfairtaxationsystempracticedbytheDutchovertheBelgiansalsocausedtheBelgianrevolt
of1830.BreadwasthestaplefoodfortheBelgianswhiletheDutchhadIrishpotatoesastheirstapl
efood.However,KingWilliamIimposedhightaxesonbreadthusmakingtheBelgianfoodveryex
pensive.Ontheotherhand,thetaxesontheDutchfoodwerelowered.Consequently,theBelgian
swerediscontentedbecauseofthehighfoodpricesandthehighcostoflivingwhiletheDutchenjo
yedcheapfood.ThisthereforeledtotheoutbreakoftheBelgianrevolutionof1830.
TheeconomicdifferencesbetweentheBelgiansandtheDutchledtotheoutbreakofthe1830Bel
gianrevoltTheBelgianshaddevelopedbecauseofindustrializationwhiletheDutchwerefar
mersandtradersandwerethereforelessdevelopedcomparedtotheBelgians.Whatcausedc
onflictbetweentheBelgiansandtheDutchwasthatKingWilliamIfavouredaneconomicpolicyof
freetradewhiletheBelgianswantedprotectionism.TheBelgiansfearedthelossofmarketsf
ortheirmanufacturedgoodsduetocompetitionwiththecheapforeignproductsthatwerenotsu
bjectedtotaxationandthereforetheydecidedtorevoltin1830.

TheothereconomiccauseoftheBelgianrevolutionof1830originatedfromtheconflictoverthen
ationaldebtoftheDutch.Beforetheunion,theDutchhadaccumulatedaverybignationaldebt.
WhatcausedconflictswasthatKingWilliamIforcedtheBelgianstocontributetotherepaymento
fthisdebtwhichwouldhavebeenaresponsibilityoftheDutchalone.TheBelgianssawnoreasonf
orpayingthedebtfromwhichtheyhadnotbenefitedandthisdiscontentthereforemadethemtor
evoltin1830.
ThedifferenceinlanguagewasanotherfactorthatcausedtheBelgianrevolutionof1830.KingWi
lliamIdeclaredtheDutchlanguageastheofficiallanguagefortheunionofthetwocountriesyetth
eBelgiansusedFranceastheirofficiallanguage.Consequently,theBelgianswerestoppedfrom
usingtheirmotherlanguage.TheBelgiansconsideredthisasapolicyofunderminingtheircultur
ewhichgeneratedaconflictrevolutionof1830.
TheinfluenceofFrenchrevolutionof1789alsocontributedtotheoutbreakoftheBelgianrevoluti
onof1830.OutoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789,theideasofliberty,equalityandfraternitywereb
orn.Inaddition,theFrenchmenhadmanagedtooverthrowanoppressiveAncientregime.Inthe
union,theDutchusedtoviolatethelibertytheBelgianshadenjoyedsincetheywereliberatedbyF
rance(NapoleonI)fromtheAustrianrule.TheexampleoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789therefore
encouragedtheBelgianstorevoltagainstoppressionbytheDutch.
ThedemandforliberalismcontributedtotheBelgianrevolutionof1830.ThegovernmentofKing
WilliamIforexampleputinplacediscriminativelawsthatcensoredtheBelgianpressornewspap
ers.TheliberaljournaliststhereforeopposedthecensorshiplawsbecausewhiletheBelgiannew
spaperswerecensored,thoseoftheDutchwerenot.ThiscausedaconflictbetweentheDutchan
dBelgianswhichcausedthe1830Belgianrevolution.
TheCollapseoftheCongressSystemalsoledtotheoutbreakofthe1830Belgianrevolution.This
wasbecauseitweakenedthe“MetternichSystem”thathadbeenusedtosuppresstheforceso
fliberalismandnationalisminEurope.ItscollapsealsomeantthattheEuropeanPowerscouldnol
ongerunitetosuppressrevolutionsinEuropeandthisthereforeexplainstheoutbreakofthe1830
Belgianrevolution.
TheJulyrevolutionof1830inFrancealsocontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1830Belgianrevoluti
on.In1830,theFrenchstagedarevolutionagainstKingCharlesXwhohadsucceededLouisXVIIIi
n1824.Amongotherthings,theyaccusedCharlesXofbeingautocratic.Thenewsoftheoverthro
wofCharlesXreachedBrusselswhichwasthecapitalofBelgiumandthisencouragedtheBelgian
stostagearevolutionagainsttheDutchcontrol.
THECOURSEOFTHEBELGIANREVOLUTIONOF1830
On6thAugust1830,theBelgiansrevoltedagainsttheDutchandtherevolutionstartedinBruss
elswhichwasthecapitalofBelgium.InSeptember1830,BrusselscameundertheBelgiancontrol
.

On4thOctober1830,theindependenceofBelgiumwasproclaimedordeclared.InNovember
1830,anewconstitutionwasformedinwhichamonarchywasestablishedandtherewastobeap
arliament,freedomofspeechandpressamongotherfundamentalliberties.Thisconstitutionala
rrangementmadetheBelgianshappy,henceencouragingthemtofighthardertocompleteinde
pendencefromtheDutch.
However,in1831theDutchKingmadeanattackonBelgiumbuttheFrenchandBritishforceshelp
edtheBelgianstodefeattheDutch.ThisfactorhelpedtheBelgianstoconsolidateorstrengthenth
eirindependence.
Astherevolutionprogressed,KingWilliammadeanappealtotheGreatPowersforhelpsoastoreg
ainBelgium.However,thesignatoriesofViennasettlementof1815refusedtoacceptthisreques
t.ThiswasbecausecountrieslikeAustriaandFrancefearedtoannoyBritainiftheysupportedthe
DutchtoprotecttheViennasettlement.ThisfactorfurtherfacilitatedthesuccessoftheBelgiansi
ntheirstruggleagainsttheDutch.
BritainthenauthorizedtheKingLouisPhilippeofFrancetointerveneandprotectBelgiumfroman
yfurtherinvasionbytheDutch.In1838,KingWilliamofHollandwaspersuadedtoacceptBelgium
’sindependenceandBritainpushedforthisindependencetoprotecthereconomicinterestsinBel
giumfromtheFrenchinterference.
Finally,in1839theBritishForeignSecretaryknownasPalmerstonepersuadedRussia,Austria
andPrussiatojoinBritainandFrancetoguaranteetheindependenceandneutralityofBelgium.T
hiswasdoneintheLondonConferenceof1839bytheabovegreatpowers.Therefore,in1839
anewstateofBelgiumemergedonthepoliticalmapofEuropeundertheguardianshiporprotecti
onofBritain.
REASONFORTHESUCCESSOFTHEBELGIANREVOLUTIONBY1839
ThecollapseoftheCongressSystemcontributedtothesuccessoftheBelgianrevolution.Thecon
gresssystemhadbeensetupin1818tomaintainEuropeanpeacethroughsuppressingrevolutio
ns.Unfortunately,by1830thecongresssystemhadcollapsedwhichlefttheGreatPowersofEuro
pedeeplydivided.ThisthereforedestroyedthesprintoftogethernessamongtheEuropeanpow
ers.ThispartlyexplainswhytherewasnoforeigninterventionagainsttheBelgianrevolution.
TheoutbreakofotherrevolutionsinEuropealsocontributedtothesuccessoftheBelgianrevoluti
on.DifferentpartsofEuropeexperienceddisturbanceslikethe1830revolutionsinFrance,Polan
d,ItalyandGermany.TheserevolutionsdivertedtheattentionoftheEuropeanpowersthatwoul
dhaveassistedtheDutch.Forexample,majorpowerslikeAustriaandRussiawerepre-
occupiedwiththe1830revolutionsintheirterritoriesofPolandandItalyrespectively.
TheconstitutionalarrangementsmadebytheBelgianNationalAssemblyorParliamentinNove
mber1830madetheBelgianstosucceed.Inthisnewconstitution,theBelgiansagreedtoputinp
lacepoliticaltolerancewheretherightsofmanlikefreedomofspeechandpressamongotherswer

egranted.ThisincreasedtheBelgiandeterminationtofightandachievetheirindependenceby1
839.
ThemilitarysuperiorityoftheBelgiansovertheirDutchmastersledtothesuccessoftheBelgianre
volution.TheBelgianshadabiggerarmy,well-
motivated,betterarmedandmoredeterminedtofightthantheDutchtroops.Thisexplainswhyt
heBelgianswereabletorepulsetheDutchinvasionandremainfree.
ThestrengthoftheBelgianeconomyalsocontributedtothesuccessoftherevolution.Belgiumwa
sanindustrializednationwithastrongeconomyunlikeHollandwhoseeconomywasbasedonagri
culture.ThisstrongeconomyenabledBelgiumtotrain,arm,maintainandmotivateabigarmytha
tdefeatedtheDutchby1839.
ThefailureoftheGreatpowerstoassisttheDutchalsoledtothesuccessoftheBelgianrevolution.D
uringthecourseoftherevolution,KingWilliamofHollandappealedtotheGreatPowersforhelpso
astoregainBelgium.However,thesignatoriesofViennasettlementof1815refusedtoacceptthis
request.ThiswasbecausecountrieslikeAustriaandPrussiafearedtoannoyBritainiftheysupport
edtheDutchtoprotecttheViennasinceBritainwaspursuingthepolicynon-
interference.Asalreadynoted,otherpowerslikeFranceandRussiawerealsostrugglingwiththe1
830revolutionsbackhomeandthereforetherewasnowaytheycouldsupporttheDutchagainstth
eBelgians.
TheabsenceofMetternich’sinfluenceinBelgiumalsoledtothesuccessoftherevolution.Mettern
ichdidnothavedirectcontroloverBelgiumunliketheItalianandGermanstatessinceBelgiumwa
snotpartoftheHapsburgEmpirewhichhegoverned.Metternichhadsucceededelsewhereinthe
GermanandItalianstatesaswellasAustriainsuppressingtheforcesofliberalismandnationalism
butinBelgiumhedidnot.Moreever,theMetternichsystemwasstrongopposedbyBritain.
Thesuccessof1830revolutioninFrancealsoledtothesuccessoftheBelgianrevolution.InJuly18
30,FrenchmenhadsucceededagainstCharlesXwhichinspiredofBelgianstoalsoworkhardandd
efeattheDutchby1839.
ThediplomacyofPalmerstonealsofavouredBelgium’sindependence.HewastheForeignMinist
erofBritainortheUnitedKingdom.HepersuadedotherEuropeanpowerstojoinBritainandsignt
heLondonTreatyof1839whichestablishedtheneutralityandindependenceofBelgium.
ThedeterminationoftheBelgianscontributedtothesuccessoftherevolution.TheBelgianswere
sodeterminedtobringtoanendtheunionandexploitationoftheDutch.TheBelgianswerestrugg
lingagainstthe1815ViennasettlementthathadimposedDutchcontrolontothem.Evenafter18
30,theDutchdisplayedruthlessnesswhentheyinvadedBelgiumin1831andtheycausedunjusti
fiabledestructionsandkillingsontotheBelgium.AllthismadetheBelgiansdeterminedtoliberate
themselvesfromtheirDutchmasters.

ThebigsizeoftheBelgianpopulationledtothesuccessoftheevolution.TheBelgianswerethreea
ndhalfmillionpeopleasopposedtothetwomillionDutch.ThisthereforemeantthattheBelgians
wereabletomobilizemorefinancialresourcesandmenthantheDutchwhicheventuallycontribu
tedtothesuccessoftherevolutionby1839.
TheroleofBritaincontributedtothesuccessoftheBelgianrevolution.ThegovernmentinBritain
wassympathetictotheBelgiancauseandneverwishedtoseeanyinterventionwhichwasboundt
ojeopardizetheBritishcommercialandstrategicinterestsinBelgium.ThisexplainswhytheBelgi
anrevolutionsucceededby1839.
Themassivesupporttotherevolutioncontributedtoitssuccess.The1830revolutioninBelgium
wasamassivemovementthatincludedthemiddleclassmembers(intellectuals),traders,peasa
nts,clergyandsoldiersamongothers.Therewerenotraitorsandthereforeeveryonewasreadyt
ofightforfreedomandindependence.ThisexplainswhytheGreatPowerslikeBritainandFrancei
nsteadofsuppressingthemovementjusthelpedtheBelgianstosucceedinsettingupanindepen
dentandneutralstateby1839.
TheLondonConferenceof1839contributedtothesuccessoftheBelgianrevolution.Thisconfere
ncegavebirthtotheLondontreatyof1839whichdecreedtheindependenceandneutralityofBelg
iumandthiswasreorganizedbythegreatpowersaswellasHolland.Besides,theconferenceclear
lydefinedtheboundariesofBelgiumandherneighborslineHolland.AllthesemadetheBelgianre
volutiononinternationalissue,thusleadingtoitssuccess.
THEIMPACTOFTHEBELGIANREVOLUTIONOF1830
Belgiumwassavedfromforeignruleandthereforeshebecameindependent.Outofthe1830Bel
gianrevolution,anindependentstateknownasBelgiumemergedonthepoliticalmapofEurope.
IndependentBelgiumcametoenjoytheconstitutionallibertiesthathadpartlyinspiredthemtori
seupagainsttheDutchin1830.Forexample,freedomofworshipandpresswereestablished.Thi
sexplainswhyBelgiumsurvivedthe1848revolutionsthatbrokeoutthroughoutEurope.
TheBelgianrevolutionfurtherinspiredliberalisminEuropethusleadingtotheoutbreakofliber
alrevolutions.Forexample,the1830revolutionsinItalyandPolandbrokeoutpartlybecauseofth
edemandforliberalism.In1830,therewasalsoaliberalrevolutioninSpain.TherevolutioninBelg
iumalsocontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutionsinEuropeancountrieslikeAustria,Fr
anceandtheGermanstates.Thiswasbecausethedemandforliberalismhadpartlyledtothesucc
essfulBelgianrevolutionof1830.
TheBelgianrevolutionandthesubsequentindependenceofBelgiumchangedtheworkofVienn
asettlementof1815.BelgiumandHollandwereunitedatViennasoastocreateastrongstatethat
wouldguardagainsttheFrenchaggressionintheNorthEast.However,thissituationwasnomor
eastheBelgianshadgottheirindependence.

TheBelgianrevolutionof1830contributedtothecollapseofthecongresssystem.Oneoftheobje
ctivesofthecongresssystemwastoprotecttheViennasettlementof1815andtopromoteinterna
tionalco-
operationforthepurposeofmaintainingpeaceinEurope.However,whentheBelgianrevolution
brokeoutin1830,BritainandFrancewhoweremembersofthecongresssystemsupportedtheB
elgiansuptowhentheyattainedindependence.Therefore,theydidnotliveuptotheobjectiveof
protectingtheViennasettlementasdesiredbytheotherpowerslikeAustria,PrussiaandRussia.
Thisthereforeweakenedthecongresssystem,thusleadingtoitscollapse.
TheBelgianindependenceandneutralitycausedWorldWarIof1914to1918.Followingthe1830
revolution,Belgiumbecameanindependentandneutralcountryandtheprotectionofthiscount
rywasgiventoBritain.However,in1914GermanywantedtoinvadeFrancefromthenorthusingB
elgiumasashortcut.BritainremindedtheGermansthatBelgiumwasanindependentandneutra
lcountryandthereforetheywerenottouseBelgiumtoattackFrance.WhentheGermansrefused
torespectthisindependenceandneutralityofBelgium,warbrokeoutbetweenGermanyandBrit
ainin1914.
TheBelgianrevolutionandindependenceexposedtheweaknessoftheconservativearistocrats
inEuropelikePrinceMetternichofAustria.Metternichhadalreadyconvincedthemonarchs(king
s)ofEuropetocrushalltherevolutionsandtoregardallthechangesbroughtaboutbyrevolutions
asillegal.However,therewasasuccessfulBelgianrevolutionwhichMetternichfailedtodefeat.T
histhereinspiredtheoutbreakofotherrevolutionsinEurope,hopingforthesamesuccess.
TherevolutionandindependenceofBelgiumrestoredinternationaldiplomacyinEuropewhichh
adcollapsedby1830.ThiswasillustratedbytheholdingtheLondonconferenceof1839whereRu
ssia,Britain,FranceandAustriadeclaredtheindependenceandneutralityofBelgium.
TheindependenceofBelgiumoutofthe1830revolutioncontributedtotheunpopularityanddow
nfallofKingLouisPhilippeofFrance.WhentheBelgiansgottheirindependence,theyofferedthet
hronetothesonofLouisPhilippe.ThiswasopposedbyBritainandthereforeLouisPhilippewithdr
ewhissonforpeacewithBritainandthethronewenttoLeopoldwhowasanuncletoQueenVictori
aofBritain.However,thoseFrenchmenwhowantedtoreviveorrestorethegloryorfameofFranc
eblamedLouisPhilippeforbeingaweakking.Thiseventuallyledtohisdownfallin1848.
TheBelgianrevolutionof1830createdamarriagealliancebetweenFranceandBelgium.TheFre
nchsupportedtheBelgianindependenceandthiscreatedlinksorrelationswiththeBelgianthron
e.ThislaterresultedintothemarriageallianceofthedaughterofLouisPhilippetokingLeopoldofB
elgium.
TherevolutioncreatedacloserlinkbetweenBelgiumandBritain.Whentherevolutionbrokeouti
n1830,BritaingavetotalsupporttotheBelgians.ItwasalsoBritainthroughherforeignsecretary
PalmerstonethatcalledtheLondonconferenceof1839thatdeclaredBelgiumanindependenta
ndneutralstate.Aboveall,BritaintookovertheprotectionofBelgiumsincethethronehadbeenof

feredtoLeopoldanuncletoqueenVictoriaofBritain.ThisthereforeincreasedtheBritishinfluenc
einEuropeanaffairsparticularlyBelgium.
Afterthesuccessoftherevolution,theboundaryproblemsbetweenBelgiumandHollandwereso
lvedonceandforall.Forexample,BelgiumwasnottoincludetheterritoryofLuxembourginitsbou
ndaries.
WhentheBelgiansgottheirindependence,theyputupaneconomicsystemofprotectionismtos
afeguardtheirmanufacturedgoodsfromforeigncompetition.Thisaffectedtheeconomiesofve
rymanyEuropeancountriesespeciallythosewhoseproductsusedtofindmarketsinBelgium.
TheBelgianrevolutionof1830alsocontributedtothedestructionofpropertyaswellaslossoflive
sonbothsides.Forexample,industriesweredestroyedinBelgiumduringtheheavyfighting.
ReferenceQuestions:
1. Towhatextentweretheeconomicfactorsresponsiblefortheoutbreakofthe
Belgianrevolutionof1830?
2. “ThepolicyofKingWilliamIcontributedtotheoutbreakoftheBelgianrevolut
ionof1830”.Discuss.
3. ExplainthefactorsthatenabledtheBelgianstoconsolidatetheirindependen
ceby1839.
4. DiscussthecausesandconsequencesoftheBelgianrevolutionof1830.
5. AssesstheimpactoftheBelgianrevolutionof1830onEurope.
THEPOLISHREVOLUTIONOF1830
BytheViennasettlementof1815,RussiaannexedpartofPoland,henceleadingtothelossofindependen
cebythePoles.Asaresult,thepolishnationalistsledbyasecretsocietyanduniversitystudentsstagedan
ationalisticrevolutionin1830demandingforindependencefromRussia.TherevolutionwasstagedinW
arsawwhichwasthecapitalofPoland.Therevolutionariesweresupportedbysimilarrevoltsinothertow
nsofPoland.
CAUSES
ThedemandfornationalindependencecausedthePolishrevolutionof1830.Since1772,Poland
hadbeenasubjectstatechanginghandsfromonepowertoanother.DuringNapoleonI’srule,the
irhopeforindependenceanddemocracybecamefrustratedwhenNapoleoncombinedthePolis
hterritoriestocreatetheGrandDuchyofWarsaw.TheViennaSettlementof1815restoredthe
oldkingdomofPolandbutunderRussiancontrol,thusinjuringthePolishnationalprideandaspira
tions.Thus,the1830revolutionwasintendedtoliberatetheircountryfromforeignrule.
ThePolesconsideredthemselvestobeofasuperiorracetothatoftheRussians.ThePoleswerepr
oudoftheircultureandcatholicreligion.Hence,theyhadtofighttheRussianrulewhichtheyregar
dedasagreatinsult.

TheunsatisfactoryRussianadministrationinspiredthePolestostagearevolutionin1830.Thelib
eralconcessionsgrantedbytheRussiansliketherecognitionoftheirfreedomofthepressandthe
PolishnationallanguagewereconsideredtooinadequatebythePoles.ThePoleswerepoliticallyr
estrictedespeciallyafterthedeathofTsarAlexanderIin1825inRussia.Therefore,freedomofthe
presswassuppressedandrepresentativeassembliesandaconstitutionlosttheirmeaning.Such
conditionseventuallyledtotheoutbreakoftherevolution.
TheriseofTsarNicholasItopowerin1825causedthe1830Polishrevolution.Hetookoverpowerf
ollowingthedeathofTsarAlexanderIin1825.NicholasIviolatedpeople’sliberties.Forexample,
hekilledmanypeoplewhohadparticipatedintheconspiracythathadledtothedeathofhisfather.
NicholasIalsoproposedtousethe|
Polisharmytocrushthe1830rebellionsinFranceandBelgium.ThisannoyedthePolisharmywhic
hthereforedecidedtorebelin1830,thussparkingoffarevolution.
Thesuccessofthe1830revolutionsinFranceandBelgiumcontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1830
Polishrevolution.ThesuccessoftheabovetworevolutionsencouragedthePolestoriseupagains
ttheirRussianmastersastheyhopedforthesamesuccess.
TheFrenchrevolutionof1789alsocausedthePolishrevolutionof1830.Thisrevolutionintroduce
dtheideasoflibertyanddemocracywhichledtothegrowthofliberalismthathadanimpactontheP
oles.TheseideasappealedtoalltheoppressedpeopleofEuropeandnodoubttheywereresponsi
blefortheoutbreakofthe1830Polishrevolution.
TheViennasettlementof1815contributedtotheoutbreakofthe1830Polishrevolution.BytheVi
ennasettlement,PolandwasdeniedindependencesinceshewasplacedundertheRussiancontr
ol.ThisinspiredthePolestostagearevolutionin1830soastoendthisRussianimperialismthatthe
ViennaSettlementhadimposedoverthembytheViennasettlement.
THECOURSEOFTHEPOLISHREVOLUTIONOF1830
Whentherevolutionbrokeoutin1830,TsarNicholasIofRussiawasnotwillingtobeintimidatedb
ytherevolutionariesandthereforeherefusedtonegotiatewiththem.HeinsteadsentalargeRus
sianarmytoPolandtocrushtherevolution.
TheRussianarmyusingextremebrutalitywasabletoputdownthePolishrevolution.Thousands
ofsuspectedrevolutionarieswereroundedup(arrested),imprisoned,otherskilledandsurvivor
sfledtoexile.
InanattempttoweakenthePolesfurther,TsarNicholasItookmeasurestostampoutallthePolish
traditionsandcustomswhichheregardedasfactorsofunityandwhichencouragedPolishnation
alism.WarsawwhichwasthecenteroftheoppositionandthePolishculturallifewasreducedtoa
militarytownwhereTsarNicholasIstationedthousandsofRussiantroops.Healsoclosedalltheu
niversities.ThismovescaredthePolishliberals,intellectualsandnationalistsandtherefore,the
Polishrevolutionof1830provedabortiveoritfailed.

REASONSFORTHEFAILUREOFTHEPOLISHREVOLUTIONOF1830
Thelackofmassivesupportledtothefailureoftherevolution.Therevoltwasnotwidelysupported
becausetherebelgrievanceswereisolatedandcouldeasilybeignored.RussianruleinPolandha
dbeenefficientlyaccommodativeandtolerant.TsarAlexanderIhadtriedtodevelopthePolishec
onomythoughprotectionism.Asaresult,therevolutionappealedtoasmallsectionofthePolishs
ocietyandthatiswhyitwaseasilysuppressed.
ThelackofunityledtothefailureofthePolishrevolution.Therevolutionariessuffereddivisionswi
thintheirranks.ThemoderatesofPolandthoughtofreclaimingtheEasternprovincethatRussiah
adtakenin1781whiletheradicalstalkedofnationalindependence.Suchdivisiondeprivedtherev
olutionofitssuccess.
Theoutbreakofepidemicdiseasesledtothefailureofthe1830Polishrevolution.Forexample,dur
ingthecourseoftherevolution,therewasanoutbreakofcholerawhichhittherevolutionaries.Thi
sdiseasewassodisastroustothePolesalthoughitaffectedbotharmies.TheRussiansthereforee
asilycapturedWarsawwhichwasthecapitalofPolandinOctober1831andtherevolutionariesjus
tsurrendered.
ThePoleslackedforeignmilitaryassistancewhichalsotothefailureofthe1830Polishrevolution.
ThiswasbecausenationalistsandrevolutionarieselsewhereinEuropewerealsobusyoccupied
withtheirownrevolutions.Therefore,withoutexternalhelpthePolesdidnoteffectivelymanaget
heRussianarmy.Forexample,FrancewhichwasthemotherofallrevolutionsinEuropewasbusy
attendingtoherdomesticproblemsby1830.
ThePolesweremilitarilyinferiorandill-equippedascomparedtothewell-
equippedsuperiorRussianarmy.ThisthereforecontributedtotheirdefeatbytheRussianarmy.
Economicbackwardnesscontributedtothefailureofthe1830revolutioninPoland.ThePolishrev
olutionarieswerealsofinanciallyhandcapedandthereforetheycouldnotsustainaspiritedresist
anceagainsttheRussiansforlong.Asaresult,RussiagotchancetheeconomicallyinferiorPolishn
ationalists.
THE1830REVOLUTIONSINTHEITALIANSTATES
In1830,therewerenationalisticandliberalrevolutionsintheItalianstatesofParma,Modena,Tu
scanyandNaples.RevolutionswerealsostagedinthePopalstatesofUmbria,Romagna,andMan
ches.ThesestateswereunderthedirectpoliticalandreligiouscontrolofthePope.Thenationalist
sinItalywantedindependencewhiletheliberalsdemandedforconstitutionswhichwouldgiveth
emfreedomofpress,speechandassociationamongothers.ThenationalistsinItalywantedane
ndtotheAustriancontrolinNorthernItalyandthecontrolofNaplesbyKingFerdinandIwhowasre
storedbytheViennaSettlementof1815.
CAUSESTHE1830REVOLUTIONSINTHEITALIANSTATES

Themistakesofthe1815Viennasettlementcausedthe1830revolutionsintheItalianstates.Fore
xample,thesettlementimposeddirectAustrianruleorimperialismovertheItalianstatesofLomb
ardyandVenetia.TheCentralDuchiesofModena,ParmaandTuscanywerealsoputunderAustri
anrulerswhileinNaplesandSicilyaswellasthePopalstates,theAustrianinfluencewasgreatlyfelt
.ItwasonlyPiedmont-
SardiniathatwasunderatrueItalianleaderknownasKingVictorEmmanuelI.therefore,theItalia
nsroseupsoastooverthrowthisAustrianforeigndominationandgettheirindependence.
ThedesireforliberalinstitutionsamongtheItalianstatescausedthe1830revolutions.By1830,t
heItalianswereundertheautocraticrestoredrulerswhodeniedtheItalianstherighttoconstituti
onalandparliamentaryrule.ThisthereforeinfluencedtheItalianstostagerevolutionsin1830.
TheoppressiveMetternichsystemalsocausedthe1830Italianrevolutions.Thiswasthecasewit
htherevoltsinstateslikeLombardyandVenetia.
ThesuccessoftheFrenchrevolutionsof1789and1830alsoledtotheoutbreakofthe1830Italianr
evolutions.TheserevolutionsprovideanexamplewhichwaspickedupbytheItalians.Theserev
olutionsalsogavebirthtonationalismandliberalisminEuropewhichwereparticularlyresponsibl
efortheoutbreakofthe1830revoltsinItaly.
The“Napoleonicinfluence”inItalycausedthe1830revolutions.WhenNapoleonIconqueredthe
ItaliansstatesfromAustriaduringthe1796-
1797ItalianCampaign,heintroducedreformsinItalylikethefreedomofworshipandpress.This
undoubtedlypreparedthepeopleofItalyforrevoltsespeciallywhensuchgainswereerodedbyth
erestoredkingsintheItalianstates.
TheinfluenceoftheearlierrevolutionsintheItalianstatesalsocausedthe1830revolutions.Fore
xample,in1820-
1821therehadbeenrevolutionsintheItalianstatesofSicily,NaplesandPiedmontwhichwerecru
shedbyPrinceMetternichofAustria.Theserevolutionsgaverisetothe1830revoltsintheItalianst
atesbecausethedemandsoftherevolutionarieswerenotfulfilledin1830.
TheformationofsecretsocietiesintheItalianstatesalsocausedthe1830revolutions.Anumbero
fundergroundsocietieswereformedbytheItalianpatriotstoadvancetheliberalandnationalisti
caspirationsoftheItalians.Thesesecretsocietiesthereforespreadrevolutionarypropagandaa
gainsttherestoredkingsandAustrianruleinItaly,thuscallingforanendtoforeignanddictatorialr
ule.ThisthereforeinspiredtheItalianstoriseupin1830.Themostimportantwasthe Carbonari
SocietywhichhaditsheadquartersinNaples.
THECOURSEOFTHEITALIANREVOLUTIONSOF1830
WhentherevolutionsbrokeoutinthevariousItalianstates,AustriaunderPrinceMetternichwas
notwillingtoseechangesbroughtbytheserevolutions.Therefore,withinafewdaysMetternich’
stroopsthatwereinItalymanagedtodefeattherevolutionariesandtheoldstatuswasrestored.A
rrests,imprisonmentandkillingoftherevolutionarieswerecarriedoutbytheAustriantroops.Qu

eenMarieLouiseofParmawhohadbeendrivenoutofpowerwasalsorestored.Therefore,therev
olutionsinItalyof1830alsoprovedabortiveorfailed.
THE1830REVOLUTIONSINTHEGERMANSTATES
In1830,therewererevolutionsintheGermanstatesofSaxonyandBrunswick.TheGermans
weredemandingforindependencefromAustriaandatthesametimewantedaliberalconstitutio
ntosafeguardthemagainstautocraticrule.However,aslongasaPrinceMetternichwasincontro
loftheGermanConfederationorstates,hisspyingsystemandthearmymadeitverydifficultforth
erevolutionariestostageasuccessfulrevolutionandthereforethe1830revolutionsinGermanst
atesalsofailed.
GENERALCAUSESOFTHE1830REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE
ThemistakesoftheViennasettlementof1815causedthe1830revolutionsinEurope.Forexampl
e,theViennasettlementmadeamistakeofrestoringtheunpopularlegitimaterulers.InFrance,t
heBourbonswererestoredandby1830CharlesXwasthekingofFrance.IntheItalianstatesofNa
plesandSicily,FerdinandIhadbeenrestoredasking.Theserulersbecameveryoppressivetothei
rsubjects.Forexample,CharlesXandKingFerdinandIoverthrewtheliberalconstitutionsthatha
dbeengrantedtothem.Therevolutionariesthereforewantedtooverthrowtheseunpopularregi
mesthathadbeenrestoredbytheViennasettlement.
Thedesiretoattainnationalindependenceandunificationalsoledtothe1830revolutionsinEuro
pe.By1830,peoplewhosharedacommonhistory,languageandculturebutwereunderforeignr
ulerevoltedinordertoattainindependenceandunification.InItalyforexample,revolutionsbrok
eoutagainsttheAustriancontrol.InthekingdomofNetherlands,theBelgiansrevoltedagainstth
eDutchwhileinPoland,arevolutionwasstagedagainsttheRussiancontrol.
ThedesiretoendunjustorbadgovernmentsinEuropeancountriescausedthe1830revolutionsi
nEurope.IntheUnitedkingdomofNetherlands,France,NaplesandPolandtherewaswidesprea
dcensorshipofthepressbytherulinggovernments.TheDutchimposedunfairtaxationovertheB
elgiansandalsosubstitutedtheirlanguagewiththatoftheDutchastheofficiallanguage.Ingener
al,therefore,revolutionsbrokeoutinordertooverthrowthebadgovernmentintherespectiveco
untries.
TheeconomichardshipsinsomeoftheEuropeancountriesledtothe1830revolutions.IntheKing
domofNetherlandsforexample,theDutchimposedhightaxesontheBelgianfoodandalsocollec
tedrevenuefromtheBelgianstopaytheDutchnationaldebt.InFrance,therewasaproblemofun
employment,whichwasworsenedbyfoodshortages.Suchconditionscauseddiscontent,thusl
eadingtotheoutbreakofthe1830revolutionsinEurope.
TheharshsystemusedbyPrinceMetternichalsoinfluencedtheoutbreakofthe1830revolutionsi
nEuropeparticularlyintheAustrianEmpire.IntheGermanConfederation,PrinceMetternichab
olishedstudents’societies,politicalclubsandtheuniversityprofessorswhoopposedhisviewsw
ereexpelled.IntheItalianstates,PrinceMetternichdeployedspiesandforeignarmies,theoppo

nentswouldbearrested,tortured,imprisonedandotherskilled.TherevolutionariesintheItalian
andGermanstatesthereforerevoltedinagainsttheunpopular“MetternichSystem”.
TheFrenchrevolutionof1789influencedtheoutbreakofthe1830revolutionsinEurope.In1789,
theFrenchmenrevoltedagainsttheunfair,bankruptandautocraticsystemofgovernment.The
ymanagedtoachievefundamentalchangeslikereligiousfreedom,abolitionofsocialclassesasw
ellastheintroductionofconstitutionalgovernance.ThesuccessoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789t
hereforeencouragedthepeoplewhowereexperiencingautocraticregimeslikeinFranceofChar
lesX,inNaplesofFerdinandIandPolandwhichwasundertheRussiancontroltostagerevolutions
soastobringaboutpolitical,socialandeconomicreforms.
Thedesireforliberalreformsledtotheoutbreakofthe1830revolutionsinEurope.Therevolution
arieswantedtherestorationofafairparliamentarydemocracy,freedomofthepress,expression
,worshipandequalitybeforethelawinthosecountrieswhereliberalismwasbeingabused.InFra
nceforexample,CharlesXabolishedtheConstitutionalCharterof1814andruledasthedict
ator.InNaples,FerdinandIabolishedtheliberalconstitutionof1812.InBelgium,FranceandtheI
talianstates,therewasnofreedomofthepress.Suchconditionsthereforecreatedgroundsforth
emassestorevoltsoastoattainliberalreforms.
ThesuccessoftheFrenchrevolutionof1830influencedoutbreakofotherrevolutionsinEurope.I
nJuly1830,theFrenchmenrevoltedandoverthrewtheBourbonregimeofCharlesX.Thisencour
agedtheBelgianswhosharedtheircommonboarderwithFrancetostagearevolutionagainstthe
Dutch.TheJulyrevolutioninFrancealsoinfluencedthepeopleofPolandtorevoltagainstRussian
rule.
Theriseofastrongmiddleclassandthegrowthofindustriesinfluencedtheoutbreakofrevolution
in1830.InFranceforexample,themiddleclass(richmerchants)opposedthepolicyofCharlesXw
hoconfiscatedtheirfundsandcompensatedhissupporterswhohadlivedinexilesincetheoutbre
akofthe1789FrenchrevolutioninBelgium,theindustrialistswantedtoputanendtothepolicyoff
reetradepreferredbytheDutchandreplaceitwithprotectionismsoastoprotecttheirmanufactu
redgoodsfromcompetitionwithforeigngoods.Theindustrialworkersalsodemandedforbetter
pay,housingconditionstobeimprovedandlessworkinghoursbecausemostoftheemployersw
erenotwillingtoimproveontheworkingconditionsoftheworkersastheirinterestwastomaximiz
eprofits.
TheBritishsupporttowardsliberalmovementsalsoencouragedtheoutbreakofrevolutionsin18
30.Britainhadaconstitutionalmonarchyandallowedfreedomofworshipandpressamongother
liberties.TheBritishgovernmenthadhatredforgovernmentsinEuropewhichviolatedthefunda
mentalhumanrightsorwhichwereautocratic.Itisnotsurprisingtherefore,thatBritainsupporte
dtheBelgianstoriseupagainsttheDutchwhowereoppressivetotheBelgians.
TheweaknessesoftheCongressSystemalsocontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1830revolutions
.Inthefirstplace,membersofthecongresssystemlikeRussiaandAustriawereveryconservative
andthereforetheywerealsoagainsttheforcesofchangelikenationalismforexampleinNaplesa

ndPoland.TheywerealsocommittedtoprotectingtheunpopularandrestoredregimesinEurop
ewhileontheotherhand,othermembersofthecongresssystemlikeBritainencouragedrevoluti
onsasameansofrectifyingorcorrectingthemistakesoftheViennasettlementof1815.
TheexampleoftheGreekWarofIndependenceof1821-
1832contributedtotheoutbreakofthe1830revolutionsinEurope.In1821,theGreeksrevolteda
gainsttheTurkishforeigncontrolandpooradministration.In1829,theGreeksattainedsemi-
independenceandfinallyfullindependencein1832.Thisencouragedtheoppressedpeoplei
nEuropeandthosewhowereunderforeignruletostagerevolutionswithahopeofattainingtheir
goalsforexampleinBelgium,Poland,NaplesaswellastheGermanandItalianstates.
EFFECTSOFTHE1830REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE
Theoutbreakofthe1830revolutionsledtothetriumphorsuccessoftheFrenchpeople.TheFrenc
hwereabletooverthrowtheoppressiveregimeofCharlesXwhichhadcausedalotofsufferingtot
heFrenchmasses.
Similarly,theoutbreakofthe1830revolutionsledtothesuccess(triumph)oftheBelgiannational
ism.WhiletheDutchhadwantedtomaintaintheunionwiththeBelgians,theBelgianswereableto
undoorchangetheunionandattaintheirindependencein1839.
The1830revolutionsalsoledtothedefeatofsomerevolutionariesincertaincountries.InPolandf
orexample,RussiadefeatedtherevolutionariesandrestoredherfullcontroloverPolanduntilthe
endofWorldWarIin1919.TherevolutionariesintheItalianandGermanstateswerealsodefeate
dbyAustria.
Outofthe1830revolutions,newgovernmentsemergedinEurope.InBelgiumforexample,amo
narchyledbyKingLeopoldwasestablishedwhileinFrance,theOrleansMonarchyledbyKingLoui
sPhilippereplacedthatofCharlesXandthismarkedtheendoftheBourbonruleinFrance.
The1830revolutionsledtotheestablishmentofoppressivesystemsandlawsincertaincountries
ofEurope.InPolandforexample,WarsawthatwasthecentreofPolishliberalismandnationalism
wasturnedintoaRussianbarracks.ManyPolesalsofledthecountrytoPrussia.Austriaalsostreng
theneddenialoffreedomofworship,associationandthepresswashighlycensoredinherempire
.Allthiswasintendedto“kill”liberalism.
Therevolutionsexposedtheneedforconstitutionallibertiesandindependenceincertaincountri
es.InFrance,LouisPhilippewasenthronedwithaconstitutionalcharterwhichhadbeenremove
dbyCharlesX.Thecharterguaranteedfundamentalhumanrightslikefreedomofthepress,wors
hipandaparliamentamongotherliberties.InBelgium,KingLeopoldwasenthronedwithaconsti
tutionandsubsequentlytheBelgianswererecognizedasanindependentstateattheLondonCon
ferenceof1839bytheEuropeanpowers.

The1830revolutionsoverthreworchangedtheworkoftheViennaSettlementof1815.Forexam
ple,theindependenceofBelgiumwhichwasoutoftheBelgianrevolutionof1830createdanewst
ateonthepoliticalmapofEuropewhichwasformerlypartoftheUnitedKingdomoftheDutchandt
heBelgians.InFrance,theBourbonregimethathadbeenrestoredbytheViennaSettlementofw
asalsooverthrowandthefirstelectedkinginFrancewasvotedintopowerinthenameofLouisPhili
ppe.
The1830revolutionsledtothetotalcollapseofthecongresssystem.TheEuropeanpowersfailed
toco-
operateinordertoprotectthestatusquointhosecountrieswhichexperiencerevolutions.Forexa
mple,BritainandFrancedecidedtosupporttherevolutionariesespeciallyinBelgium.Ontheothe
rhand,RussiaandAustriacrushedtherevolutionsinPolandandItalianstatesrespectivelybecau
setheywereconservativeyetBritainwasliberal.Therefore,therevolutionsdividedthemember
softhecongresssystemthusleadingtoitscollapse.
NewrulersemergedonthepoliticalsceneofEurope.InFrance,LouisPhilippetookoverpoweran
druledaskingfrom1830upto1848whenhewasoverthrownthrougharevolution.InBelgium,Ki
ngLeopoldwhowasanuncletoQueenVictoriaofBritainwasenthronedasKingofBelgium.
Outofthe1830revolutions,theforcesofnationalismandliberalismwerestrengthened.IntheGe
rmanstates,theItalianstatesandAustria,theliberalsandnationalistsnevergaveupthestruggle
soastoachievetheirobjectives.Consequently,in1848liberalandnationalisticrevolutionswere
stagedagainstKingFerdinandIofNaples,againstAustriaintheItalianandGermanstatesaswell
asinViennaagainstPrinceMetternich.
The1830revolutionsledtodestructionoflivesandproperty.InPolandforexample,Warsawwhic
hwasthecapitalofPolandandacentreforpoliticalandculturallifewasdestroyedbytheRussians.
InNaples,therevolutionarieswerehunteddown,arrestedandotherswerekilledsomeofthesur
vivorsinItalyandPolandfledtoexile.InBelgium,therewasdestructionofindustries.
REASONSFORTHEFAILUREOFTHE1830REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE
Poororganizationledtothefailureofthe1830revolutionsinEurope.Therevoltswereagonizedby
secretsocietiesliketheCarbonariinItalywhomadesurpriseattacksagainsttherulinggovernm
entsratherthanalargeuprisingagainsttheexistingorder.Thishelpedtheexistinggovernmentst
oeasilysuppressthesepoorlyorganizeduprisings.
Therewaslackofunitybytherevolutionarieswhichcontributedtotheirfailure.Therevolutionari
esweredividedalongdifferentpoliticalideologiesorthoughts.Forexample,intheItalianstatess
omerevolutionarieswererepublicansandthereforetheyfavouredtheestablishmentofaRepubl
icincaseItalygotliberatedfromtheAustrianrulewhileothersweremonarchists.InGermanstate
s,someoftherevolutionarieswereliberalswhileotherswereconservatives.Suchdivisionsweret
hereforeexploitedbyAustriatodefeattherevolutionariesin1830,thusleadingtotheirfailure.

Militarybackwardnessalsocontributedtothefailureofthe1830revolutionsinEurope.Forexam
ple,intheItalianandGermanstatestherevolutionariesweremilitarilyweakwithoutawelltrained
andequippedarmyasopposedtoAustriathatwasverystrongmilitarily.ThisthereforehelpedAu
striatosuppressmanyoftheseuprisingsinGermanyandItaly.ThesamewastrueinPolandwhere
therevolutionariesweredefeatedbyRussiawhichhadawell-
equippedandtrainedarmythatcouldnotbechallengedbytheinferiorarmyofthePoles.
Thelackofforeignmilitaryassistancecontributedtothefailureofthe1830revolutionsinEurope.
Someofthe1830revolutionswerestagedagainstmajorEuropeanpowerslikeAustriaandRussia
andsincethesepowersweremilitarilystrong,itbecamedifficultfortherevolutionariestodefeatt
hemwithoutthehelpofotherforeignpowers.EvenFrancewhichwouldhaveofferedahandasac
hampionoftherevolutionarymovementswasstillpre-
occupiedbyherinternalproblemofJuly1830revolution.
COMMONCHARACTERISTICSOF1830REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE
Inallpartswheretherevolutionsoccurred,theywereinspiredbytheforceofliberalismandnation
alism.Forexample,theywantedtoachievenationalindependenceasthecasewaswithBelgiumf
romHolland,PolandfromRussia,theItalianandGermanstatesfromAustria.
TheywereallagainstthearrangementoftheViennaSettlementof1815.Forexample,theprincip
leofcreationbufferstates,legitimaterulersandthatofbalanceofpowerwereallhatedbythesmal
lstateslikeItaly,GermanyandBelgiumleadingtothe1830revolutions.
Theywereallcarriedoutbytheintellectualsandmiddleclassmembers.Forexample,the1830rev
olutionsinBelgium,PolandandAustriawereengineeredbythemiddleclass.AdolfThiersjourn
alistengineeredthatof1830inFrance.
Mostofthemwereurbancentredi.e.theybeganinurbancentreslikeParisofFrance,ViennainAus
tria,RomeinItaly,WarsawinPolandandBrusselsinBelgium.Thiswasduetothefactthatmostoft
hemiddleclassmemberslivedurbanareaswhereeconomichardshipslikeinflationandunemplo
ymentweretoomuchexperienced.
Mostofthe1830revolutionswereagainstthe“MetternichSystem”.Forexample,intheItalianan
dGermanstatesrevolutionswerestagedagainsttheoppressivepolicesofMetternichwhohadre
storedtheoldorderlikedespotism,feudalism,monarchismandabsolutismintheabovestates.
Theyalltookplacealmostatthesametimewherebytheprogressofonerevolutionwouldinfluenc
etheoutbreakofotherrevolutions.Forexample,thesuccessofthe1830revolutioninFranceinsp
iredotherslikethe1830revolutioninBelgiumandthePolishrevolutions.Inotherwords,the1830
revolutionsweresuccessiveinnatureandoccurredatthesametime.
Mostofthe1830revolutionsweresparkedoffbyeconomichardshipslikeunemployment,inflati
on.Theeconomichardshipsbroughtproblemsinurbancentreslikegrowthinpopulation,industr

ialization,andpoorharvestincountrieslikeAustria,FranceandGermanwhichmadepeopletore
volution.
Inalmostallthe1830revolutions,foreignarmiesweren’tusedortherewaslackofforeignsupport
sbecausetheyalmosttookplaceatthesametimethereforetherewasnoroomforonecountrytos
upporttheother.Thispartlyexplainsthecausesofthefailuresof1830revolutionsinItaly,Germa
nandSpain.
Inalmostallthecountrieswheretherevolutionstookplace,theyfailedtoacceptinFranceandBel
gium.Theyfailedbecausemilitaryweakness,lackofunityamongrevolutionaryleadersetc.
Theywereallinfluencedbythe1789Frenchrevolutionanditsideasorslogansofliberty,equalitya
ndfraternitywereusedbytherevolutionariesintheirstruggleagainstdictatorshipanddespotis
mforexampleinItaly,German,PolandandBelgium.
THEORLEANSMONARCHYINFRANCE,1830-1848

WhenCharlesXabdicatedandfledtoEnglandfollowingtheJulyrevolutionof1830,LouisPhilippe
waschosenasthenextKingofFrance.Confusionsurroundedthesuccessionduetothemanypolit
icalpressuregroupsinthecountryatthetime.TheBonapartistswantedacontinuationofNapol
eonicchangesandhadalotofsupportinthecountry.TheRoyalistswereinfavourofthegrandso
nofCharlesX,DucdeBordeauxtocontinuewiththeBourbonline.TheSocialistswantedagover
nmentthatwouldputthefactorsofproductionunderstatecontrolwhiletheRepublicanswante
daRepublictoreplaceamonarchyunderthepresidencyofLafayette,the1789Frenchrevolution
aryhero.
CharlesX’sgrandsonwasrejectedbecauseofhisage(young)andtheevilsofhisgrandfather.The
creationofaRepublicwasthepopularchoiceamongstthecommonpeopleofParisbutwasfeared
bythemoderatemiddleclassbecauseitwasassociatedwiththeReignofTerrorthatFrancehadwi
tnessedfrom1792–
1794duringthereignoftheFirstFrenchRepublic.WheninthisconfusionLouisPhilippe’snamew
asmentioned,nobodyseriouslychallengedit.HewasthereforevotedbythemajorityintheCham
berofDeputies(Parliament).
LOUISPHILIPPE,1830-1848
LouisPhilippewasthesonofPhilippeEgalite,theDukeofOrleans,ajuniorbranchoftheBourbo
nfamily.Hewasbornin1773andhewasjust16yearswhentheFrenchrevolutionof1789brokeo
ut.HeoncebelongedtotheJacobinsclubandfoughtintherevolutionarywarsagainstAustriafro
m1792-
1794.HevotedforthedeathofhiscousinLouisXVIin1793.Later,whenhelostfavouroftherevolut
ionaries,hefledtoSwitzerlandandlatertoEngland.HereturnedtoParisaftertheBattleofWaterlo
oin1815andbeganmixingwithpeopleofallclassesespeciallythemiddleclassmembers.Thisma
dehimafamiliarfigureinParisandtheParisiansidentifiedhimasanordinarycitizen.Hewasthefirs
tFrenchMonarchorKingtobeelectedandwaspresentedtothe ChamberofDeputiesasachampio
noftherevolution.
REASONSWHYLOUISPHILIPPEBECAMEKINGOFFRANCEIN1830
TherevolutionarybackgroundofLouisPhilippeassistedhimtorisetopower.Heactivelyparticipa
tedinthe1789Frenchrevolution.Forexample,hefoughtintherevolutionarywarsfrom1792–
1794andhewenttoexilebecauseoftherevolution.Heevenvotedforthedeathofhiscousin,Louis
XVIin1793becauseoftheKing’santi-
revolutionarybehaviour.Thisinfluencedtherevolutionariestosupporthimbecausetheyexpect
edhimtochampionthecauseofthe1789Frenchrevolution.

LouisPhilippewasopposedtotheidealsandpracticesoftheAncientRegime.Heforexamplesho
wedlittleinterestintheextravagancyoftheUltra-
royalistsandhedisassociatedhimselffromtheunrealisticpoliciesofCharlesXandLouisXVI.Ther
efore,hedidnotbelieveinthecustomsandtraditionsofhisancestors,theroyalists.Thisincrease
dhispopularityamongtherevolutionaryFrenchmenwhohatedtheroyalists.
HisfriendshipwithAdolfThiersenabledhimtocometopowerin1830.AdolfThierswasthePresi
dentoftheFrenchjournalistsandhadresistedthecensorshipofthepressbyCharlesX.ItwasAdolf
ThiersandhiscolleagueswhopresentedLouisPhilippetotheChamberofDeputiesasacandidate
fortheFrenchmonarchy.Theyextensivelyexplainedhisrevolutionarybackgroundandsocialha
bits.AdolfThiersevenwentaheadtoputupplacards(posters)throughoutthestreetsofParisapp
ealingtotheFrenchmentoacceptLouisPhilippeasthenextKingofFrance.ThisthereforemadeLo
uisPhilippepopularamongtheFrenchmenwhichhelpedhimtocometopowerin1830.
Hisordinarysocialhabitsenabledhimtorisetopower.Heassociatedwithallpeopleandledasimpl
ekindoflife.Hemixedfreelywithallsectionsofthesocietyandtookhischildrentolocalschools.Thi
sidentifiedhimwiththecommonpeopleofParisandFranceingeneral.Itthereforeearnedhimthe
loveoftheordinarypeoplewhowelcomedhimastheirKingin1830.
LouisPhilippesupportedtheinterestsofmiddleclassmembers,aclasstowhichhebelonged.Hep
romisedtopromotetheirinterestslikeownershipofprivateproperty.Thisenabledhimtowinthes
upportofthemiddleclassmembers.HewasthereforeelectedbytheChamberofDeputieswhich
wasdominatedbythemiddleclassmembers.
Theliberaldemandsof1830andtheunpopularityofCharlesXassistedLouisPhilippetobecomeki
ngofFrance.CharlesX’sreignhadledtopoliticalfrustrationamongtheFrenchmenandtheconfus
ionwasexploitedbyLouisPhilippe.Forexample,CharlesXhadabolishedtheConstitutionalChart
erof1814andruledasadictator.Therewasnofreedomofthepress,associationandworshipamo
ngothers.Asaresult,therevolutionarieshopedthatLouisPhilippewastorestoreliberalisminFra
nce.
ThefearofrepublicanisminFrancebenefitedLouisPhilippe.Thisfearexistedamongthemember
softhewealthyclassandtheRoyalists.TheyfearedthatifFrancewasmadearepublic,therepubli
cangovernmentwastotakeawaytherighttoprivateownershipofproperty,thesamewayRobes
pierre’sgovernmentbehavedinthe1790s.Republicanismwasalsoassociatedwithanarchyorvi
olenceconsideringtheReignofTerrorthatfollowedtheestablishmentoftheFirstFrenchRepubli
cin1792.Similarly,therewasapossibilityofwarfromtheconservativemonarchiesofAustriaand
RussiaagainstrepublicanFrance.Duetosuchfears,thewealthyFrenchmen,RoyalistsandBona
partistssupportedLouisPhilippetocometopowerin1830.

TheroyalistbackgroundofLouisPhilippeassistedhimtocometopowerin1830.LouisPhilippewa
sborninaroyalfamilyi.e.theOrleansfamilywhichwasajuniorbranchtotheBourbonfamilyinFra
nce.Hethereforehadatruehereditaryclaimtothethrone,beingamemberofthearistocrats.The
Royaliststhereforereadilyacceptedhimhopingthathewouldmaintaintheirprivilegesandkeept
hestatusofthemonarchy.
TheassociationofLouisPhilippewithveteranGeneralLafayettealsoassistedhimtobeaccept
edasKingofFrance.GeneralLafayettehadservedintheAmericanwarofIndependenceandhein
fluencedtheFrenchmentorevoltagainsttheAncientregimesoastoattainconstitutionalgovern
anceaswasthecaseinAmerica.Ontheirfirstmeetinginpublic,LouisPhilippeacceptedandreceiv
edtheTri-
colourflagwhichwasthesymboloftheFrenchrevolutionof1789fromGeneralLafayette.Theref
ore,LouisPhilippewasseenasaKingwhowastopromotetherevolutionarygoals.
Thesuccessofthe1830revolutioninFranceassistedLouisPhilippetocometopower.Therevoluti
onmarkedtheendofCharlesXandasaresulttherevolutionariesdeclaredthethronevacantando
rganizedelectionsforanewking.Therefore,thepoliticalvacuumcreatedbytheJuly1830revolut
ionenabledLouisPhilippetocometopowerin1830.
LouisPhilippeacceptedtoruleasaconstitutionalmonarchorkingandthatiswhyhewasaccepted
bytheFrenchin1830.HeacceptedarevisedConstitutionalCharterof1830whichamongoth
erthingsprohibitedtheKingfromissuingspecialdecreesororders,declaredrulingalongsideapa
rliamentwhichwastomakelawswithoutconsideringtheproposalsoftheKingandhisministers.T
heFrenchmenthereforeexpectedLouisPhilippetorestoreconstitutionalgovernancewhichhad
beenremovedbyCharlesX.
LouisPhilippehimselfwrotebookssuggestingsolutionstotheproblemsofFranceatthetimeand
hencemanysawhimasamanofvision.Socialproblemslikeunemployment,povertyandfoodsho
rtageswerereflectedinhiswritings.ThewritingsmadehimpopularamongmanyFrenchmen.
THEDOMESTICORINTERNALPOLICY(ACHIEVEMENTSATHOME)
LouisPhilippereignedunderverydifficultcircumstances.TheFrenchsocietywasdividedintothe
Socialists,Bonapartists,Royalists,LiberalsandRepublicanswhoexpectedhimtopurs
uethe1830revolutionfurther.Louishadtodealwithallthesegroups.Duringhis18yearsreign(18
30-
1848),hetriedinmanywaystobalancetheinterestsoftheabovegroups.Inspiteofthis,hisreignh
asbeendescribedbyhistoriansasthe18yearsoftotaldisappointment.LouisPhilippefacedgr
owingoppositionfromalmostallpoliticalgroupsinFrance.Amidsttheopposition,thefollowinga
chievementsofLouisPhilippecanbenoted;

LouisPhilippepromotedconstitutionalruleinFrance.InAugust1830,LouisPhilippeacceptedth
etitle“KingoftheFrench”ortheCitizenKingoraconstitutionalmonarch(king)soastochangethef
ormerattitudetheFrenchhadabouttheirkingswhousedtopracticeabsoluteorbadruleormonar
chism.HethereforeacceptedtorulewiththerevisedConstitutionalCharterof1830thatrestricte
dhispowersincludingtherighttosuspendlawsandtorulebydecreesororders.Thischartermaint
ainedaparliamentarysystemofgovernmentwithaparliamentconsistingofthe ChamberofDep
utiesandtheChamberofPeers.Thisiswhattheliberalsandrevolutionarieshadyearnedforby18
30andthereforeitmadehimpopular.
Therevised1830ConstitutionalCharteralsoledtotheabolitionofthepresscensorshipwhichrest
oredfreedomofthepressinFrance.ThismadetheFrenchmenhappyespeciallytheliberaljournal
istswhohadfoughtagainstpresscensorshipbyCharlesX.
ThroughthesameConstitutionalCharter,theelectoralsystemwasalsorevisedtowidenthefran
chise.Thiswasthroughloweringthetaxqualificationandvotingage.Toqualifyasavoterforthem
embersoftheAssemblyorParliament,theFrenchmennowhadtopay200Francsperyearindirect
taxationasopposedto300FrancsundertheBourbons.Asaresult,thenumberofthosewhoqualifi
edtovotewasincreasedfrom94,000toalmost170,000people.ThismadePhilippe’sregimemor
erepresentativeanddemocraticthanthatoftherestoredBourbonrulersandensureditssurvival
until1848.
LouisPhilippeprotectedthegainsorachievementsoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789.Forexample,
headoptedtherevolutionaryTri-
ColorFlagastheflagofFrance.HealsorestoredtheNationalGuard(Revolutionaryarmy)aswell
aslandownershipbythepeasantswhichtherestoredBourbonshadabolished.Suchattemptsals
omadetheFrenchmenhappyespeciallytherevolutionarieswhohadbeenannoyedduringCharl
esX’sregime.
LouisPhilippealsorestoredreligioustoleranceorfreedominFrance.AlthoughCatholicism
wasrecognizedasthestatereligion,LouisPhilippeallowedotherreligionstooperate.Inaddition,
theChurchinfluenceinstatematterswasreducedastheChurchbecameasubjectofthestate.Suc
hchangesweregenerallyfairandtherefore,theymadeLouisPhilippe’sregimepopularamongso
mesectionsoftheFrenchsociety.
HepromotedproperfinancialmanagementinFrance.Heoftendressedlikeanybusinessmanwit
hnoroyalrobes,leadingasimplekindoflife.Hepursuedalifeofeconomicrestraintthatinvolve
dlightinghisownstudyfire,shavinghimself,livingprincipallyonsoupandmovingroundtheshop
swithnogreaterprotectionthananumbrella.ThislifestylesavedstatefundsandhelpedFranceto
avoidafinancialcrisisandthereforeitmademanypeoplehappyinthefirstdaysofLouisPhilippe’sr
eign.
LouisPhilippecarriedoutseveraleconomicreformsinFrancewhichhelpedtocreateastrongeco
nomy.Forexample,hisgovernmentattemptedtoimproveworkers’conditionsthroughthepassi

ngoftheFactoryActof1841.Consequently,by1843therewasauniformscaleofwagesforthe
workersinFrance.ThisalsomadetheregimepopularamongsomeFrenchmen.
Similarly,LouisPhilippepromotedindustrializationinFrance.Severalindustriesweresetupespe
ciallywine,coal,textileandironindustries.Theselocalindustrieswereprotectedfromforeignco
mpetitionbycharginghighimporttariffssoastocompetefavourablywithEngland.Theseindustr
iesprovidedemploymentopportunitiestotheFrenchmen,thusaddressingtheproblemofunem
ploymentinadditiontoraisingstaterevenueandstrengtheningtheeconomy.
LouisPhilippe’sregimealsomodernizedthetransportandcommunicationsectorinFranceespec
iallyrailwaytransport.Francehadthefirstrailwaynetworkestablishedduringthistime.Thisease
dthemovementofgoodswhichpromotedinternalandexternaltradeandbroughtaboutgeneral
prosperityforthecountry.TherailwaynetworkconnectedthedifferenttownsofFranceandmad
etransportcheaperandeasier.Italsoboostedtheindustrializationdriveinthecountryespeciallyi
ncarryingbulkygoods.Roadsandothercommunicationsystemswerealsoimproved.
HisregimepromotedurbanizationinFrance.LouisPhilippeexpandedanddevelopedanumbero
ftowns.Similarlyindustrializationencouragedthegrowthoftownsduetothegeneralincreaseint
hepopulation.Forexample,Paris,LyonandMarseillemorethandoubledinpopulation.Paris,the
Capitalwasfurnishedwithsmartshopsandbuildingstoentertainthevisitingdignitaries.Thissati
sfiedthegloryseekersforthemeantime.
LouisPhilippepromotedinternalpeaceandstabilityinFrancewithnomajorrevolutionbreakingo
utinFranceuntil1848.Thiswasdonebysuppressinginternaluprisingsthatbrokeoutagainsthisr
egimeespeciallyinthe1830s.
HeattemptedtopromotereconciliationwiththeBonapartists.Forexample,asawayofpleasin
gtheBonapartists,theNapoleonicflagwasraisedwhilethebodyofNapoleonIwasexhumedfro
mSt.HelenaandreturnedtoFrancein1841fortheofficialstateburial.Similarly,amonument-
the“ArcdeTriomphe”initiatedbyNapoleonIincommemorationofthegreatemperor’sachiev
ementswascompletedbyLouisPhilippe.ButtheattemptswereconsideredinadequatebytheBo
napartistsbecausetheywerenotaccompaniedbytheforeignglorythatFranceboastedofduring
NapoleonI’stime.TheythereforeremainedaseriousthreattoPhilippe’sreignuntilhisdownfallin
1848.
LouisPhilippe’sgovernmentpromotededucationinFrance.Forexample,throughthe Minister
ofPublicInstructionandCultsknownasFrançoisGuizot,thegovernmentpassedacompr
ehensivelawonprimaryeducationinJune1833.Thislawledtotheestablishmentofanelement
aryandprimaryschoolineveryCommuneofover6000inhabitants,thuspromotingprimaryeduc
ation.Teachertrainingcollegeswerealsoestablished.Thismadetheregimepopularamongthos
eFrenchmenwhobenefitedfromsucheducationalreforms.

FAILURESINTHEDOMESTICPOLICYOFLOUISPHILIPPE
TheregimeofLouisPhilippewascharacterizedbyanumberoffailureswhichsignificantlycontrib
utedtoitsdownfallin1848.Thefollowingwerethemainfailuresoftheregime:-
Theregimewasdominatedbytheminorityconservativemiddleclassmembers(bourgeoisie)a
ttheexpenseoftheordinaryFrenchmen(peasants).Thisclasswascomposedofthemanufactur
ers,bankers,lawyers,journalistsanduniversityteachers.Thiswasasmallsectionoftheentirepo
pulationofFrance.Besides,theywererigidlyopposedtoanyreforminlinewithdemocracy.Most
ofhisChiefMinisterssuchasAdolfThiersandFrancoisGuizotwerefromthisclass.Hecompletelyi
gnoredotherclassesespeciallythepooryettheyweretheoneswhohadbroughtthehisregimeto
powerin1830.Consequently,thepoorFrenchmenorganizedthemselvesagaintooverthrowLo
uisPhilippein1848.
HisregimewascharacterizedbycorruptionorembezzlementandbriberypromotedbytheChief
MinisterFrançoisGuizot.Forexample,FrançoisGuizotmaintainedhimselfinpowerbyasystemo
fbriberyandcorruption.Thoughhewassupportedthroughouttheyears1840-
1848byaparliamentarymajority,hewashatedandopposedbymostpeopleinthecountry.Thisw
asbecausehewasarrogantandinsensitivetotheneedsofthepoor.Asaresult,heencouragedbri
berybydistributinggovernmentposts,pensionsandbusinesscontractsamongthemembersof
parliamentinordertowintheirsupporttowardshispolicies.ThisbehaviorofFrançoisGuizotther
eforemadetheOrleansMonarchyunderLouisPhilippeunpopular.
TheregimeofLouisPhilipperestrictedtherighttovoteorfranchise.Stilllessthanthreepercentoft
headultFrenchmen(about200,000outof35millionpeople)wereentitledtoparticipateinnation
alelections.ThemassesbelievedthatifthefranchisewaswidenedtoincludeatleastalltheFrench
men,theirviewswouldberepresentedintheparliament.Unfortunately,alleffortsputintobringa
boutelectoralreformsbyconstitutionalmeanswererejectedbytheBourgeoisiewhodominated
LouisPhilippe’sgovernment.LouisPhilippeandhisChiefMinsterGuizotrefusedtoputinplaceele
ctoralreformsandinsteadGuizot’sanswertothosewhowantedanextensionoftheFranchisewa
s“Getrichandqualifytovoteautomatically”.ThisgreatlyannoyedtheFrenchmenespeciallytheli
berals.
LouisPhilippefailedtocarryoutreformsinthearmy.AlthoughherestoredtheNationalGuardthat
hadbeendisbandedbyCharlesX,LouisPhilippeignoredthecriesofthearmy.Asaresult,theFrenc
harmyhadmanygrievancesagainstthegovernment.Thisexplainswhythisarmy(NationalGuar
d)turnedagainsttheOrleansMonarchyin1848andsupportedrebelswhichledtotheoverthrowo
fLouisPhilippe.
Hefailedtoaddressthe1846–
1848economichardshipsorproblems.Forexample,despiteindustrialdevelopmentinFrance,
unemploymentincreasedduringtheregimeofLouisPhilippe.Thiscausedgeneraldiscontent

amongtheunemployedpeopleanditbecameeasyforthemtostagearevolutionin1848whichled
totheoverthrowoftheOrleansMonarchy.
Similarly,thegovernmentofLouisPhilippefailedtosolvetheproblemoffamine.In1846-
1847,Francewashitbybadweatherinformofseverewinterwhichledtopoorcropharvests.The
governmentdidnothaveenoughfoodresourcesinstorageneitherdidithavemoneytopurchaset
hefoodfromelsewhere.Thepoorclasseswerehitharderbythisdevelopment.Itthereforeerode
dtheremainingsupportforLouisPhilippeamongthepoorclasses.Thefoodcrisiscausedfrustrati
onanddesperationamongthealreadyaggrieved(annoyed)peoplewhothereforeorganizedthe
mselvestochangethestatusquoin1848.
BothLouisPhilippeandhisChiefMinisterFrançoisGuizotcompletelyfailedtoimprovethelivingco
nditionsofFrance’spoorerclasses.Insteadthegovernmentpromotedprosperityamidstwidesp
readpovertyofthemasses.Forexample,whileindustrializationbenefitedthemiddleclassandfo
sterednationalgrowth,itexposedtheworkerstopoorworkingconditionsinthefactories.Manyw
orkerswereresidinginslums,receivedlowwages,workedforverylonghoursandmostofthemfai
ledtoacquireprivateproperty.Asaresult,thewealthiermiddleclass,thebankersandindustrialis
tswereprosperinggreatlywhilethepoorweregettingpoorer.Thispovertyeventuallycontribute
dtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutionwhichoverthrewLouisPhilippe.
IndustrialconflictsincreasedduringtheregimeofLouisPhilippe.Thereweremanystrikesbythei
ndustrialworkersandtheformationoftradeunionstoexpressdiscontent.In1831,republicanan
dotherformsofdemonstrationsbrokeoutinParis,Lyonandotherpartsofthecountry.Thereactio
nbythegovernmentwastobreakupstrikesbybloodshed,suppresstradeunionsandpoliticalclu
bsandignoretheever-
increasingdemandforanextensionoftheFranchise.ThisincreaseddiscontentamongtheFrenc
hmenwhicheventuallycontributedtothecollapseoftheOrleansMonarchy.
ThereturnofNapoleonI’sremainsin1841forstateburialbyLouisPhilippehadnegativeimplicati
ons.Forexample,itledtotheriseofBonapartisminFrancewhichunderminedthesurvivalofthe
OrleansMonarchy.BonapartismwasthebeliefintherestorationofNapoleonI’sglory.TheBonap
artesupportersincreasedinnumbersyearafteryearledbyanephewtotheEmperorNapoleonI-
LouisNapoleonBonapartewhopromisedtorestoretheforeigngloryofNapoleonI.LouisPhili
ppefailedtosatisfythesepeople.WhenhereturnedNapoleonI’sbodyin1841,theBonapartistsw
ereprovokedtoaskformoreespeciallyinthefieldofforeignglorywhereLouisPhilippehadfailed.
Asaresult,theydemandedforthedownfallofLouisPhilippesoastore-
establishthe“NapoleonicFrance”.Thiseventuallycontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolu
tioninFrancewhichoverthrewtheOrleansMonarchy.
Theregimewashatedforitsharshreactiontowardstheopposition.LouisPhilipperesortedtopolit
icalrepressionorharassmentwhichfurtherannoyedtheFrenchmen.InApril1834forexample,t
herewasoppositioninparliamentoveranewelectorallawrestrictingtherightofassociationamo
ngtheparliamentarians.Thiscausedcivilunrestandthebrutalresponsebytheregimeledtothed
eathofmanyFrenchmen.

LouisPhilippelaterpromoteddictatorshipwhichgenerateddiscontentthatoverthrewhim.Fore
xample,herigidlycensoredthepressthroughtheintroductionofnewpresslawsin1832,1833,18
34and1835contrarytothe1830constitutionalcharterthathadputanendtopresscensorship.Th
eselawsmadeitdifficultforoppositionnewspaperstooperatewithoutfacingfines,confiscations
andevenprisonterms.Somerepublicannewspaperswereforcedtoclosedown.Thisearnedhim
oppositionfromtheliberaljournalists.
Furtherstill,heimposedthe“Lawofdiscussion”in1835bywhichtheFrenchmenwerenottodi
scussanyotherpoliticalpartyexcepttheoneinpower.Heevenrestrictedthefreedomofassociati
onamongsttheFrenchmenthroughpassingtheLawofAssociationsbywhichheavypenalties
wereimposedforformingsocietiesaimedatoverthrowingthegovernment.ThisannoyedtheFre
nchmenespeciallytheliberals.
LouisPhilippefailedtostandthegrowingpressureofsocialismasapoliticalideologyinFrance.T
hesocialistsledbyLouisBlancwantedthestatetotakeoverthefactorsofproductionandthendi
stributethewealthsoastoreducethegapbetweentherichmiddleclassandthepoor.LouisBlanca
lsoarguedthatthewholeunemploymentproblemwouldbesolvedwhenthestatebecomesane
mployer.However,LouisPhilippefearedannoyinghisfriends,therichmiddleclasswithanyplano
fconfiscatingtheirwealth.Thisthereforeisolatedhimfromthepoorwhoinbignumberssupporte
dsocialismtooverthrowLouisPhilippein1848.
LouisPhilippefailedtorestorethefullpoliticalinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchinthestateaffairsw
hichwasdemandedbyasectionoftheCatholicsinFrance.CharlesXhadrevivedthepowersofthe
CatholicChurchinthestateaffairsforexamplethecontroloftheeducationsystemwhichwasreve
rsedbyLouisPhilippe.ThismadehimunpopularamongtheCatholicsofFrance.
LouisPhilippefailedtosatisfytheinterestsoftheRepublicansandthisbecameamajorchalleng
etohisregime.LedbyLamartine,therepublicansdemandedfortheestablishmentofarepubli
cbecausethemonarchyhadfaileddeliverforthesecondtime.Theyalsodemandedforparliamen
taryreformsandwideningoftheFranchise.LouisPhilippefailedtocontroltheirincreasingnumbe
rsaswellasimplementingtheirdemands.ThisunderminedthepopularityoftheOrleansMonarc
hywhicheventuallycontributedtocollapseoftheMonarchyin1848.
LOUISPHILIPPE’SFOREIGNPOLICY,1830-1848
TomanyFrenchmen,theFrenchforeignpolicybetween1830and1848wasgenerallyafailureon
groundsthattheiraspirationswerenotfulfilled.Bytradition,theFrenchmenwereusedgloriesof
militaryconquestandtheircountryposedasagreatpowerinEuropeespeciallyduringNapoleonI’
sreign.However,FrancewashumbledandhumiliatedfollowingthedefeatofNapoleonIatWater
looin1815.ThegloryseekersthereforeneededtherevivalofsuchglorywhiletheliberalswantedF
rancetohelptheoppressednationalitiesinEuropesuchastheBelgians,PolesandItalianstogetth

eirfreedom(independence).Suchinterestsrequiredavigorousforeignmilitarypolicythatwoul
dleadFranceintowarwithothercountries.
Onthecontrary,LouisPhilippepursuedapeacefulpolicywiththerestofEuropeforfearoflosinghi
snewlywonthrone.HehadnotsecuredthesupportofthehereditarymonarchiesofEuropeandth
ereforehissurvivaldependedonasuccessfulpublicitycampaignandcooperationwithEuropeor
elsetheEuropeanpowerswoulduniteandrestoreCharlesXtothethrone.Asaresult,hisconducti
ntheforeignaffairswasrestrainedandFranceposednodangertointernationalpeaceandstabilit
y.TosomeextentthiswasanachievementintheforeignpolicyofLouisPhilippe.
HeimprovedthecommercialandtraderelationsbetweenFranceandBritainandneverdidhere-
assertFranceasacontinentalpower.Afree-
tradetreatywassignedwithBritainin1840toexpandtradeandconsolidateinternationalrelation
s.ThisenabledFrancetosecurethesupportofBritain,andotherGreatPowerslikeAustria,Russia
andPrussiaandtoalsomaintaingeneralpeaceinEurope.Thissustainedhisregimefor18years.
Inspiteoftheaboveachievements,thepeacefulforeignpolicyofLouisPhilippegreatlydamaged
hisimageinFrance.Hefailedtosatisfytheinterestsofthenationalists(gloryseekers)andliberals
andthisthereforecontributedtohisdownfallin1848.ThefollowingwerethemajoreventsinFren
chforeignpolicyofLouisPhilippeduringtheperiod1830-1848;
TheBelgianRevolutionof1830
TheBelgianrevolutionof1830underminedthepopularityofKingLouisPhilippe.TheFrenchpeop
leespeciallytheBonapartists,liberals,CatholicsandnationalistswantedLouisPhilippetoassistt
heBelgiansagainsttheDutch.LouisPhilippeinitiallydecidednottogetinvolvedandBritaindiplo
maticallyemergedvictoriouswhichannoyedtheFrenchmen.Worsethanthat,LouisPhilippedec
linedtheoffertheBelgiansmadetohissonDucdeNemourstobecomeKingoftheirnewstate.Th
eBritishcandidate,LeopoldofSaxe-
CoburgwhowasrelatedtoQueenVictoriainsteadtookoverthethrone.Therewasthereforeage
neralfeelinginFrancethattheKingwascowardandweakandworkedtoservetheinterestsofBrita
in.Thisgreatlyreducedhispopularityathome.
Laterin1831whentheDutchtroopsattackedBelgium,thealliedpowersselectedLouisPhilippet
odefendBelgium.Thishedidsuccessfullyandwasthusabletoclaimpartofhislostreputation(tha
tFrancehadsupportedtheBelgianindependence).Buteventhen,hisrolewasrestrictedbyBritai
nthusunderminingthepositionofFranceasagreatpower.Eventually,thematteroftheBelgianin
dependencewassettledbytheLondontreatyof1839andwasacceptedbytheDutchKingbuthad
significantlyweakenedtheOrleansMonarchy.
ThePolishrevolutionof1830
ThePolishrevolutionof1830alsounderminedthecredibilityoftheregime.In1830,theBonaparti
stsandCatholicsappealedtotheKingtointerveneinPolandandsavethefellowCatholicsfromthe

RussiancontrolandbrutalityastheyhadstagedanationalisticrevolutionagainstRussia.LouisPh
ilippefearedthepossibilityofRussia,AustriaandPrussiadeclaringwaragainstFrancesinceallthe
secountrieshadpolishnationals.HethereforerefusedtoassisttheCatholicsinPoland.
TheItalianrevolutionsof1830
ThiswasanothereventwhichunderminedtheregimeofLouisPhilippe.In1830,theItaliansstage
dnationalisticrevolutionsagainstAustriaandtheFrenchCatholicsandBonapartistswantedLoui
sPhilippetosavethefellowCatholicsfromAustrianoppression.LouisPhilippedeclinedandwasla
belledasaveryweakKingnotinterestedinpromotingtheFrenchgloryabroad.
TheeventsinSpainandPortugalof1834
In1834aquadrupleallianceofBritain,Portugal,SpainandFrancewasabletobringtheliberalforc
estopowerinSpainandPortugalbyoverthrowingthedespots(absolutes).Butthisdidnotpleaset
heliberalsathomebecauseLouisPhilippewasonlyactingasaliberaloutsidebutaconservativeat
home(France).
TheSpanishMarriagesof1846
In1846,theSpanishmarriagesbroughtfurthertroubleforLouisPhilippe.BoththeQueenofSpai
nIsabellaandheryoungsisterInfantawereunmarried.FranceandBritaineagerlypresentedc
andidates,forthesuccessfulcandidatewouldmeanprestigeandinternationalfameforthatparti
cularcountrywherehecamefrom.EnglandsupportedtheGermanPrince,theDukeofCadiz(w
howasrelatedtoQueenVictoria)whileLouisPhilippepresentedhisyoungestsonDucdeMontp
ensier.Becauseoftheconflictinginterests,acompromisewasfinallyreachedthattheQueenma
rriesaBritishcandidate(rumouredtobeimpotent)andtheQueen’ssistermarriesLouisPhilippe’s
sonbutonlyaftertheheirtothethronewasbornbytheQueen.ThiswasacceptedbybothGuizotan
dLouisPhilippebutofcoursethiswasagaintotheadvantageofBritain.
Realisingtheirmistake,GuizotandLouisPhilippesecretlyarrangedthemarriagesoftheSpanishl
adiesonthesamedaycontrarytotheinitialunderstanding.ThisdoublemindedbehaviorofLouis
PhilippeannoyedBritainandtheFrenchmeninequalmeasure.Britainhadformanyyearspreven
tedsuchclosenessofFrancetoSpainbecauseofitsproximitytotheMediterraneanSea.Thiswast
hegatewaytotheBritishcommercialEmpireintheFarEast.Asaresult,theAnglo-
Frenchrelationsworsenedfrom1846onwardsfollowingtheSpanishMarriagesof1846.Thisann
oyedtheMiddleclassmemberswhousedtotradewithBritainandthereforetheyabandonedLoui
sPhilippe’sregimewhicheventuallycontributedtoitscollapsein1848.
TheSyrianQuestion,1831-1841

LouisPhilippe’sinvolvementintheSyriancrisis(partoftheTurkishEmpire)ashamedFranceand
damagedhisreputation.Warbrokeoutin1831betweenMehmetAliofEgyptandtheSultanofTur
key(MahmoodII)overwhoshouldruleSyria.BritainandRussiarapidlysupportedtheSultanofT
urkeywhileLouisPhilippeofFrancesupportedEgyptduetopublicopinion.BritainworkedwithRu
ssiatodefeattheEgyptians.
Attheheightofthecrisis,Francewasisolatedbythegreatpowerswhoorganizedthe1840Lond
onConferencetodiscusstheSyrianquestionwithoutFranceastheenemy.LouisPhilippe,reali
zingdangerwithdrewthesupporttoMehmetAliofEgyptandthereforehewasthereforeunableto
defendtheFrenchinterestsintheMiddleEast.AdolfThiers-
thePrimeMinisterwantedtogoaheadwiththeventurebutLouisPhilippe,acautiousmanrefused
andorderedtheFrenchtroopstowithdrawfromEgypttoavertwarwithBritain.Consequently,Ad
olfThiersresignedin1840andwasreplacedbyFrançoisGuizotwhopressedforpeace.TheFrenc
hmenwereseverelyhurtespeciallythegloryseekersandnationalistswhothereforecriticizedLo
uisPhilippeforhisfailuretopromotetheFrenchgloryabroad.
TheTahitiIslandIssue
Between1843and1844,theFrenchfriendshipwithBritainwasthreatenedwithmattersconcerni
ngtheIslandofTahitiinSouthPacificclaimedbybothEnglandandFrance.TheFrenchhadprevio
uslyforcedtheBritishoutofthisislandanditwasannexedtoFrance.However,duringtheregimeo
fLouisPhilippe,BritainwarnedFrancethatwarwaslikelytohappenoverthecontrolofthisIsland.
Consequently,LouisPhilippereturnedtheislandtoBritain.ThishumiliatedtheFrenchwhohated
LouisPhilippeandGuizot’ssubmissiontoBritain.
TheSwissCivilwarof1846
In1846,acivilwarbrokeoutinSwitzerlandbetweentheconservativeCatholicsandtheProtestan
tliberals.BritainsecretlysupportedtheProtestantsbutFrancefearedhelpingtheCatholics.Loui
sPhilippefearedtoannoyBritainandtheliberalsathome.TheCatholicsofFrancecondemnedLou
isPhilippe’sgovernmentforfailingtohelpfellowCatholicswhilethenationalistswereannoyedby
LouisPhilippe’speacefulforeignpolicy.
TheAlgerianventureorproject
ThisistheonlyareawhereLouisPhilippescoredsomesuccessintheforeignpolicy.Theprojectbe
ganduringCharlesX’sreign.WhenLouisPhilippecametopower,heconsolidatedorstrengthene
dtheFrenchcontroloverAlgeriabysuppressinganarmedresistanceagainsttheFrenchrulether
e.Consequently,heencouragedsteadycolonizationofAlgeriaandby1847around50,000Frenc
hcitizenshadestablishedthemselvesinAlgeria.ThisprojectpleasedtheFrenchgloryseekerstho
ughitwasveryexpensiveasitcostedFrancealotmoneyandliveswhichalsodamagedthereputati
onoftheOrleansMonarchy.

By1847therefore,LouisPhilippewasdoingbadlyintheforeignaffairs.Theregimewasgenerally
peacefulwiththerestofEuropeandservedtheinterestsofBritainbutthiswascontrarytothetradi
tionalvaluesofFrance.TheFrenchmenweregenerallydisappointednotsomuchbecauseofwha
thedidbutbecauseofwhathefailedtodo.In1848,LouisPhilippewasthereforeoverthrowninapo
pularrevolution.
THEREVOLUTIONOF1848
ThesparkfortherevolutionwasprovidedbyLouisPhilippe’snegativereactiontowardsreformb
anquets.Reformbanquetswerepoliticalralliesatwhichtheopponentsusedtocriticizetheregi
meandalsotodemandforreformsthroughspeeches.On22ndFebruary1848,agreatreformb
anquetwasannouncedtotakeplaceinParisbutitwasstoppedbythegovernmentbeforeitwashel
d.Thereformistsdecidedtomeetbyforceandtheyformedaverybiggatheringinthetown.Theya
greedtostartarevolution.
On23rdFebruary1848,LouisPhilippedecidedtoorderthe“NationalGuard”todispersethe
demonstrators,amovewhichabortedorfailed.Thesoldiersinsteadexpressedtheirsympathywi
ththedemonstratingcrowdandsoencouragedit.Consequently,LouisPhilippeandGuizotresign
ed.Thepoliticiansdecidedtodrawuparepublicanconstitutionprovidingforaparliamentandane
lectedpresident.
InDecember1848,LouisNapoleonBonapartewaselectedasPresidentofFranceduetothep
oliticaladvantagesassociatedwithhisuncleandthenameNapoleon.HelaterbecametheEmper
orofFrancewiththetitleofEmperorNapoleonIIIin1852andruledFranceupto1871.Hiselecti
onmarkedthecreationoftheSecondFrenchRepublicandhealsolatercreatedtheSecondFre
nchEmpire.
Questions:
 WhydidtheFrenchmenwelcomeLouisPhilippein1830andrejecthimin1848?
 AssesstheachievementsofLouisPhilippeasaFrenchKingbetween1830and1848.
 HowsuccessfulwastheforeignpolicyofLouisPhilippe?
 “FrançoisGuizotwasprimarilyresponsibleforthedownfalloftheOrleansMonarchy”Disc
uss.
 HowsuccessfulwastheFrenchforeignpolicyunderLouisPhilippe1830-1848?
 TowhatextentwasLouisPhilippe’sforeignpolicyresponsibleforhisdownfall?

THEAUSTRIANEMPIREINEUROPE,1814–1848
TheAustrianEmpiredominatedCentralEuropeanditwasunderarulingfamilywhichwasknown
astheHapsburgfamily.Beforethenineteenthcentury,theboundariesoftheempirewerenotv
eryclearbutitwasaftertheconclusionoftheViennaSettlementof1815thattheboundariesofthe
AustrianEmpirewereofficiallyestablished.
TheempirecomprisedofthecentrallandofAustria,Hungary,Bohemia,Galatia,theItalianprovin
cesofLombardyandVenetiaandalsotheGermanConfederation.Generally,thereweremoretha
nthirteennationalitiesorracesthatwereundertheAustriancontrol.Therefore,theempirewass
oextensiveorbigandheterogeneouswhichwasachallengetotheAustrianadministrativeautho
rity.

TheAustrianEmpirewaspreservedbytwoimportantpersonalitiesi.e.EmperorFrancisJosefand
PrinceMetternich.Thesetwohadthepoliticalresponsibilityofsafeguardingtheempirefromthe
newchallengesofliberalismandnationalismthathaddevelopedinEuropefollowingthe1789Fre
nchrevolutionandthe“NapoleonicWars.”
PRINCEKLEMENSMETTERNICHANDTHEAUSTRIANEMPIRE,1814-1848
PrinceMetternichwasbornin1773atCoblenztownintheGermanRhinelandsfromtheAustrian
rulingfamilyandthatiswhyhewasaprince.MetternichwasanAustrianaristocratanddiplomatw
hodominatedEuropeanaffairsfrom1814to1848andthatiswhythisperiodispopularlyknownas
the“Metternicheraorage”inEuropeanHistory.Hewasthusdubbedthe“Coachman”ofEurope.
MetternichwasawelleducatedmanwhounderstoodtheEuropeanaffairsofthetime.Hewasalin
guistwhounderstoodtheEnglish,Latin,German,FrenchandtheRussianlanguages.Itwasbeca
useofthisthatfrom1801to1807,MetternichservedastheAustrianambassadorinBerlin,thecapi
talofPrussia.HealsoservedasambassadorinParisandMoscow.In1809,EmperorFrancisJosefo
fAustriaappointedhimasForeignMinisterandin1810hewasappointedasChancellorofAustri
a,thusbecomingtheleaderofgovernmentinAustria.Hewasthereforeinchargeoftheforeignan
ddomesticaffairs.
Metternichwasveryconservativeasanaristocratwhosebeliefswereopposedtoforcesofnatio
nalismandliberalism.Specifically,Metternich’sbeliefsasastatesmanincludedthefollowing;
 HebelievedinthepreservationofpeaceandstabilityinEuropeaftertheFrenchrevolution
aryandNapoleonicWars.
 HeaimedatreconcilingtheconflictinginterestsofEuropeanpowersthroughnegotiation
s.
 HewantedtomaintainthebalanceofpowerinEurope.
 HebelievedinthepreservationoftheAustrianempirewhichhadthirteenraces(heteroge
neous).
 Asanaristocrat,hewaskeentomaintainthestatusquoineuropebyencouraginglegitima
cyormonarchismasthebestformofgovernment.Hethereforesupportedthepreservatio
noftheHapsburgrulersinEurope.
MetternichmadeViennawhichwasthecapitalofAustriathecentreofthe“Metternichpower”.
THEIMPACTOFPRINCEMETTERNICHONEUROPE

PrinceMetternichhadagreatimpactonthehistoryofEuropebetween1814and1848andthatisw
hythisperiodiscommonlyknownasthe“Metternichage”inEurope.Thisimpactwasbothpositive
andnegativeasshownbelow;
THEPOSITIVEIMPACTOFPRINCEMETTERNICHONEUROPE
MetternichcontributedtothefinalorcompletedefeatofNapoleonIbetween1814and1815.Hew
asinstrumentalinmobilizingtheEuropeanPowersoralliestoformcoalitionstodefeatNapoleonI
.Forexamplein1814,MetternichpersuadedBritain,PrussiaandRussiatoformamilitarycoalitio
nthatfinallydefeatedNapoleonIofFrancein1815attheBattleofWaterloo.SinceNapoleonIhadc
ausedalotofturmoilinEuropewithhiswarsofconquest,thisrestoredpeaceinEuropeandwasthe
reforeamajorpositiveimpactofMetternichonEurope.
PrinceMetternichhostedandchairedtheViennacongressof1814-
1815.Itwasheldfrom1stNovember1814upto8thJune1815intheAustriancapitalofVienna.
AllEuropeanstatesattendedthiscongressexcepttheOttomanEmpire.Duringthiscongress,alo
tofnegotiationsanddecisionsweremadeespeciallybytherepresentativesofthefourmajorpow
ersofEuropewhoincludedPrinceMetternichofAustria,LordCastlereaghofBritain,TsarAl
exanderIofRussiaandKingFredrickWilliamIIIofPrussia.Thesedecisionsresultedintope
aceandstabilityontheEuropeancontinent.Forexample,Atthissamecongress,theEuropeanpo
wersagreedtoMetternich’sideaofbalanceofpowerinEurope,amongotherissues,inordertoma
intainpeace.
MetternichinfluencedtheconclusionorsigningoftheViennaSettlementof1815.Asthehostand
chairmanoftheViennaCongressthatwasheldbetween1814and1815,Metternichinfluencedth
eEueopeanpowersthathadattendedthiscongresstoasignatreatyknownastheViennaSettlem
enton8thJune1815.Thistreatyhadalltheresolutionsthatthedelegatesthatattendedthecongre
sshadreachedupon.ThetermsofthistreatyhadaprofoundpositiveimpactofEurope.Forexamp
le,theybroughtaboutpeaceinEuropefornextfourtyyearswithoutaamajorbreakingoutamong
theGreatPowerssincetheBattleofWaterlooin1815whichfurthershowsMetternich’spositivei
mpactonEurope.
MetternichalsoledtotheextensionoftheAustrianinfluenceandmightinEurope.Forexample,as
thechiefnegotiatorofAustriaduringtheViennacongressof1814-
1815,PrinceMetternichusedthiscongresstoextendtheAustrianinfluencetootherareasofEuro
peforthebenefitofAustria.TheseareasincludedtheItalianstatesofDalmatia,LombardyandVe
netiatogetherwiththeGermanstates,HungaryandpartsofPolandallofwhichwereputunderAu
striancontrol.

PrinceMetternichinfluencedtherestorationoflegitimaterulersoroldregimestopowerinEurope
.TheseregimeshadbeenoverthrownbytheFrenchrevolutionof1789andNapoleonI.Conseque
ntly,underMetternich’sinfluenceseverallegitimaterulerswererestoredinEuropebytheVienne
Congressof1814-
1815.Forexample,thePopewasrestoredinthePopalstates,KingCharlesAlbertinPiedmont,Fer
dinandIinNaplesandtheBourbonswererestoredinFranceunderLouisXVIIIamongotherleade
rs.Sincetheserulerswereconservative,thishelpedtocheckontheextremistforcesofnationalis
mandliberalismthathadbeenbornbytheFrenchrevolutionof1789andNapoleonIandhadcreat
edinstabilityinEurope.
PrinceMetternichdisintergratedtheNapoleonicEmpireinEurope.DuringtheregimeofNapoleo
nIEuropeancountrieslikeSpain,NaplesandDenmarkandtheItalianaswellGermanstatesamon
gothershadbeenconquered,leadingtothecreationofalargeFrenchEmpireunderthe“Bonapa
rtedynasty”.WiththedefeatofNapoleonIin1815,thisEmpirewascompletelybrokenupandth
osestateswereliberatedbyMetternichwhileothersweregiventotheGreatPowersasthemapof
EuropewasbeingredrawnafterNapoleonI’sdownfall.
PrinceMetternichinfluencedthebirthoftheCongressSystemor“ConcertofEurope”.Hewa
samongthefoundermembersoftheCongressSystemandanumberofcongresseswereheldbet
ween1818and1825.TheseincludedtheCongressofAix-la-
chapelleof1818,theCongressofTroppauof1820,theCongressofLaibachof1821,theCongress
ofVeronaof1822andtheCongressofSt.Petersburgof1825.PrinceMetternichthereforeinfluen
cedthebirthofEuropeandiplomacyandthroughthisdiplomacyorCongressSystem,Metternich
maintainedpeaceafterthedownfallofNapoleonI.ThisthereforesavedEuropefromawarinvolvi
ngallthemajorpowersuntiltheoutbreakoftheCrimeanwarof1854-
1856.Bythistime,Metternichwasnolongerinpower.
Metternichpromotedunityorco-
operationamongtheconservativeEuropeanMonarchiesofthetimenamely;Austria,Russiaand
Prussia.DuringtheCongressofTroppauof1820,Metternichpersuadedtheconservativeleader
sofAustria,RussiaandPrussiatosignanagreementknownastheProtocolofTroppauof1820
whichbroughttogetherthesethreemonarchicalcountries.By,thisprotocol,Metternichpersua
dedtheseEuropeanmonarchiestofightagainstrevolutionsthatwerestagedagainstthearistocr
aticgovernmentsinEuropewhichhelpedtocreatepeaceandstabilityonthecontinent.
MetternichmaintainedbalanceofpowerinEurope.Thisbalanceofpowerhadbeenrestoredinby
theViennaCongressof1814–
1815.PrinceMetternichdidnotwantasinglecountrytodominateEuropeanaffairsafterNapoleo
nI’sdownfallin1815.Asaresult,hestruggledtoensurebalanceofpowerinEurope.Forexample,

duringtheCongressofAix-la-
chapelleof1818,herefusedthecreationofaninternationalarmyaswassuggestedbyTsarAlexa
nderIofRussia.ThiswasbecausehedidnotwanttheRussiantroopstobestationedintheforeignc
ountriessoastogiveRussiatheopportunityofexpandingherinfluenceinthosecountries.Whent
hisarmywasnotformeditthereforepreventedthespreadofRussianinfluenceinEuropewhichm
aintainedthebalanceofpowerinEurope.Thisalsoindirectlycontributedtopeaceandstabilityon
thecontinent.
PrinceMetternichmanagedtopreservetheAustrianempireupto1848whenheleftoffice.Theem
pirewasthemostheterogeneousinWesternEuropehavingItalians,Slavs,GermansandCroat
samongothersalltotalingtothirteenraces.Duringthistime,hemadesurethattherewerenosucc
essfulnationalisticandliberalrevolutionsthatcouldbreakuptheAustrianEmpireandthustheem
pireremainedintact.ThisalsoindirectlycontributedtopeaceandstabilityontheEuropeancontin
ent.
The“Metternichage”witnessedimprovedeconomicandtraderelationsamongtheEuropeanpo
wers.ThroughdefeatingNapoleonIin1815,MetternichledtotheendoftheContinentalSystemi
nEurope.Thisthereforerestoredfreenavigationonthemajorinternationalwatersandalsoledto
spreadoftheindustrialrevolutioninEuropefrom1830onwards.Allthiscontributedtoeconomic
progressinEuropeintheperiod1815to1848.
THENEGATIVEIMPACTOFPRINCEMETTERNICHONEUROPE
MetternichrestoredandmaintainedlegitimaterulersinEuropeduringtheVienneCongressof18
14-
1815whichwasamajornegativeimpact.ThesedespotsweretheworstrulersthatEuropehadev
erwitnessedastheyexercisedoppressiveruleontheirsubjectsinalltheareaswheretheywerere
stored.Consequently,thisledtotheoutbreakofrevolutionsbetween1821and1848incountriesl
ikeSpain,NaplesandFrancetooverthrowtheserestoredrulersandtheserevolutionscreatedins
tabilitywhichgreatlydisturbedEuropeanpeaceupto1848.
MetternichpromotedAustrianimperialismandrepressivemeasuresagainstmanypartsofEuro
pe,hencesuffocatingnationalism.DuringtheViennaCongressof1814-
1815,AustraianimperialismwasimposedonEuropeaanareasliketheItalianstates,theGerman
states,HungaryandpartsofPolandallofwhichwereputundertheAustrianforeigncontrol.These
conqueredstateswerethensubjectedtoMetternich’soppressivepolicies.Forexample,thenati
onalistswerearrested,imprisonedandotherskilled.Theseoppressivemeasuresincreasedopp
ositionagainstMetternich,thusleadingtoinstabilityinEuropeasmorerevolutionswerestagedu
pto1848.

MetternichsuffocatedliberalisminEurope.Asaconservative,hebelievedinabsoluteruleandt
herefore,hedeniedbasicfreedomsofmantohissubjects.Forexamplein1819,heissuedwhatca
metobeknownasthe“CarlsbadDecrees”andbytheseorders,spieswerestationedinalluniversit
ies,students’societieswereabolishedandliberalprofessorsintheGermanstatesweredismisse
dfromtheiroffices.Metternichalsobannedfreedomofspeech,worshipandassociationinallthos
eareasthatwereundertheAustrianEmpirewhichdeniedthemassesanydegreeoffreedomupto
1848.Thisinspiredtheoutbreakofliberalrevolutionsbetween1830and1848whichundermined
peaceinEurope.
MetternichbrutallysuppressedrevolutionsinEuropeupto1848.Asaconservative,hedidnotwa
ntchangesbroughtaboutbythemassesthroughrevolutionsastheywerelikelytochangetheexis
tingpoliticalandsocialorderinEurope.Metternichinsteadwantedchangestobefromtheexistin
grulersofEurope.HethereforestruggledtosuppressrevolutionsthatwerestagedinEuropebet
ween1820and1848.Theseincludedthe1820revoltsinNaples,Sicily,SpainandPiedmontaswell
asthe1830revoltsintheItalianstates,GermanstatesandPoland.Thisbrutalsuppressionofrevo
ltsbyMetternichledtothedeathofmanypeopleandmassivedestructionofpropertyinEurope.
MetternichpromotedilliteracyormisinformationintheAustrianEmpire.Hestrictlycontrolleded
ucationandthereforehetookadvantageofthistokeepthesystemofeducationlowintheconquer
edareasoftheAustrianEmpireliketheItalianandGermanstates.Healsobannedtheteachingofli
beralsubjectslikeLiterature,HistoryandPhilosophy.Thisleftthemassesbackwardandlessinfor
medforalongperiodoftime.
MetternichdelibaratelyrevivedtheinfluenceofthetheCatholicChurchunderthePopeandreligi
ousintoleranceinAustria,theItalianandGermanstates.Thisfurtherdeniedreligiousfreedomto
themassesintheAustrianEmpirewhichinspiredthemtostagerevolutionsagainsttheconservati
venessoftheCatholicChurchwhichwasbeingsupportedbyMetternich.Theserevolutionscreat
edinstabilitywhichdistrebedEuropeanpeaceupto1848.
MetternichalsopromotedoverexploitationofthesubjectsoftheAustrianEmpire.Forexample,h
eexploitedthehumanresourcesthroughforcedconscriptionintothearmyaswellasagricultural
andmineralresourcesoftheconqueredstatesoftheAustrianEmpireliketheItalianandGermans
tates.Healsoovertaxedtheabovestateswhichkeptthemsopoor.Metternichthereforepromote
deconomicbackwardnessintheAustrianEmpire.
Metternich’sconservativetendenciesalienatedorisolatedtheliberalmonarchicalcountrieslike
BritainfromtheEuropeanaffairsafterNapoleonI’sdownfallin1815.Thesewereliberalcountries
thatcouldworkwithMrtternichduetohisconservatism.Thisinsteadpromoteddisagreementsb

etweenMetternichandsuchliberalmonarchicalcountrieslikeBritainandFrance.Thedisagreem
entsfinallyledtothecollapseoftheCongressSystemby1830.
MetternichandhissystemdelayedtheunificationofItaly.FromtheViennaSettlementof1815,A
ustriaunderMetternichdirectlycontrolledtheItalianstatesofLombardyandVenetia.Austrianin
fluencewasalsofeltintheCentralItalianstateslikeModena,ParmaandTuscanywheretheHapsb
urgrulershadbeenrestotesbyMetternich.ThisAustrianforeigninfluencefrustratedordelayeda
llattemptsbytheItalianstocreateasingleunitedandindependentItalyuntilhisdownfallin1848.
MetternichalsodelayedtheunificationofGermany.HekeptafirmcontrolofAustriaintheGerman
Confederationestablishedin1815bytheViennaSettlement.Thistoofrustratedtheattemptsbyt
heGermanstocreateaunitedandindependentGermany.ItwasonlyafterMetternich’sdownfalli
n1848thateffortstounitetheGermanstatesstartedregisteringpositiveresults.
MetternichignoredthesmallstatesinEurope.HehostedandchairedtheViennacongressof1814
to1815andduringthiscongressandhemadesurethatthemajordecisionscamefromtheGreatP
owersofAustria,Russia,BritainandPrussiaonly.EvenduringtheCongressSystemthatMetterni
chinitiatedin1818,itwerethesameGreatpowersthatmadekeydecisionsinallthecongressesth
atwereheldinEuropeupto1825.
Metternichledtothedevelopmentofanti-
EuropeansentimentsinAmerica.ThisdemonstratedbytheMonroeDoctrineof1823.Asaconser
vative,MetternichwantedtoleadacoaltionoftheEuropeanpowerstoAmericasoasassistSpains
uppressrevolutionsthathadbrokenoutinherSouthAmericancoloniesby1820.Thisplannedfor
eigninterventiongreatlyannoyedtheUnitedStatesofAmerica(USA).Consequentlyin1823,the
PresidentofUSAbythenknownasJamesMonroeissuedthefamousMonroeDoctrinewhichstron
glywarnedtheGreatPowersofEuropeagainstanyattempttointerveneinSouthAmericatohelpS
painrecoverhercolonies.ThisdoctrinewasaclearmanifestationoftheAmericanhatredorenemi
tytowardsEurope.
HOWPRINCEMETTERNICHCONTROLLEDORDOMINATEDEUROPEUPTO1848
PrinceMetternichwasbornin1773atCoblenztownintheGermanRhinelands.Attheageofthirt
ysixyears,hewasappointedChancellorofAustriain1809.MetternichsuccededincontrollingEur
opeforaboutthirtyfouryearsfrom1815to1848andthatiswhythisperiodiscalledthe“Metternich
ageorperiod”.Toachievethis,heusedthefollowingmeasures;
MetternichcontrolledAustriaandtheaffairsofEuropebetween1815and1848throughthe“Met
ternichSystem”.ThesystemcontrolledthenationalisticandliberalmovementsinEurope.For
example,heputinplaceadetailedsystemthatperused(read)throughallletterswithintheAustri

anempirewhichenabledhimgetadvanceinformationabouttheactivitiesoftherevolutionariesa
ndtheyweredefeated.
Metternichalsousedthe“divideandrule”policytomaintainpeaceinEurope.Hedidnotallowsoldi
ersofthecontrolledstatestoremainintheircountries.Heinsteadsentthemtoforeigncountriesa
ndinexchange,theforeignsoldierswerealsostationedintheircountries.Forexample,theItalian
swerestationedinAustriaandAustrianswerestationedinItaly.Therefore,theforeignforcescoul
dnotsupportinstabilityinthecountrieswheretheywerestationed.
Heexploitedhisaristocraticbackgroundtosuppressrevolutions.Asanaristocratbybirth,Metter
nichhatedallrevolutionsandthereforeheworkedhardtosuppressthemandremaininpowerupt
o1848.
MetternichcreatedaverystrongAustrianarmy.HeusedthisarmytocrushrevolutionsinEuropef
orexampleintheItalianandGermanstates,thushelpinghimtocontrollingEuropebetween1815
and1848.
ThenatureoftheAustrianEmpirealsoassistedMetternichtodominateEurope.Theempirewash
eterogeneouswithvariousnationalitiesliketheCroats,Italians,Germans,HungariansandSlavs
amongothers.TheseweresodividedtotheextentthattheycouldnotuniteagainstMetternich.
MetternichutilizedhiscareerorpositionasanambassadorordiplomattodominateEuropeupto1
848.WhileservingasanambassadortothevariousEuropeancountrieslikePrussia,FranceandR
ussia,Metternichgotachancetounderstandtheoperationofsuchcountriesandthishelpedhimt
oknowhowtodealwiththem,thusassistinghimtodominateEurope.
PrinceMetternichuseddiplomacytocontroltheEuropeanaffairs.In1814to1815,hehostedand
chairedtheViennacongresswhichendedwiththesigningoftheViennatreaty.Thiswassignifican
tbecauseViennabecamethecentreofEuropeandiplomacyandPrinceMetternichwasabletoinfl
uencehisviewsontheEuropeanstatesmenasahostandchairmanoftheViennaCongress.Hewa
sthusencouragingEuropeanstatesmentosolveconflictsthroughnegotiations.
HeutilizedthesupportfromtheCatholicChurchinAustriaandEuropeingeneraltocontrolEurope
anaffairs.TheCatholicChurchunderthePopesupportedMetternich’sconservativepoliciesliker
eligiousintoleranceandcensorshipofthepressinAustria,theItalianandGermanstates.
MetternichimposedAustrianorHapsburgrulersoverlargeareasofEuropewhereAustriahadinfl
uence.Forexample,theHapsburgrulerswereputinchargeoftheCentralItalianstatesofModena
,ParmaandTuscany.TheserulersservedMetternich’sinterestsinthoseareasbypromotinghisc
onservativepolicieswhichenabledhimtodominateEurope.

MetternichpromotedilliteracyormisinformationintheAustrianEmpire.Hestrictlycontrolleded
ucationandbannedtheteachingofliberalsubjectslikeHistory,PhilosophyandLiterature.Thish
elpedMetternichtoreducethepoliticalawarenessorenlightenmentofthemassesundertheAust
riancontrol,thusassistinghimtocontrolthemupto1848.
Metternichsucceededincontrollingtheconqueredstatesbykeepingthempoor.Heexploitedthe
human,agriculturalandmineralresourcesoftheItalianandGermanstates.Healsoovertaxedth
emassesinthosestates.Therefore,thestatesweresopoorthattheycouldnotchallengetheecon
omicallypowerfulAustriaupto1848.
MetternichrestoredandmaintainedthelegitimaterulerswhohadbeenoverthrownbytheFrenc
hrevolutionof1789andNapoleonI.Forexample,therewasFerdinandIwhowasrestoredinNapl
es,theHapsburgrulersinCentralItaly,thePopeinthePopalstatesandtheBourbonsinFranceam
ongothers.MetternichlaterusedtheserulerstosuppressliberalisminEuropesincetheywerethe
mselvesagainstliberalism,giventhefactthattheywerealsoconservativeasMetternich.
MetternichexploitedhistalentasalinguistandasaneducatedmantocontrolEuropeanaffairs.He
couldspeakLatin,English,German,FrenchandtheRussianlanguage.Thisenabledhimtoreadal
lpublicationssoastogetinformationwhichenabledhimtodefeattheliberalsandnationalists.Ital
soenabledhimtohaveaninfluenceonEuropeanstatesmen.Therefore,hebecameadominantp
ersonalityinthehistoryofEuropethattheperiodbetween1814and1848isreferredtoasthe“Met
ternichage”.
HewasalsoabletodominateEuropethroughsuppressingliberalismandthiswaslargelydonebyc
ontrollingtheUniversityprofessorsandstudents.Thesewerefondofincitingthemassesintolibe
ralrevolutions.In1819,heissuedthe“CarlsbadDecrees”inwhichspieswerestationedinalluni
versities,students’societieswereabolishedandtheliberalprofessorsweredismissed.Therefor
e,MetternichwasabletodefeatliberalisminAustriaandtheGermanstates.
PrinceMetternichstartedthecongresssystemandheusedittocontrolEuropeanaffairs.Usingth
econgresssystem,MetternichwastobringtogetheralltheEuropeanpowersunder“onethinki
ngtank”exceptBritain.Itwasthroughthisjointeffortunderthecongresssystemthatwasableto
suppressrevolutionsincountrieslikeSpain,Naples,theItalianandGermanstatesbetween1820
and1848.
NOTE:Hismeasuresincreasedoppositionratherthanreducingit.In1848,arevolutionbrokeout
inViennawhichforcedhimtoresignonthe21stNovember1848andhewentintoexile.Hereturned
laterandlivedasrespectedstatesmanuntilhisdeathin1859.HewassucceededbySchwazenb
urgwhenheresigned.

Questions:
 AssessthecontributionofMetternichtothestabilityofEuropebetween1814and1848.
 AssesstheimpactofPrinceMetternichontheHistoryofEuropebetween1814and1848.
 HowwasMetternichabletocontrolEuropeanaffairsbetween1814and1848?
THE1848REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE
Theyears1848to1849wereyearsofpoliticalunrestthroughoutEurope.Aseriesofuprisingsorre
volutionsbrokeoutfirstinFranceandlaterspreadtotheAustrianempire,Italianstates,Prussiaan
dotherGermanstates.TheseuprisingsfollowedtheFrenchrevolutionof1789andthe1830revol
utionsinEurope.Theywereeitherliberalornationalisticinoutlookorboth.Thepurelyliberalrevol

tsdesiredpoliticalandotherfreedomswhilethosethatwerenationalisticaimedatendingforeign
ruleorachievingnationalunity
The1848revolutionstookplaceinalmosteverycityinEuropelikeViennainAustria,BerlininPrussi
a,ParisinFrance,RomeinItaly,BudapestinHungary,PalermoinSicilyandotherEuropeancities.
OnlyBritainandBelgiumsurvivedtheserevolutionswhilesomepartsoftheOttomanEmpirelike
MoldaviaandWallachiaexperiencedminordisturbances.
CAUSESOFTHE1848REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE
TheViennasettlementof1815contributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutionsinEurope.The
Viennasettlementof1815simplymeantasetofresolutionsthatwereadoptedattheendoftheVie
nnaCongressof1814-
1815.BytheViennasettlement,anumberofstatesinEuropewereplacedunderforeignrule.Fore
xample,theItalianstatesofLombardyandVenetiaaswellastheGermanstateswereputunderth
eAustrianrule.Therefore,in1848theItaliansandGermansstagedrevolutionsinordertooverthr
owtheAustrianimperialismthathadbeenimposedoverthembytheViennasettlementof1815.
Furthermore,theViennasettlementmadeamistakeofrestoringtheunpopularlegitimaterulersi
nEurope.Forexample,intheItalianstatesofNaplesandSicily,FerdinandIwasrestoredaskingw
hilethePopewasrestoredinthePopalstates.Theserulerswereveryconservativeandthereforet
heydeniedtheirsubjectspoliticallibertyandotherandotherformsofconstitutionalgovernance.
Asaresult,revolutionswerestagedin1848againsttheseabsoluteordespoticrulersthathasbeen
restoredbytheViennaSettlementof1815.
Theriseofnationalismordesireforindependencewasanotherfactorthatledtotheoutbreakofth
e1848revolutionsinEurope.In1848,Europeanstatesthatwerestillunderforeignrulerevoltedin
ordertogettheirindependenceforexample,theGerman,ItaliansandHungariansrevoltedin18
48inordertogettheirindependencefromtheAustrianempireunderPrinceMetternich.
TheMetternichsystemcontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutionsinEuropeparticularlyi
ntheAustrianEmpire.IntheGermanConfederationforexample,PrinceMetternichabolishedst
udents’societies,politicalclubsanduniversityprofessorswhoopposedhisviewsweredismissed
usingtheCarlsbadDecreesof1819.IntheItalianstates,PrinceMetternichdeployedspiesandfor
eignarmiesandtheopponentswouldbearrested,tortured,imprisonedandotherskilled.TheMe
tternichsystemthereforegenerateddiscontentamongtheItalianandGermanstateswhichinsp
iredthemtostagerevolutionsin1848.
ThecollapseoftheCongressSystemby1830contributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutionsi
nEurope.OneofthemajorobjectivesbehindtheformationoftheCongressSystemin1818wasto
maintainpeaceinEuropethroughsuppressingrevolutions.Therefore,theCongressSystemwa
sopposedtothegrowingforcesofliberalismandnationalisminEurope.Whenthecongresssyste
mcollapsedin1830therefore,Europeremainedwithoutaconcertedefforttosuppressanyliberal

andnationalisticmovementsinEurope.ThisthereforeinspiredtheEuropeanstatestostagerevo
lutionsin1848inAustria,PrussiaandItaly.
Theinfluenceofthe1820and1830revolutionsinEuropealsocausedthe1848revolutions.Forex
ample,in1821theGreeksrevoltedagainsttheTurkishbadruleandwereabletogettheirindepen
denceby1832.Similarly,inJuly1830theFrenchmenorganizedarevolutionthatoverthrewthere
storedBourbonMonarchyunderKingCharlesX.Inaddition,theBelgiansstagedsuccessfulrevol
utioninAugust1830andgottheirindependencefromtheDutchin1839.Thesuccessoftheserevo
lutionsthereforegreatlyinspiredthenationalistsinGermany,ItalyandHungarytostagerevoluti
onsin1848hopingforthesamesuccess.
TheinfluenceoftheFebruary1848revolutioninFrancecontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848re
volutionsinEurope.InFebruary1848,arevolutionbrokeoutinFranceandKingLouisPhilippewas
overthrownwhichmarkedtheendoftheOrleansMonarchy.Whenthisrevolutionoccurred,theu
niversityprofessors,students,liberalsandthemiddleclassmembersinotherEuropeanstateslik
eAustriaandPrussiadecidedtostagerevolutionsin1848.
Liberalismcontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutionsinEurope.liberalismwasapolitical
ideologythatemphasizedindividualfundamentalfreedoms.Itwasadvocatedforbytheliberalsi
nEuropewhobelievedinlibertiesorfreedomslikefreedomofworship,pressandequalitybeforet
helaw.Theyalsowantedtherestorationofparliamentarydemocracyandconstitutionalgoverna
nceinwhichthepoliticalrightsofthemasseswouldbeprotected.Theirdesireswereignoredbyth
edespoticrulersinEuropelikeMetternichofAustria,KingLouisPhilippeofFranceandKingFredric
kWilliamIVofPrussia.Asaresult,liberalrevolutionswerestagedin1848incountrieslikeFrance,A
ustria,HungaryandPrussia.
Thenegativeeffectsoftheindustrialrevolutionalsocausedthe1848revolutionsinEurope.By18
40,theindustrialrevolutionhadsweptacrossmostEuropeancountries.However,thisindustriali
zationinEuropebroughtaboutmanyproblemslikepoorpay,overcrowdinginfactoriesaswellasp
oorventilationamongothers.Italsoincreasedrural–
urbanmigrationwhichledtoopenurbanunemploymentandthedevelopmentofslumswithpoor
sanitationandaccommodationfacilities.TheEuropeangovernmentsfailedtoaddresstheabov
eproblemsresultingfromtheindustrialrevolution.ThisthereforeinspiredtheEuropeanmasses
tostagerevolutionsin1848intheso-
calledindustrializedstatesofEuropelikeAustria,France,SwitzerlandandtheItalianstates.
Theroleoftheintellectualsormiddleclassledtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutioninEurope.By1
848,enlightenmenthadspreadtomanypartsofEuropewhichgavebirthtoseveralintellectuals.I
nPrussiaandotherstatesoftheGermanconfederation,criticismwasspearheadedbytheunivers
ityprofessorsandstudents.InItaly,Mazzinispreadpatriotismthroughanorganizationcalledthe
YoungItalyMovement.InHungary,LouisKossuthdemandedforindependencefromtheAustria
nEmpirewhileinFranceitwasAdolphTheirswhomobilizedthemassesforarevolution.Thisevent
uallysparkedoffthe1848revolutionsinEurope.

Naturalcalamitiesalsoledtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutionsinEurope.Forexample,inFranc
e,Austria,PrussiaandotherGermanstatestherewerepoorharvestsbetween1846and1847due
tothebadweatherwhichcausedfamineandasharpriseinfoodprices.Thiswasfollowedbytheepi
demicdiseasesliketyphoid,choleraanddysentery.Thesufferingresultingfromthesenaturaldis
asterscreateddiscontentamongtheEuropeanmasseswhichprovokedthemtostagerevolution
sin1848againsttheirgovernmentswhichhadfailedtoprovidepracticalsolutions.
TheincreasedpopulationinEuropealsocontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutionsinEur
ope.MostEuropeancountrieshadwitnessedpopulationexplosionby1848.Thispopulationincr
easeresultedintoproblemslikeurbancongestion,foodandwatershortages,growingunemploy
ment,diseasesandgrowthofslums.Eventhefewwhowereemployedsufferedfrompoorworkin
gconditionslikelowwagesandcongestioninthefactories.ThisthereforeprovokedtheEuropean
massestostagerevolutionsin1848againstthosegovernmentsthathadfailedtoprovideadequa
telyfortherisingpopulation.
Theriseofsocialismalsocontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutionsinEuropeespeciallyi
nAustriaandFrance.Thesocialistsadvocatedforthestateownershipofpropertyandbettercond
itionsofwork.InFranceforexample,thesocialistswereledbyLouisBlancwhowantedthestateto
takeoverthefactorsofproductionandthendistributethewealthsoastoreducethegapbetweent
herichmiddleclassandthepoor.Theyalsoemphasizedthatthestateshouldhavethedutyofempl
oyingandmaintainingthewelfareoftheworkers.Whensomestatesnevertooksocialismserious
ly,strikesanddemonstrationswereorganizedbythesocialistswhicheventuallyledtotheoutbre
akofthe1848revolutions.
ThedownfallofPrinceMetternichandhisoppressivesystemin1848ledtotheoutbreakofthe184
8revolutionsinEurope.PrinceMetternich,ChancelloroftheAustrianempirewasoverthrownbyt
heOctober1848revolutioninVienna.Before1848,Metternichhadsuppressedalltheliberaland
nationalisticmovementsintheItalianandGermanstatesthroughhisoppressivesystem.Theref
ore,hisdownfallgavetherevolutionariescouragetodemonstratewithoutfear,thuscausingthe
1848revolutionsinEurope.
TheinfluenceoftheFrenchrevolutionof1789contributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutions
inEurope.In1789,theFrenchmenstagedasuccessfulrevolutionagainsttheautocraticregimeo
ftheBourbonsunderKingLouisXVIwhowasremovedfrompowerin1793.TheFrenchmenmana
gedtoestablishfundamentalchangeslikefreedomofworship,abolitionofsocialclassesandcon
stitutionalgovernance.Thesuccessofthe1789FrenchrevolutionthereforeencouragedtheEur
opeanmassesthatwerestillunderdespoticregimeslikeinAustria,NaplesandPrussiatostagerev
olutionsin1848hopingtooverthrowsuchregimesastheFrenchmenhaddonein1789.
TheweaknessesoftheEuropeangovernmentscontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutio
ns.By1848,manyEuropeangovernmentshadfailedtofulfilltheexpectationsofthemassesduet
otheirnumerousweaknesses.InFranceforexample,theregimeofKingLouisPhilippewaschara
cterizedbywidespreadcorruptionandbriberythatwaspromotedbytheChiefMinisterFrancoisF

rançoisGuizot.SuchweaknessesmadetheEuropeangovernmentsunpopularandasaresultrev
olutionswerestagedin1848soastooverthrowthem.
SocialsegregationinsomeEuropeancountriesledtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutions.InAust
riaandHungryforexample,thereexistedthenobilityandclergy.Thesesocialclassesenjoyedma
nyprivilegeslikeownershipoflandandtaxexemption.Thetaxburdeninsteadfellonthepeasants
whodidnotevenownland.InFrance,LouisPhilippepromotedfavouritismofthemiddleclassme
mbersattheexpenseofthepeasants.Asaresult,thepeasantsinseveralEuropeancountriesrevo
ltedin1848againsttheirgovernments.
TheeconomiccrisisordeclineinEuropecausedthe1848revolutions.By1848,therewereecono
michardshipsinmanyEuropeanstatesthatencouragedthemassestorevolt.Forexample,there
wasadeclineintheindustrialsectortowards1848.Thiswasbecauseofthepoorpeoplespending
mostoftheirmoneyontheexpensivefoodwhichledtoafallinthedemandoftheindustrialgoods.A
saresult,theindustriescloseddownwhichledtomassiveunemploymentandpoverty.Thiscause
ddiscontentamongtheunemployedpeoplewhodecidedtostagerevolutionsin1848.
Theinfluenceofreformbanquetsalsocontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1848revolutionsinsome
Europeancountries.Reformbanquetswerepoliticalralliesatwhichtheoppositionmembersuse
dtocriticizetheexistinggovernmentsandalsodemandforreforms.Theythereforeinfluencedpu
blicopinioninEuropeancountriestodemandforachangewhicheventuallycausedrevolutions.I
nFranceforexample,agreatreformbanquetthatwasorganizedinParisinFebruary1848eventu
allysparkedofftheFebruary1848revolutionthatmarkedtheendofKingLouisPhilippe.
CASESTUDIESOFTHE1848REVOLUTIONARYMOVEMENTSINEUROPE
THECASEFORAUSTRIA–HUNGARY
BothAustriaandHungarywereMonarchiesbutAustriaannexedHungaryandthereforetheEm
perorofAustriaruledHungary.InHungary,themajoritypeoplewereknownastheMagyarsand
theotherpeoplewereknownastheCroats.
On15thMarch1848,theMagyarsstagedanationalisticrevolutiondemandingindependencefromA
ustria.TheywereledbyanintellectualbythenameofLouisKossuth.Therevolutionwasstagedin
BudapestwhichwasthecapitalofHungary.
HoweverinAugust1849,withthesupportofRussiantroopswhichweresentbyTsarNicholasI,
therevolutionoftheMagyarswascrushedwithbrutality.Infactduringthecourseoffighting,theC
roatswholivedinHungaryandwereenemiesoftheMagyarsfoughtonthesideofAustriaandtheH
ungarianrevolutionfailed.

InJune1848,theCzechswhoalsolivedinAustriastagedanationalisticrevolutioninPRAGUEwhi
chwastheircapital.However,withinfourdaystheAustriantroopscrushedtherevolutioninPragu
e.
THE1848REVOLUTIONINPRUSSIA(GERMANY)
By1848,PrussiawasstillanIndependentGermanstateunderKingFredrickWilliamIV.Berlinwas
itscapitalandtheseatofthePrussianParliament.
InMarch1848,thePrussiansstagedaliberalrevolutioninBerlindemandingforfreedomofexpr
ession,aparliamentelectedbythepeople,equalitybeforethelawandawrittenconstitution.The
yalsodemandedforanelectedparliamentforthewholeofGermanyotherthanhavingoneforP
russiaandanotheronefortheGermanConfederationwhichwasunderAustriaatFrankfurt.
Takenbysurprise,KingFredrickWilliamIVverballyyieldedtoallthedemandsoftherevolutionari
es,includingparliamentaryelections,aconstitutionandfreedomofthepress.Healsopromisedt
hat“PrussiawastobemergedforthwithwithotherGermanstatessoastocreateaunitedGerman
y”.ThesedevelopmentsannoyedAustriawhichcontrolledtheGermanConfederationandtheref
oredidnottocreateaunitedGermanyinEurope.Austriathereforerejectedthecreationofanasse
mblyorparliamentforthewholeofGermanywhichthePrussianshadforcedontoKingFredrickWi
lliamIV.
KingFredrickWilliamIVwhofearedannoyingAustriawhichhadtheabilitytofightagainstPrussiat
hereforewithdrewthePrussianrepresentativesfromthenewAssemblyorparliamentandthus,t
heOldconfederationParliamentwasrestored.ThiswasablowtothePrussianliberalsandnation
alistsandthereforeitledtothefailureoftherevolutioninGermany.
THE1848REVOLUTIONINVIENNA
ViennawasthecapitalofAustria.ArevolutionbrokeoutagainstthegovernmentofPrinceMettern
ich.On21stNovember1848,PrinceMetternichresignedandwassucceededbySCHWAZENBU
RG.
REASONSFORTHEFAILUREOFTHE1848REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE
ApartfromFrance,therevolutionsinAustria,Hungary,theItalianandGermanstatesi.e.theGer
manConfederationandPrussiawereafailurebecauseofthefollowingfactors:
TherewasdisunityamongtheliberalsandnationalistsinEurope.Thisweakenedtheirstrugglean
dgavetherulersthatopportunitytoexploitthedisunityandtherevolutionariesweredefeated.In

Austria-
Hungaryforexample,theCroatsinHungaryrefusedtosupporttheMagyarsandtheyinsteadsup
portedAustriabecausetheydidnotwanttobedominatedbytheMagyarsinanindependentHung
ary.InItaly,insteadoffightingagainstAustria,NaplesfoughtagainstSicily.
Theideologicalconflictsamongtherevolutionariesledtothefailureofthe1848revolutions.InIta
lyforexample,KingCharlesAlbertofPiedmontwasinterestedinthecreationofaKingdomofItaly
aftertheexpulsionofAustria.OthernationalistslikeMazziniandGaribaldiwantedthecreationof
arepublicwhileotherswantedleadershipofthePope.Thisgeneratedaconflictwhichdisabledth
emtocooperateandAustriawasabletodefeatthem.
Theapathyornegativeattitudebythepeasantsledthefailureofthe1848revolutionsinEurope.In
Austria,therevolutionsdidnotgetfullsupportfromthepeasantswhoformedthemajorityofthep
opulation.TheAustriangovernmentforexamplemadereformswhenitabolishedtheRobottax
whichwasaLabourrentwherepeasantshadtoworkfortheirlandlordsforaspecificperiodoftime.
Otherpeasantsdidnotseethereasonofsupportingrevolutionsin1848becausetheyhadsupport
edthemin1830forexampleinItalyandGermanystatesandtheydidnotsucceed.
ThefailureoftherevolutioninViennacontributedtofailureofotherrevolutionsintheAustrianem
pire.AlthoughPrinceMetternichwasoverthrownbytherevolutionwhichwasstagedinVienna,t
heAustriangovernmentfinallydefeatedtherevolutionaries.Austriathenremovedtheforcestha
thadbeenconcentratedtofightinViennatoprotecttheHapsburgMonarchyfrombeingoverthro
wnandtheyweresenttoHungaryandtheItalianstates.Theseforceswereabletodefeattherevol
utionaries.
Someoftheautocraticandconservativemonarchsgavesupporttoeachotherwhichledtothedef
eatoftherevolutionariesin1848.AustriaandRussiafearedthatthesuccessoftherevolutionswa
stocontributetothecollapseoftheirempires.ItisnotsurprisingthereforethatTsarNicholasofRu
ssiasentalargeRussianarmywhichhelpedAustriatodefeattherevolutionoftheMagyarsinBuda
pestthecapitalofHungary.
TherewaslackofsupportfromBritainduringtherevolutionaryperiod.By1848,Britainwasamajo
rEuropeanpowerwhichenjoyedparliamentarydemocracybutshedecidedtobeatpeacewithth
erestofEurope.Itrefusedtouseherinfluencetosupporttherevolutionariesagainsttheunpopul
arregimesasithaddonetotheBelgiansin1830againsttheDutch.Therefore,itdidnotstoptheAus
trianandRussianactivitiesagainsttherevolutionariesandasaresult,theyweredefeated.
Naturalcalamitieslikefamineanddiseasescontributedtothefailureofthe1848revolutionsinEur
ope.Thepersistentfoodshortagesweakenedthestruggleoftherevolutionariesduetocropfailur

e.ThesituationwasworsenedwiththeoutbreakoftheCholeradiseaseresultingfromtheovercro
wdingwhichwasbeingexperiencedintheurbancentresofEurope.Therevolutionariestherefor
ebecamefrustratedsuchthattheycouldnotputinenoughefforttodefeattheirenemies.
Thedefeatoftherevolutionarieswasduetotheirmilitaryweakness.AustriaandRussiaweremilit
arilypowerfulyettherevolutionarymobsweremilitarilyinferior.Thisgaveanopportunitytothe
militaryforcesofAustriacommandedbyGeneralRadeskytogetherwiththoseofRussiatodefe
attherevolutionaries.
TheeconomicbackwardnessinsomeoftheEuropeanstatesledtothedefeatoftherevolutionarie
s.InItaly,HungaryandtheGermanConfederation,Austriahadexploitedtheirlandresourcesfor
herowndevelopment.Theexploitedstatesdidnothavegoodroads,nostrongindustrialbaseand
sotheireconomieswereinasorrystate.Therefore,theycouldnotsustainfightingagainstanecon
omicallypowerfulstatelikeAustria.
Therewasalsothelackofexperiencebysomeoftherevolutionaryleaders.Someoftherevolution
aryleadersweremenofaweakcharacterandhadviewsthatwereverydifficulttoachieve.Therew
erenoruthlessleaderslikeRobespierreofthe1789Frenchrevolutionwhowaswillingtokillforthe
purposeofmakingtherevolutionsucceed.FredrickWilliamIVofPrussiafearedtotakealeadagai
nstAustriancontrolintheGermanConfederationasdemandedbytheGermannationalistsbecau
seheadmiredtheinfluenceofAustriainGermany.
The1848revolutionswerelargelystagedinurbancentres.Thisaffectedthesuccessoftherevolu
tionariesbecauseofthelimitedmobilizationoftheentirepopulation.InAustria–
Hungary,therevolutionswerestagedinVienna,BudapestandPrague.Somepeopleeventhoug
htthattherevolutionshadbeenstagedtoaddressurbanproblems.Itthereforebecameeasytoco
ncentratesoldiersintheurbancentresthatdefeatedtherevolutionaries.
Therewaslackofcharismaticleadershipamongtherevolutionaryleaders.Theleaderswereintel
lectualslikelawyers,universityprofessorsandstudents.Thistypeofleadershipdidnotattractallt
hepeopleintheirstatesandthereforetheirmobilizationwaslimitedtotheeducatedgroups.InIta
lyforexample,theactivitiesofmobilizationbyMazziniwerelocalizedinNaplesandSicilyyetitnee
dedthewholeofItalytodefeatforeignrule.
The“MetternichSystem”frustratedthenationalistsandliberalsandthereforetheyfailedtoachie
vetheirobjectivesin1848.Hissystemofusingaspyingnetwork,perusingthroughallcorrespond
encesandcensorshipofreadingmaterialsplusarrestsandimprisonmentofrevolutionariesenab
ledhimtodefeattherevolutionaries.

TheconservativenessoftheCatholicChurchalsocontributedtothefailureofthe1848revolution
sinEurope.InPrussiaandItalyforexample,therewerereligiousdifferencesbetweentheCatholi
candtheProtestants.TheCatholicChurchfearedthatitspowersweretobereducedincasethePr
otestantChurchorleaderstookovergovernmentincaseAustriawasexpelledfromtherespective
states.AustriawhichwasaCatholicstateexploitedthissituationanddefeatedtherevolutions.
EFFECTSOFTHE1848REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE
The1848revolutionsmarkedtheendofPrinceMetternichandhisrepressivesysteminEurope.T
hisgavetheliberalsandnationalistsachancetofightandachievetheirobjectivessinceMetternic
hhadprovidedahostileenvironmenttothem.
The1848revolutionsledtothelossoflivesasmanypeoplewerekilledandwoundedduringthefig
hting.ThiswasexperiencedespeciallyintheItalianandGermanstateswhereAustriawantedtor
estoreherdominanceintheabovestates.
The1848revolutionsledtothefallofgovernmentsinsomeEuropeancountries.Forexample,inFr
ancetheOrleansMonarchyofLouisPhilippewasoverthrownandthe2 ndFrenchRepublicwasesta
blishedunderLouisNapoleonBonaparteIII.InRome,thePopelostpowerwhentheItalianrevolu
tionariesledbyMazziniandGaribaldiestablishedaRepublicinRomealthoughthiswasshortlived
.
Therevolutionsledtothedestructionofpropertylikeindustriesandinfrastructuresplusfarms.T
hisaffectedtheeconomiesofcountrieslikeFrance,theItalianandGermanstates.
Asaresultofthe1848revolutions,newpersonalitiesemergedonthepoliticalsceneofEuropelike
BismarckofPrussiawhichlaterbecameGermany,Cavourof(Piedmont)ItalyandLouisNapoleo
nIIIofFrance.Insomecases,thesepersonalitiesprovidedpoliticalfreedom,libertyanddemocra
cytothepeople.Forinstance,thenewleadersofAustriainViennaabolishedfeudalisminSeptem
ber1849.
The1848revolutionsweresuccessfulinFrancebecauseLouisPhilippewasoverthrownandane
wgovernmentwasestablished.However,inAustrianEmpireandPrussiatheywereonlyshortlive
dbecausethedespoticleaderscamebacktotheirpositions.
Afterthe1848revolutions,Europewitnessedaperiodofreconstructionandrehabilitationofthei
nfrastructureswhichweredestroyedduringtherevolutions.Forexample,economicreformswe
recarriedoutbyLouisNapoleonIIIinFrance.

Inareaswherethe1848revolutionsfailed,revengewasdoneagainsttherevolutionaryleaders.F
orexample,inHungaryandAustriaparliamentarystructureswerecancelledoutandtheliberalle
aderswereimprisonedorexiled.
Greatlessonswerelearntevenifsomerevolutionshadfailed.Forexample,theItaliansrealizedth
attheirfailureagainstAustriawasduetodisunityandasaresult,theybeganaunitedstruggleund
ertheleadershipofCavour.InPrussia,Bismarckintroducedthepolicyof“Bloodandiron”orforce
whicheventuallyledtotheunificationofGermanyby1871.
THECOMMONFEATURESOFTHE1848REVOLUTIONSINEUROPE
Thecommonfeaturesofthe1848revolutionscanbenotedinthecauses,courseandeffectsofthe
serevolutionsasindicatedbelow;
 Theywereallinfluencedbytheriseofliberalism.
 TheywereallinspiredbythecommondesiretodestroythebadarrangementstheViennaSettl
ementof1815.
 Theywereallledbyintellectualslikeuniversityprofessors,studentsandjournalists.
 MostofthemfailedexcepttheoneinFrance.
 TherevolutionarieswerealldividedalongideologicallinesasthecasewasinHungary.
 TherevolutionstookplaceinthelessindustrializedstatesofEuropelikeFrance,theItalianstat
es,HungaryandAustria.Thatiswhythepoorharvestsof1847to1849greatlycontributedtoth
eoutbreakofrevolutionsinthesestatessincetheireconomieswerelargelyagricultural.
 AlltheserevolutionslackedsupportfromtheirdomesticarmiesexceptinFranceandthatiswh
ytheywereeasilysuppressedbytheirenemies.
 Alltherevolutionslackedforeignassistanceyettheywerefightingagainstpowerfulenemiesl
ikeAustria.
 Allthe1848revolutionslackedproperleadershipsincetheywerelargelyledbytheintellectual
softhetimelikeuniversityprofessors,universitystudentsandjournalists.
 Alltherevolutionswereinspiredbytheoutbreakofnaturalcalamitieslikebadweatherorfami
neandepidemicdiseases.
 Inalltherevolutions,AustriaappearstobethecommonenemyexceptinFrance.
 Mostoftheserevolutionswereinspiredbythedesireforindependenceandnationalunificatio
nexceptinFrance.
 Mostofthe1848revolutionstookplaceinurbancentreslikePalermo(Sicily),Paris(France),Vi
enna(Austria),Berlin(Prussia)andBudapest(Hungary)amongothers.
 Theyalltookplaceinthesameyeari.e.1848withonerevolutioninspiringtheoutbreakofrevol
utionsinothercountries.

 AlmostallofthemwereinspiredbytheoppressiveMetternichSystemwhichsuppressedliber
alismandnationalism.
 MostoftherevolutionsledtotheriseofnewpersonalitiesonthepoliticalsceneofEurope.
REASONSWHYBRITAINANDBELGIUMSURVIVEDTHE1848REVOLUTIONS
BritainandBelgiumwereamongthemostliberalstatesofEurope.AlthoughBritainwasamonarc
hicalstate,itwasadministeredusingaconstitution.ForBelgiumindependencehadbeenachieve
din1839.Therefore,therewasnoneedforrevolutionsin1848.
BothBritainandBelgiumwereamongthemostindustrializedstatesofEuropeby1848.Theindust
rialadvancementinthesecountriescontributedtobetteremploymentopportunitiesaswellasth
eproductionofavarietyorgoodsatcheaperpriceswhichwasn’tthecasewiththeothercountrieso
fEurope.Therewerenotradeunionsinthetwocountrieswhichwouldhavebeeninstrumentalinc
ausingrevolutions.
SincemostoftheserevolutionswerecausedbyunemploymentanditwasnotwithBritainandBelg
ium.Asaresult,bothcountrieshadtoescapetheoutbreakofthe1848revolutions.
InBritain,theexcesspopulationwhichwouldhavecausedunemploymenthadbeensenttocolon
ieslikeSouthAfrica,NewZealandandCanada.
AlthoughBritainhadanumberofprovinces,troublesomestateswerefewunlikecountrieslikeAu
striawhichhadverymanystates,nationalities,culturesandreligions.
TheBritishcolonieshadbeengivensemi-
independencestatusby1848.Forexample,Canadiancolonywasresponsibleforherlocalparlia
mentaryaffairsandsameappliedtoNewZealand.
ThelocationofBritainalsomadehertosurvivethe1848revolutions.Shewasfoundonanislandan
dthereforetherewasminimalinteractionwithcontinentalEurope.Thismadehernottobeconta
minatedbytherevolutionaryideasasthecasewaswithFranceandAustria.
ForalongtimeBritainhadkeptherselfawayfromthemattersofEurope.Shehadmaintainedapoli
cyofnon-
interferenceinthemattersoftheothercountries.Thisattitudeofisolationmadehersurvivethe18
48revolutions.
BritainandBelgiumwerefreefromtheMetternichsystemanditspoliciesliketheCarlsbadDecree
s,aspynetworkandapolicemachinerywhichmadeotherstatestorebelin1848.
Thetwostatesweren’taffectedbythepoorharvestsanddiseaseoutbreaks.ForBritain,therewas
enoughfoodwhichsolvedthepooreconomicsituationwhichwouldhavecausedarevolution.

BritainandBelgiumdidn’thavesocialclassesandtheassociatedprivilegeswhichhadcausedthe
1848revolutionsinEuropeancountrieslikeAustriaandFrance.Forexample,thereweren’tpeasa
ntsinBritainwhowouldhavecausedofrevolution.
THESECONDFRENCHREPUBLIC(1848-
1852)ANDTHESECONDFRENCHEMPIRE(1852-1870)
AfterthefalloftheOrleansmonarchyinFebruary1848,aprovisionalgovernmentwasestablishedledby
AlphonseLamartinewhowasarepublicanandLouisBlancwhowasasocialist,despitethefactthatt
hetwohadsharpdifferences.Theprovisionalgovernmentmanagedtosetupstateworkshopsaimedate
ndingunemploymentinFrance.TheseworkshopswerelaterabolishedbytheNationalAssemblyorparli
amentinJune1848whichresultedintoacivilwarinFrancewhichwaslatersuppressed.Despitethischa
oticsituation,theprovisionalgovernmentmanagedtosetupaconstitutionforFranceinOctober1848
andwentaheadtoorganizeelectionsinDecember1848,whichLouisNapoleonBonapartewonagai
nstLamartineandGeneralCavaignac.
LOUISNAPOLEONBONAPARTEASPRESIDENT(1848-1852)

LouisNapoleonBonaparte(Presidentofthe2ndFrenchRepublicandlaterknownasNapoleonIII,therule
rofthe2ndFrenchEmpire)wasasonofLouisBonaparte,KingofHollandfrom1806to1810andabrothert
oNapoleonBonaparteI.Therefore,LouisNapoleonBonapartewasanephewofNapoleonBonaparteI.
In1831whileinItaly,hebecameamemberoftheCarbonariMovementandheparticipatedintheirrev
oltagainstthePopeinRomewhichfailed.In1836,hetriedanunsuccessfulcoupagainstLouisPhilippeatS
trasbourg.HewasarrestedanddeportedtoUSA.HemadeanotherunsuccessfulcoupatBoulognein184
0.HewascapturedandimprisonedatHaminNorthernFrancefrom1840-
1846.In1846,heescapedfromtheprisonandwentbacktoexile(London).
InFebruary1848whenLouisPhilippewasoverthrown,LouisNapoleonBonapartecamebacktoFranc
e.InDecember1848,LouisNapoleonBonapartewaselectedasthePresidentofthe2 ndFrenchRepubli
c,hencecomingtopowerinFrance.
FACTORSFORTHERISEOFLOUISNAPOLEONBONAPARTETOPOWER
ThesuccessoftheFebruary1848revolutioninFranceledtotheriseofLouisNapoleonBonapartetopowe
r.ThisrevolutionoverthrewtheOrleansMonarchyunderLouisPhilippeandthereforecreatedapowerva
cuuminFrance.ThisledtotheorganizationofelectionsforanewleaderwhereLouisNapoleonBonaparte
emergedvictorious,thuscomingtopower.
Thenon-
adventurouspolicyofLouisPhilippeledtotheriseofLouisNapoleonBonapartetopower.Between1830a
nd1848FrancelackedagloriousforeignpolicysinceLouisPhilippewasnon-
interventionist.YettheFrenchmensincethe1789revolutionhaddesiredagloriousforeignpolicy.There
foreby1848,theonlypersontheyexpectedtopromotesuchapolicywasLouisNapoleonBonapartesince
hehadpromisedtobeginfromwherehisgreatuncleNapoleonBonaparteIhadstoppedin1815.
Hischaracterledtohisrisetopower.LikehisuncleNapoleonBonaparteI,LouisNapoleonBonapartewas
anambitiousmanandpowerhungry.Forexample,heattemptedtooverthrowLouisPhilippein1836and
1840.HealsotookhimselfasthedirectheirtohisuncleandusuallyregardedhimselfasequaltoNapoleon
BonaparteI.Therefore,whenhestoodforpresidencyin1848manyFrenchmenvotedhimintopower.
ThereturnofNapoleonBonaparteI’sbodyfromSt.HelenaforburialbyLouisPhilippein1841ledtotherise
ofLouisNapoleonBonaparte.ThereturnofthebodymadetheFrenchtorememberthegoodolddaysofth
e“Napoleonicera”inFranceasopposedtoLouisPhilippe’spoorsocialandeconomicpolicies.Therefor
e,whenLouisNapoleonBonapartepromisedgloryandastrongeconomylikethatofNapoleonI,thiswon
himmajoritysupport.
Thedisunityamonghisopponentsledtohisrisetopowerin1848.Forexampleamongtherepublicans,so
mewantedtocompromisewiththechurchandthestate,whileotherswerestronglyopposedtotheBourb
onandOrleansHouses(families).Themiddleclassmemberswerealsoagainstthesocialistswhowanted
tonationalizetheirproperty.LouisNapoleonBonapartethereforeusedsuchdisunitytoconvincethema
ssestovotehimin1848.

LouisNapoleonBonaparte’swritingswhichcirculatedamongtheFrenchmenledtohisrisetopower.Whil
einprisonatHam,LouisNapoleonBonapartewroteonmanyimportantissuesoftheday.Notableamong
hiswritingswas“TheExtinctionofPauperism’’and“TheNapoleonicideas’’.InallthesewritingsL
ouisNapoleonBonaparteoutlinedhisplansofsolvingunemploymentandpovertyinFranceaswellasrevi
vingthepastglory.ThispleasedtheFrenchmenhencevotingintopower.
ThesupportfromtheCatholicChurchwasanotherfactorthatenabledLouisNapoleonBonapartetocom
etopower.LouisNapoleonBonapartewasastaunchcatholicandhealsopromisedtoliberatethePopalst
ateswhichhadbeentakenoverbytheItalianrevolutionariesledbyMazziniandGaribaldiduringthe1848
Italianrevolutions.SincetheCatholicswerethemajorityinFrance,theirlargenumberofvoteshelpedLo
uisNapoleonBonapartetorisetopowerin1848.
TheunpopularityoftheothercandidateswhocompetedwithLouisNapoleonBonaparteenabledhimtor
isetopowerin1848.Forexample,GeneralCavaignacwhowastheMinisterofWarandHeadofthearmyw
ashatedbecausehehadcommandedthearmythathadkilledmanypeopleinJune1848whentheworker
swererioting.Lamartinewasalsounpopularbecausehehadledtheprovisionalgovernmentthatabolish
edthenationalworkshopsthathadstartedgivingsomepeopleemploymentopportunities.Therefore,L
ouisNapoleonBonaparteremainedaloneasthefavouritecandidate,henceexplaininghisrisetopower.
ThepressinFrancecontributedtotheriseofLouisNapoleonBonapartetopower.Thenewspapers,maga
zinesandotherpublicationsextensivelycoveredLouisNapoleonBonaparte’selectioncampaignswhich
madehimpopularamongtheFrenchmen,henceexplaininghisrisetopowerin1848.
LouisNapoleonBonapartehadbeenunderestimatedbyhisopponentsandthisenabledhimtodefeatthe
m.Someofhisopponentshadevensuggestedtohimtostepdownbecausehewaspoliticallyweakandtha
thewasnotanorator.ThisthereforegaveLouisNapoleonBonaparteanopportunitytodefeathisoppone
ntsintheDecember1848elections.
LouisNapoleonBonaparte’searlierassociationwiththeCarbonariMovementinItalygavehimsuppo
rtfromtheFrenchmenespeciallytheliberalswhowantedtheItalianstobeliberatedfromtheoppressive
Austrianrule.TheyhopedthatLouisNapoleonBonapartewouldpromotesuchinterestsandthereforeth
eyvotedhiminlargenumbers.
LouisNapoleonBonaparte’smanifestopavedawayforhisrisetopower.Duringthecampaigns,LouisNa
poleonBonaparteputforwardamanifestothatwasaimedattransformingFranceintoamodernstate.He
promisedtorevivethedecliningeconomy,improveonhissocialwelfareandagloriousforeignpolicy.Thi
shelpedhimtocapturesupportfromallthesectionsoftheFrenchsociety.
THEFORMATIONOFTHESECONDFRENCHEMPIREIN1852
Realizingthathistermofofficeaspresidentwasduetoexpirein1852,LouisNapoleonBonapartetriedtoc
hangeaprovisionintheconstitutionthatstoppedhimfrombeingre-
elected.Hefailedtowinthesupportoftheparliamentandmanymembersoftheparliamentstartedorgan
izingforhisdownfall.However,LouisNapoleonBonaparteactedfastandinthenightof2ndDecember1

851,hestartedabrilliantlyengineeredcoupd’état.Hearrestedhisrepublicanopponents,stationedhi
stroopsinstrategicplacesandannouncedhisplantoruleforanothertenyears.Hecontinuedwithhisusu
altourspersuadingtheFrenchmentovotefortherestorationoftheempire.
On2ndDecember1852the2ndFrenchRepublicendedandthe2ndFrenchEmpirebegun.Thiswasthro
ughaPlebiscite(referendum)organizedbyLouisNapoleonBonaparteinwhichover7.8millionFrench
menvotedfortherestorationoftheEmpireagainst250,000while2millionboycotted.Henowchangedhi
stitleofPresidentandheassumedthetitleofEmperorNapoleonIII.
THEDOMESTICPOLICYOFEMPERORNAPOLEONIII,1852-1870
EmperorNapoleonIIIpassedanewconstitution.Thisconstitutiongavehimalotofpowersliketobethec
ommanderofthearmy,proposelawstobediscussedbytheparliament,appointallministersandcivilserv
antswhowererequiredtotakeanoathofallegiancetotheEmperorandnottotheparliament.Also,onlyca
ndidatesapprovedbyhimwereallowedtostandforelectionsduringhisreign.
Here-
organizedandstrengthenedtheFrencharmywhichhehopedtouseasapoliticaltooltoeliminatehisene
mies.In1855,heintroducedaConscriptionLawbywhichalltheFrenchmenweresupposedtoprovide
militaryservicetothenationforsomeperiod.Thosewhowerenotreadywereexemptedafterpayinghug
esumsofmoney.Inturn,NapoleonIIIusedsuchmoneytopayhisofficersinthearmy,hencemakingthe
mloyaltohim.
NapoleonIIIre-
introduceddivisionsinthelocalgovernmenttoensureeffectivecontrolofthecountryside.Francewason
ceagaindividedintoprovinces,districtsandcells.InthesedivisionsNapoleonIIIappointedprefectstoa
dministerthem.Theseweregivengreatpowerstocarryouthisdutiesandtheywerelittle‘’Emperors”.For
example,theyhadpowerstoappointordismissteachersanddoctorsingovernmentinstitutionsandthe
ycouldevenbananysocietywhichopposedtheEmperor.ThisthereforehelpedNapoleonIIItoputtheen
tireFrenchsocietyunderhiscontrol.
NapoleonIIIcensoredthepress.Forexample,newspaperswereforcedtopay50,000Francstohisgover
nmentasaguaranteefortheir“goodbehaviour”andnevertopublishanyoppositionideas.TheMinisterf
orInternalAffairswasalsogivenpowerstosuppressoppositionnewspapersathisownwill.Thistherefor
ereducedoppositionagainstNapoleonIII.
NapoleonIIIbroughttheintellectualsandtheentireeducationsystemunderhiscontrol.Forexample,th
eUniversityofPariswasputunderclosegovernmentsupervision,professorsandlecturerswereforcedt
osignanoathofloyaltytotheEmperorpromisingnevertoteachagainsthisdesires.Healsoabolishedthet
eachingofliberalsubjectslikeLiterature,HistoryandPhilosophy.Thisalsoreducedoppositionagainsthi
sgovernment.

Hesetupastrictspynetworkinallimportantplaces.Usingthisspynetwork,allthosewhoopposedandcrit
icizedhisgovernmentwereimprisoned,killedandexiled,hencehelpingNapoleonIIIconsolidatehispos
ition.
NapoleonIIIimprovedtheeconomyofFrancebyencouraginginvestment.Hesetupspecialbankstohel
pthefarmersandmanufacturerswithloans.Similarly,roads,railways,canalsandtelecommunicationli
neswereallimproved.Withthesefacilitiesinplaceforeigntradeflourishedorprosperedwhileproductio
nofcoal,ironandsteelgreatlyincreased.HealsoorganizedexhibitionsforArtandIndustrialgoodstopop
ularizetheFrenchgoods.In1855,heorganizedagreatexhibitionwhichevenattractedtheBritish.Thisp
leasedtheFrenchmen.
IntheUrbanizationsector,NapoleonIIIdidalotwork.Heestablishedtownsandcitiesalmostinallthedist
rictsofFrance.Slumswerealsodemolished,water,gasandsewagesystemswereimproved.Allthenarro
wstreetsinPariswerewidenedtosuchanextentthatParisbecamethemostbeautifulcityinthewholeofE
uropeatthattime,thuspromotingtheFrenchglory.ThisalsomadeNapoleonIIIpopularandthereforeas
sistedNapoleonIIItoconsolidatehisposition.
HeimprovedtheeducationsystemofFrancebyestablishingmanysecondaryschools,collegesandscien
tificresearchcentres.Thesalariesofteachers,lecturesandprofessorsintheeducationalsectorwereals
oimproved,henceincreasingtheirdesiretowork.SucheducationalreformsmadeNapoleonIIIpopulari
nFrance.
Healsoprovidedemploymentopportunitiestotheworkingclassmemberswhohadbeensufferingunde
rLouisPhilippe’sregime.Manyofthemwereemployedintheindustriesandthevariouscommercialactivi
tiesthatwerepromotedbyNapoleonIII’sindustrializationpolicy,hencemakinghimpopularamongthe
workers.
NapoleonIIIliberalizedhisempirein1859.Duetotheincreasingproblemsintheforeignpolicyandthest
rongoppositionathome,NapoleonIIIwasforcedtoturnhimselfintoaliberalEmperorin1859.Forexamp
le,heallowedallpoliticalexilestoreturnhome,allowedfreedomofthepress,theparliamentwasallowed
tocriticizeandchangeproposalsmadebytheEmperorandhealsolegalizedtheworkerstostrike.Unfortu
nately,thesemeasuresopenedhisregimetofurthercriticism.
THEFOREIGNPOLICYOFEMPERORNAPOLEONIII,1852-1870
TheforeignpolicyofEmperorNapoleonIIIattemptedtopromotetheFrenchgloryabroadwhichKingLou
isPhilippehadgreatlyignoredthroughouthisreignandthishadindeedgreatlycontributedtohisdownfal
lin1848.Thisisreflectedinthefollowingacheivementsabroad;
TheCrimeanWar,1854-1856
WiththedesiretoprotecttheFrenchinterestsintheOttomanempireliketheneedtoprotectfellowChristi
ansfrompersecution,thedesiretocontroltheholyplacesinPalestineaswellastheeconomicinterestsint
heMediterraneanSea,France,Britain,TurkeyandlaterjoinedbyPiedmontfoughtanddefeatedTurkeyi
ntheCrimeanWarof1854-

1856.ThedefeatofRussiaresurrectedtheFrenchgloryorfamewhichmadeNapoleonIIIpopularamo
ngthemilitarygeneralsandtheBonapartists.ThewaralsoenabledFrancetoregaintheFrenchguardian
shipoftheChristianHolyPlacesofPalestine.ItalsoprotectedtheAnglo–
FrenchinterestsintheMediterraneanSeaafterpushingRussiaoutoftheBlackSea.
Similarly,attheendoftheCrimeanWar,atreatywassignedinParis–
thecapitalofFranceandthistreatywasknownastheTreatyofParisof1856.Bythistreaty,Russiawasf
orcedtorecognizetheneutralizationoftheBlackSeaandtoabandonherexclusiveclaimstoprotecttheO
rthodoxChristiansintheOttomanEmpire.ThiswasthereforeadiplomaticvictoryforFrance.
NapoleonIII’sinterventioninItaly(TheItalianAdventureof1858-1859)
AsaformermemberoftheCarbonariMovementinItalyandalsoduetotheItalianorPiedmont’scontri
butionduringtheCrimeanwar,NapoleonIIIwasobligedtosupporttheItaliansagainsttheirAustrianop
pressors.However,bysupportingtheItalianshewouldannoytheCatholicsathomeforfightingafellowc
atholicstate(Austria)andthereforehewasslowtoact.ThisalmostledtohisassassinationbyORSIN(th
eleaderoftheItalianexilesinFrance).ThisforcedNapoleonIIItosupporttheItaliansintheirstrugglefor
unification.HethereforesignedasecretTreatyofPlombiereswiththePrimeMinisteroftheItalianKin
gdomofPiedmont-
SardiniaknownasCavourinJuly1858.Bythistreaty,NapoleonIIIpromisedsupporttoliberatetheItalia
nstatesofLombardyandVenetiafromAustria.Consequently,intheBattlesofMagentaandSolferin
oof1859Lombardywasliberated.However,NapoleonIIIlaterwithdrewfromthewarandleftVenetiai
nthehandsofAustria.Despitehiswithdrawal,NapoleonIIIsecuredterritorialgainsforFrancefromthisa
dventure.AsarewardforhissupporttotheItaliansagainstAustria,thetwoItalianstatesofSavoyandNi
ceweregiventoFranceandthiswasanachievementbecauseitpromotedtheFrenchgloryabroad.
In1867,NapoleonIIIsenttheFrenchtroopstoRome.ThiswasafteranattackonRomebytheItalianrevol
utionariesledbyGaribaldi.TheFrenchtroopsmanagedtodriveGaribaldioutofRomeandthereforePope
PiusIXwaskeptinpowerinRome.ThismadeNapoleonIIIpopularamongtheFrenchCatholics,hencean
achievement
NapoleonIIIopenedtheFrencheconomytoforeigntradethroughsigningcommercialtreaties.Forexa
mple,in1860hesignedacommercialtreatywithBritaincalledthe Cobden-
ChevalierTreaty.Bythistreaty,theFrenchimportdutiesortaxesontheBritishgoodsliketextiles,irona
ndsteelaswellashardwaregoodswereloweredconsiderablyinreturnforBritishtaxreductionsonFrenc
hgoodslikewines,silksandotherfancygoods.SimilaragreementsweresignedwithotherWesternEuro
peancountries.Forexample,therewasthe1862Anglo-Prusso-
FrenchCommercialTreaty.Thesecommercialtreatiesimprovedinternationalaswellascommercialrel
ationsbetweenFranceandtheaboveEuropeancountries.
TheMexicanAdventure,1861-1867
In1861,duetothefailureoftheMexicangovernmenttorepayEuropeanloanstocountrieslikeBritain,Fra
nceandSpain,ajointmilitaryforcewassentbytheaboveEuropeanpowerstoMexico.ThisforcedtheMex

icangovernmenttoresumeitsdebtre-
payments.Afterthis,BritainandSpainwithdrewbutNapoleonIIIkepthistroopsthereandembarkedon
afarmoreambitiousproject.NapoleonIIIwantedtopromotetheFrenchgloryaswellaspleasingtheCat
holicsathomebyestablishingaCatholicEmpireinMexico.HethereforepersuadedArchdukeMaximil
ian,brotheroftheAustrianEmperortobetheEmperorofMexico.
However,theMexicanscontinuedfightingagainsttheFrenchoccupationwhichincreasedthecostofmai
ntainingtheempire.TogetherwiththepressurefromUSAwhichwarnedNapoleonIIIagainstviolatingt
he“MonroeDoctrine”of1823,NapoleonIIIwithdrewfromMexicoleavingArchdukeMaximilianisol
ated.Asaresult,Maximilianwascapturedandkilledin1867bytheMexicannationalists.ThisdamagedN
apoleonIII’spopularitybecausetheliberals,republicansandCatholicsathomeblamedhimforabandon
ingtheventure.
NOTE:
TheMexicanAdventurewasapartialvictoryforNapoleonIIIbecauseMexicowasdefeatedandforcedto
payherdebtstotheEuropeancountries.Inaddition,itledtotheestablishmentofaCatholicEmpireinMex
icounderArchdukeMaximilian,althoughitwasshortlived.
TheAustro-PrussianWarortheSevenWeeksWar,1866
In1866,OttoVonBismarckthePrimeMinisterofPrussiainhisattempttocreateaunitedGermanysecretl
ymetNapoleonIIIandpromisedhimterritoriesalongtheWest-
BankofRiverRhineinSouthernGermanyifFranceremainedneutralincaseofwarbetweenAustriaandPr
ussia.ThiswasagreeduponandthereforePrussiadefeatedAustriain1866.Attheendofthewar,Bismarc
krefusedtohonourhispromiseandinsteadpublicizedthatNapoleonIIIwasdemandingforBelgiumand
Luxembourg.Despitethishowever,itshouldbenotedthatwhenNapoleonIIIacceptedtheFrenchneutr
alityintheAustro-PrussianWar,thishelpedtopromotepeacewithPrussia,thusanachievement.
NAPOLEONIII’SFAILURESINTHEFOREIGNPOLICY
NapoleonIIIwasawarmongerwhichledtothelossoflives.Forexample,heinvolvedFranceintheCrimea
nWarof1854–
1856whichresultedintothedeathof65,000FrenchandBritishsoldiers.Thisdamagedhisreputationath
ome.
HeabandonedtheItaliancause(struggleforunification)in1859beforeliberatingVenetia.Heinsteadm
adepeacewithAustriathroughsigningtheTreatyofVILLAFRANCAof1859withAustriawithoutcons
ultingPiedmont–SardiniawhichwasanallyofFranceintheAustro-Italo-
FrenchWarof1859.NapoleonIIIthereforebetrayedtheItaliansandthisalsounderminedhiscredibili
tyathomeespeciallyamongtheFrenchliberalsandnationalistswhowantedtheItalianstobeliberatedfr
omtheoppressiveAustrianrule.
HisfreetradetreatieswithEuropeancountrieshadnegativeimplicationsontheFrencheconomy.Forex
ample,theCobden-

ChevalierTreatyof1860withBritainallowedanumberofBritishgoodstofloodtheFrenchmarkets.Thisg
eneratedhatredfromtheFrenchmanufacturerswhoseproductswereexposedtoforeigncompetitionw
hichmadethemtolosemarkets.ThisthereforemadetheEmperortolosehispopularityathome.
TheMexicanAdventureof1861–
1867hadanumberofshortcomings.Forexample,thefightingthatfollowedtheinvasionofMexicoresult
edintolossoflivesincludingArchdukeMaximilian-
abrothertotheAustrianEmperorwhowaskilledbytheMexicannationalistsin1867.Inaddition,theadve
nturedrainedtheFrenchtreasurybecauseitwasverycostly.ItalsogeneratedhostilitywithUSAforbleac
hingorviolatingthe“MonroeDoctrine”of1823whichdidnotwantanyEuropeanpowertointervenei
ntheAmericanaffairs.
TheAustro–
PrussianorSevenWeeksWarof1866alsoexposedNapoleonIII’sweaknesses.ThiswasawarbetweenA
ustriaandPrussiabutFranceunderEmperorNapoleonIIIdecidedtoremainneutral.ThisFrenchneutrali
tyenabledPrussiatoeasilydefeatAustriain1866whichpromotedthePrussiansupremacyinEuropeatth
eexpenseoftheFrenchpower.HealsodemandedforGermanterritoriesthatwerelocatedintheWestofR
iverRhineascompensationforFrance’sneutralityinthewarwhichgeneratedhostilitywithPrussia.Heal
sosecretlyproposedtotakeoverLuxembourgandBelgium.However,thedemandforBelgiumthathadb
eendeclaredneutralbythegreatpowersintheLondonConferenceof1839greatlyannoyedBritain,henc
eisolatingFranceinEurope.
TheFranco-PrussianWar,1870-1871
DuetothemisunderstandingsbetweenFranceandPrussiaaftertheAustro-
Prussianwarof1866,NapoleonIIIwenttowarwithPrussiain1870-
1871.Unfortunately,FrancewasdefeatedattheBattleofSedanin1871.NapoleonIIIhimselfwastake
nasaprisonerofwarandaccordingtotheFrankfurtTreatyof1871thatendedthewar,Francelostterri
toriestoPrussialiketherichprovincesofALSACEandLORRAINE.Francewasalsorequiredtopayawar
indemnityorfineoffive(5)billionFrancstogetherwithanarmyofoccupation.Therefore,theFranco-
PrussianwarledtothecollapseoftheSecondFrenchEmpire.
TowhatextentwasNapoleonIII’sforeignpolicysuccessfulbetween1852and1871?

THEUNIFICATIONOFITALY,1815-1870
Before1870,thecountryknownasItalydidnotexistinEuropeasanation.Italyceasedorstoppedtoe
xistduringtheperiodoftheHolyRomanEmpire.However,followingthecollapseordisintegrationof
theHolyRomanEmpire,theItalianstatessuffereddisunity.TheItalianswereconqueredbypowerf
ulneighbouringstateslikeFrance,Austria,SpainandPrussia.
Bythecloseofthe18thcentury,thenumerousstatesthatwerefoundontheItalianPeninsular,thoug
hindependentofeachotherwereundertheAustriandominationwhichsubjectedthemtoalotofexp
loitationandinjustices.Therewasneitherpoliticalnorsocio-economicco-
operationamongthesestatesofItaly.TheItalianswerepeopleofdifferentraces,languagesandcul
turesandthisexplainswhyPrinceMetternichreferredtoItalyasa“meregeographicalexpression”i
n1815.
FollowingtheFrenchoccupationoftheItalianPeninsularin1796,NapoleonBonapartetriedtoinstill
theideasofliberty,equalityandfraternitywhichtheItaliansweretouselateragainsttheiroppressiv
eforeignrulers.Duringhisreign,NapoleonBonapartemergedthenumerousItalianstatesintothre
edivisionsnamely:theKingdomofItalyruleddirectlybyFrance,theKingdomofthePopalstatesund
erthePopeandtheKingdomofNaplesunderMarshallMuratoneofNapoleon’sseniorGeneralswhic
hlaidafoundationforthelaterunificationofItaly.However,withhisdefeatin1815,thepeacemaker
satViennadecidedtore-
organizeItalybybringingbacktheoldpoliticaldivisionswhichtheItalianpatriotsstruggledtouniteri
ghtfrom1815to1870.Thus,bytheViennasettlementof1815,Italywasleftwiththefollowingdivisio
nswhichfellinfivebroadgroups;

a)TotheWest;theKingdomofSardinialatertobecomePiedmont-
Sardinia.Thisincludedthestate(island)ofSardiniainthesouth,Piedmontinthenorth,Genoaaswell
asNiceandSavoytotheextremewest,allrecoveredfromFrance.Sardiniawasaverypoororbarreni
sland.ThiskingdomwasgovernedatTurininPiedmontbyKingVictorEmmanuelIwhowasrestored
bytheViennasettlementanditwasfreefromtheAustrianinfluence.
b)TotheEast;wereLombardyandVenetiawhichwerecombinedtogetherinanewkingdomin
1815andputunderthedirectcontrolofAustria.LombardywasthemostfertileprovinceinItalywhile
Venetiawastherichesttradingcentre.Therefore,thetwoweretherichestprovincesofItaly.
c)ThePopalStatesorStatesoftheChurch.ThesewereruledbythePope.Theywereamongth
eworstgovernedstatesofItaly.Therewasnofreedomofexpression;thePopekilledandimprisoned
theItaliannationalistsanditwasdifficultforthenationaliststooperatefromthesestates.Besides,th
eyhadthehighestlevelofilliteracyontheItalianPeninsular.
d)AtthecentreofItalywerethreeindependentDuchiesofMODENA,PARMAANDTUS
CANY.TheduchieswererelativelybettergovernedthanthePopalStatesandthetwoSicilies.Theru
lerofParmawasMarieLouise,thesecondwifeofNapoleonI.TherulersofParmaandTuscanywereb
othAustrianHapsburgs,whiletherulerofModenawasmarriedtoone.Thethreeduchieswereto
odominatedbyAustria.
e)TotheSouthwastheKingdomofthetwoSiciliesi.e.NAPLESANDSICILY.Thesewerev
erypoor,highlyinfestedwitharmedrobberiesandruledbadlybyKingFerdinandI,amemberoftheS
panishBourbonrulingHouseofSpainwhowasrestoredbytheViennasettlementof1815.Thoughin
itiallyindependentofeachother,KingFerdinandIbroughtthetwokingdomstogetherintoonesingl
estatewhichheruledasonestate.
Fromtheabove,itiscleartoconcludethatafter1815,Italywasnolongeranationbutameregeograp
hicalexpression.ThereforetheunificationofItalyreferstotheamalgamationorunionofthevarious
ItalianstatesnamelyPiedmont–
Sardinia,LombardyandVenetia,theCentralDuchiesofModena,ParmaandTuscany,thePopalStat
es,NaplesandSicilytoformaunitedstateofItalyunderasingleItalianrulerin1870.
PROBLEMSTHATDELAYEDTHEUNIFICATIONOFITALY
Before1850,therewereseveralobstaclesorproblemsthataffectedtheItaliannationalistsintheirst
ruggletohaveaunitedItalyasnotedbelow;
TheViennasettlementof1815delayedtheunificationofItalyinseveralways.Forexample,itre-
dividedItalyintonumerousentitiesorstates,thusmakingallherattemptstowardsunificationdiffic

ult.FromthethreedivisionswhichNapoleonBonapartehaddividedItaly,thepeacemakersatVienn
are-
dividedItalyintotwelvesmallerstatesorprovinceseachalmostindependentoftheothers.Thiscom
plicatedthemobilizationaswellascoordinationoftheItaliannationalistsduringtheunificationstru
ggle.
Secondly,theViennasettlementof1815gaveAUSTRIAadominantpositionintheItalianstates.For
example,AustriawasgivendirectcontrolinthetworichestprovincesofLombardyandVenetiaanda
nindirectcontroloverthecentralDuchiesorprovincesofModena,ParmaandTuscanywhoserulers
wherefromtheAustrianrulingfamily.AustrianpresenceinItalywasaverybigobstaclebecauseAus
triasuppressedItaliannationalismandliberalismasitcontinuedtorulethesestatesandthisdelayed
theunificationofItaly.
ThesettlementalsorestoredtheoldorlegitimaterulersinItalywhoretardedtherevolutionaryprogr
essinItaly.Forexample,KingFerdinandIwasrestoredinNaplesandSicilyandthePopewasrestored
inthePopalstateswhileVictorEmmanuelIwasrestoredinPiedmont.Theserulerswereveryconser
vativeandthereforetheysuppressedalleffortsbytheItaliannationalistsandliberalsaimedatestabl
ishingaunitedItaly.
TheCongresssystemalsodelayedtheunificationofItaly.Forexample,attheCongressofTroppauo
fOctober1820,theCongressmensignedajointanti-
revolutionarytreatyknownastheTroppauProtocolof1820,throughwhichAustria,RussiaandPrus
siavowedtosuppressanyliberaluprisingsinEurope.Asitcametobe,itsuppressedmostoftheearly1
820suprisingsinItaly,hencedelayingtheItalianunification.
The“Metternichsystem”frustratedtheItaliannationalists.Firstandforemost,AustriaandAustriab
ecamethepolicemenovertheItalianaffairs.FromtheViennasettlementof1815,AustriaacquiredL
ombardyandVenetiawhichwerethemostrichandprosperousItalianstatesandexploitedthemfor
herownbenefit.Metternichalsosetupaspyingsystemwhichwasimportantindetectinganti-
Austriansecretsocietiesinthearmy,civilservices,themiddleclassasjustifiedbyanItalianladythat”
Mydaughtercannotsneeze,butsoonMetternichwillknowofit”.Therewasalsoperusingorreadingt
hroughcorrespondencessoastogetinformationontheactivitiesoftheItaliannationalists.Thisassi
stedMetternichtodefeattheItaliannationalistsforexampleinthe1820sand1830s,thusdelayingth
eunificationstruggle.
TheFrenchinterferenceintheprocessoftheItalianunificationwasanotherobstacle.Forexample,i
n1848theMazziniandGaribaldioverthrewthePopeanddeclaredaRomanrepublicinRome.ThePo
pewasforcedintotoexileinNaples.However,LouisNapoleonBonapartewhowantedtowinthesup
portoftheCatholicsathome,senttheFrenchtroopsunderGeneralOudinottoRome,defeatedther

epublicansandeventuallythePopewasrestoredin1849.TheRomanrepublicwasthereforedissolv
ed.ThisdeniedtheItaliannationalistsastrategicbasefromwheretheycouldeffectivelymobilizeth
emselvesandliberateotherpartsofItaly.Worstofall,theFrenchsoldierssenttorestorethePopere
mainedinRomeguardingthePopefromanyinvasionbytheItaliannationalistsuntilthe1870-
1871Franco-PrussianWar.ThismadeallattemptstoliberateRomeafailure.
ThelackofforeignassistancedelayedtheunificationofItaly.ThoughthestruggleforItalianunityha
dstartedwaybackinthe1815,noforeignaidwasgiventotheItaliansuntilthelate1850s.Bythe1840
s,theItalianpatriotslackedforeignassistancebecausemanyoftheEuropeanstateswereruledbyd
espoticmonarchicalregimesthatwerenotpreparedtowitnessthesuccessoftheforcesofliberalism
andnationalisminEurope.TheconservativestatesofRussia,PrussiaandAustriahadevensignedaj
ointprotocolin1820duringtheTroppauCongresstofightanyrevolutionaryuprisingsinEuropewhil
eliberalBritainwhichmanyItalianpatriotsexpectedtohelpthemhadoptedtoisolateherselffromEu
ropeanaffairs.AlltheselefttheItaliannationalistsisolatedwithoutanykindofaid.Thisstrengthene
dtheAustriancontrolovertheItalianstates,thusfrustratingtheItalianunification.
ThelackofbroadbasedmobilizationandsensitizationorpoliticizationabouttheneedforItalianunit
ydelayedthestruggleforunification.Before1850,themajorityoftheItalianswerestillignorantabo
uttheideaofaunitedItaly.MazziniwhoattemptedtoeducatetheItaliansaboutthiscausecouldnota
chieveanyprogressamongthepeasantsduetoilliteracy.Thisthereforeconfinedorlimitedtheunifi
cationstruggleonlytotheurbancentreswheretheAustrianinfluencewasverygreat.
TheinfluenceofthePopedelayedtheunificationofItaly.Byreligiousconnection,mostoftheItalians
tatespriorto1870werefanaticsupportersofthePope.TheCatholicChurchunderthePopeopposed
anyliberalandnationalisticactivitiestotakeplaceinItaly.ThePopewasapillarofconservatisminEur
opeandwasalsoastrongally(friend)ofMetternichandthecatholicAustrianEmpire.ThePopeandth
eCatholicclergythereforesustainedtheAustrianinterestsinItalyandsuchanobstacleremainedinf
luentialuntil1852whenCountCamilloCavouremerged.
TheeconomicbackwardnessoftheItalianstatesalsoaffectedtheirstruggleforunification.TheItali
anstateswerepoorinindustry,agricultureandcommerce.NaplesandSardiniathoughlargestates,
werebarrenislands,povertystrickenandinfestedwitharmedrobbers.Thetwoeconomicallypowe
rfulstatesofLombardyandVenetiawereheavilyexploitedbytheAustrianstosustaintheAustria’sd
espoticadministration.Therewerenobankingfacilitiesandnoseriousresourcestoattractcontinen
talcommerce.Besides,Italylackedasizeablebourgeoisieclassthatcouldfinanceandspearheadth
enationalisticactivitiesacrosstheItalianPeninsular.
Inaddition,therewaslackofmoderntransportandcommunicationinfrastructures.InItaly,therew
erenoproperlydevelopedtransportandcommunicationnetworksforeffectivemobilizationandflo

woftheunificationideas.InthePopalstatesforexample,thedevelopmentofcommunicationnetwo
rkswashinderedformanyyearsbythePope’srefusaltoallowtherailwayandtelegraphlinesinwithin
hisdomains.Asaresult,thePopalstatesremaineduncoordinatedeitherbecauseofthepoororabse
nceofmoderntransportandcommunicationsystems.ThisthereforelefttheItalianunificationentir
elytotheeconomicallypoorerstatesoftheSouthwhichcouldnotsupporttheunificationstruggleth
atneededamodernizedarmyaswellasdevelopedtransportandcommunicationnetworks.
TheselfishnessoftheItalianleadersinthevariousstatesweakenedthestruggleforunification.Thel
eadersinthesmallerstatesrefusedtosurrendertheirsovereigntyorindependenceforsakeofaunit
edItaly.Forexample,thePopeinthePopalStatesdidnotwanttosurrenderhispoliticalpowerstoaun
itedItaly.TheoneofNaplesandSicilytogetherwiththoseinthecentralduchiesofModena,Parmaan
dTuscanydidnotwanttobesubordinatesoftheKingdomofPiedmont-
SardiniawhichwasspearheadingtheItalianunificationstrugglefromthe1850s.
ThemilitaryweaknessoftheItalianstatesdelayedtheunificationstruggle.Untilthe1850s,theItalia
nstateslackedastrongarmythetcouldeffectivelychallengetheirenemyAustria.Austriahadfreque
ntlysuppressedtheItalianliberalandnationalisticmovementsbecausetheformerhadnoestablish
ednationalarmy.Eachstateowneditsgarrisonsthatwereverypoorandiiequipped.Thoughevoluti
onarymovementssuchastheCarbonaritriedtoputupforces,theytoowereweak,disorganized,too
localizedandequallyillequipped.ThisthereforemadeitdifficultfortheItalianstodislodgeorexpelt
heAustrianswhohadhighlytrainedandwellequippedforcesinItaly.
Theideologicaldifferences(natureofgovernment)delayedtheunificationofItaly.DifferentItalian
nationalistshadconflictingopinionsregardingthenatureofthegovernmenttoforminaUnitedItaly
.Forexample,Mazzini,oneofthepioneermembersoftheYoungItalyMovementwantedaunitedRe
publicangovernmentledbyaconstitutionalmonarchorkingwhileAbbeyGiobertwantedaFederalg
overnmentundertheleadershipofthePopefromRome.TheMonarchistsledbyMazzimo–de–
AzeglopreferredaUnitedItalyunderKingCharlesAlbertofPiedmont–
Sardinia.SuchdiversepoliticalideologiesworkedagainsttheearlyItalianeffortstowardstheirunity
.
TheconflictsanddisunityamongtheItaliannationalistshinderedtheunificationstruggle.Therewe
reconflictsamongtheItaliannationalistsregardingthemeansandstrategiestoachievetheItalianu
nification.Forexample,whereassomenationalistslikeMazziniinsistedthatItalyonitsowncouldac
hieveherunitywithoutforeignaid,otherslikeCavourdesiredforforeignhelpintheunificationstrug
gle.Suchantagonismwasworsenedbyinterstaterivalriesandselfishinterestswhichaffectedtheu
nificationstruggle.Forexample,SicilywasopposedtoPiedmont’sleadershipforunity,Romewasag
ainstVenetiaandworstofallthePopealliedwithAustriatofrustratetheItalianeffortsinthe1840s.Su

chdivisionsamongsttheItaliannationalistsexplainwhytheItaliansfailedtoorganizeacoordinated
movementbutisolateduprisingswhichwereeasilycrushedbyAustria.
TheeconomicinequalityordisparityalsoaffectedthestruggleforItalianunification.Althoughgene
rallyItalywaseconomicallybackward,someofherstatesweremoreresourcefulthanothers.Theno
rthhadmorewealthlikeindustriesandmineralsthanthesouthwhichwaspoorforcultivation.These
inequalitiesdelayedtheunificationstrugglebecausethewealthynorthwasreluctanttounitewithth
esouthernstatesforfearthatthesouthernpoorstateswouldgettheopportunityofsharingtheirwea
lth.
TherewaslackofableleadershipinItaly.Before1850,thereexistednoreliableandcapableleadersi
nItalytospearheadthestruggletoliberateandunitetheItalianstates.Thefewavailableleadershad
alotofweaknesses.Forexample,Mazzini,theleaderoftheCarbonariandfounderoftheYoungItaly
Movementoperatedfromexilei.e.Switzerland,BritainandFranceandwasagainstforeignmilitarya
ssistance.CharlesAlbertwhowasthekingofPiedmont–Sardiniawasanti-
unificationandmerelywantedtoexpandhiskingdomandthisiswhyhewasreluctanttoattackAustri
ain1848.PopeGregoryXVIwastooconservativeandasupporterofMetternichandtheItaliansonly
hadhopesinPopePiusIXwhoreplacedGregoryXVIin1846.Unfortunately,hebetrayedthemin184
8whenhedefectedandturnedagainsttherevolutionwithintwoyears.Hewasevenrestoredtotheth
roneofRomein1849byLouisNapoleonBonaparte.Sosuchlackofforesightedleadershipdelayedth
eunificationofItalyby1850.
ThelackofanationallanguagedelayedtheunificationofItaly.ThedifferentstatesofItalyspokediffe
rentlanguagesandthisunderminedtheprogressoftheunificationstruggle.Italianasalanguagew
asfortheintellectualswhileLatinwaswidelyusedasamediumofinstructioninschools,universitiesa
ndchurches.InstateslikeNaplesandSicily,theItalianlanguagewasunknown.Instead,theyspoke
Frenchortheirlocallanguages,hencemakingitdifficultfortheItaliannationaliststosensitize(politi
cize)andmobilizetheItaliansforasuccessfulstruggle.
Therewerealsoreligiousdifferencesbetweennorthandthesouthwhichunderminedtheunificatio
nstruggle.NorthernItalywaspredominantlyCatholicwhilethesouthwasProtestant.Thesereligio
usdifferencesworkedagainsttheunificationbecausetheCatholicsfearedtobedominatedbythePr
otestants.
Question:
“TheinternalfactorswereprimarilyresponsibleforthedelayoftheunificationofItaly
”.Discuss.
THEPROCESSOFTHEITALIANUNIFICATIONUPTO1870

TheprocessofItalianunificationendedin1870withtheliberationortheconqueststateofRome.Anu
mberofeventsorfactorsfacilitatedtheItalianunificationby1870whichincludedthefollowing;
ThecontributionofNapoleonIlaidafoundationfortheunificationofItaly.DuringtheItalianca
mpaignof1796-
1797,NapoleonBonaparteexpelledtheforeigners(Austrians)outofItaly.Hethenpreachedandins
tilledintheItaliansthe1789FrenchRevolutionaryideasofequality,libertyandnationalism(indepe
ndence)andremindedthemofthesamegoalandhistoricalbackground.NapoleonIlaterreducedth
ereducedthenumerousstatesofItalyfromovertwohundredintothreemajorkingdomsthatinclud
edtheKingdomofItalyruleddirectlybyFrance,theKingdomofthePopalstatesunderthePopeandt
heKingdomofNaplesunderMarshallMurat,oneofNapoleon’sbrilliantGenerals.Thisnewarrange
mentmadetheItalianstointeractmoreclosely,developsolidarityandtheythereforestartedthinkin
gasoneonepeople,thusdevelopingtheideaofunification.
TheformationoftheCarbonariMovementfacilitatedtheunificationofItaly.Thiswasas
ecretmovementthatmobilizedtheItaliansforunityandindependenceagainstforeignrule.Thismo
vementhadbeenformedin1810toresisttheruleofNapoleonIinItalyandthereforeitwasanationali
sticmovement.TheCarbonarimovementorganizedthe1821-
1830revolutionsinItaly.AlthoughtherevolutionsweresuppressedbyAustriatheCarbonarimove
menthelpedtomaintainthestruggleforunificationfrom1810-1830.
TheemergenceoftheYoungItalyMovementalsofavouredtheunificationofItaly.The
movementwasformedin1831byanItaliannationalistknowasMazziniforthepurposeofdrivingAus
triaoutofItaly.ThismovementimprovedontheworkoftheCarbonaribymobilizingallpeopleforunit
yandindependenceforItaly.ItincludedpeoplefromallclassesbecausetheCarbonarihadconcentr
atedonthemembersofthemiddleclassonly.ItthereforefacilitatedtheItalianstruggleforunity.
TheroleofGaribaldiwasvitalintheunificationofItaly.HewasmemberoftheCarbonariand
latertheYoungItalyMovement.Asanationalist,heactivelyparticipatedinthe1830Carbonariuprisi
ngswhichfailed.In1848,hejoinedKingCharlesAlbertofPiedmontinawaragainstAustria.Unfortun
ately,hewasdefeatedatCustozza.Garibaldifurthertookpartintherevolutionarymovementsagai
nstPopePiusIXin1848whichresultedintothecreationofarepublicinRomebutagainduetotheFren
chinterventionunderGeneralOudinot,therepublicwascrashedandthePopewasrestoredin1849.
Despitethisdefeat,Garibaldi’shiseffortsencouragedtheItalianstokeepupthespiritoffighting.Gar
ibaldiwaslaterresponsiblefortheliberationofNaplesandSicilyin1860.

ThefallofMetternichin1848favouredtheunificationofItaly.Outofthe1848revolutions,t
herewasthefallofPrinceMetternichandhissystem.PrinceMetternichofAustriahadbeenamajorfa
ctorinmaintainingadisunitedItaly.Hesetupapoliceandarmytosuppresstheliberalandnationalist
icactivitiesthroughoutItaly.HealsoinstitutedspiesinItalywhohelpedhimtofrustratetheactivities
oftheItaliannationalists.Therefore,hisfallin1848wasastepaheadfortheItaliannationalistswhob
egantoprogressivelyweakentheAustrianinfluenceinItaly.
TheelectionofaliberalPopePiusIXin1846alsopromotedliberalismandnationalismt
hroughouttheItalianPeninsular.UnlikehispredecessortheconservativePopeGregoryXVIII
,PopePiusIXwasliberalandthereforehewassympathetictotheideasoftheItalianunification.Heev
enreleasedallthepoliticalprisonersinthePopalstatesjailedbyPopeGregoryXVIII.Thisencourage
dtheItaliannationaliststobeginoperatingfromthesestateswithahopethatthePopewastohavepo
liticalpowersintheunitedItaly.
TheroleoftheItalianwritersandphilosopherspromotedtheunificationofItaly.Thesepeopleconde
mnedtheforeigndominationofItalyandwrotepatrioticpoems,novelsandbooksinwhichtheyexpr
essedhowtheAustrianstorturedtheItalians.ThemostcommonwasAlessandroManzoni(1860
-
1873)whowroteafamousnovel;“TheBetrothed”inwhichheshowedEuropehowAustriahadred
ucedtheItalianstothelowestandmostdegradingpositionintheworld.Therefore,theworkofthewr
iterspromptedmanyItalianstofightfortheirunification.
TheroleofKingCharlesAlbertfacilitatedtheunificationofItaly.HewasKingofPiedmontf
rom1831to1849.HeintroducedconstitutionalandotherpoliticalreformsinPiedmont-
Sardinia.Forexample,inMarch1848hegavePiedmont-
Sardiniaaliberalconstitutionandanewparliament.ThiswasimportantbecausetheliberalsinPied
mont-
SardiniagaveCharlesAlbertsupporttofightagainstAustriainnorthernItaly.However,CharlesAlbe
rtresignedinfavourofhissonKingVictorEmmanuelIIin1849.
TheroleofVictorEmmanuelIIwasalsovitalintheunificationofItaly.HebecameKingofPi
edmont-
Sardiniain1849followingtheresignationofhisfatherCharlesAlbertduetothe1848revolutions.He
playedamajorroleintheunificationofItalyandwithouthim,thestruggleforunifyingItalywouldhav
ebeendifficult.Unlikehisfather,hewasanti-
Austrian,liberalmindedandapatriotwhohadaverystrongloveforhisnation.Hewasthereforecom
mittedtotheItalianstruggleforunificationandindependence.HeistheonewhomadePiedmontthe
centreofthestrugglefortheliberationofItalyfromforeignrule,hencesolvingtheproblemoflackofa
bleleadershipthathadforlonghinderedtheprogressoftheItalianunification.

Asaliberalmindedking,VictorEmmanuelIImaintainedtheliberalconstitutionof1848leftbehindby
hisfatherCharlesAlbert.ThiswasimportantbecausetheItalianliberalsgavehimsupportinthestru
ggleastheythoughtthathewouldneverbeadictatoraskingoftheunitedItaly.Thisthereforepromo
tedtheItalianstruggleforunity.
VictorEmmanuelIIappointedCountCamilloCavourasPrimeMinisterofPiedmont-
Sardiniain1852whogreatlycontributedtotheunificationofItaly.ItshouldbenotedthatCavour’sne
wappointmentgavehimtheplatformtomodernizePiedmont-
Sardinia,thusmakingitadmirablefortherestoftheItaliansandalsotorealizethatPiedmont-
SardiniawouldbethecentreoftheItalianunification.
Inaddition,VictorEmmanuelIIco-operatedwithCamilloCavour,thePrimeMinisterofPiedmont-
SardiniaandindeedhefinanciallysupportedallCavour’sunificationprogrammesorefforts.That’s
whymostofhiscontributionstowardstheunificationofItalywerechanneledthroughCavour,thePri
meMinister.
HecarriedoutmilitaryreformsinPiedmont.RealizingthattheItalianstrugglesof1848werelargelyu
nderminedbymilitaryweakness,VictorEmmanuelIIcreatedabigandefficientarmyinpreparation
forwarwithAustria.Hespentmoremoneyontrainingsoldiers,purchaseofweaponsandammunitio
ns.Usingsuchanarmy,thesubsequentItaliancampaignsagainstAustriaregisteredremarkablesu
ccess.Forexample,in1859thisarmyhelpedtodefeatAustriaandasaresult,Lombardywasliberate
dandannexedtoPiedmontwhichwasamajorstepintheprocessoftheunificationofItaly.
VictorEmmanuelIIdevelopedtheeconomicpowerofPiedmontthroughhiseconomicreformsandt
hisinturnfacilitatedtheunificationstruggle.Forexample,hepromotedindustrializationbysetting
upanumberofindustriesinPiedmont.Healsoimprovedagriculturewhichhelpedtogenerateenoug
hrevenueaswellasfoodsuppliestofacilitatetheunificationprocess.Healsosignedcommercialtrea
tieswithotherEuropeancountriessuchasBritainwhichpromotedtradeandcommerce.Healsobuil
trailwayandroadnetworkswhichwereusedinthetransportationoftroopsandsuppliesthatwereus
edtoliberatetheItalianstatesfromtheAustrianrule.ThestrongeconomyestablishedbyVictorEm
manuelIIinPiedmontgreatlyboostedtheItalianstruggleforunity.
HepromotedunityamongtheItaliannationalistswhichwasvitalintheItalianunificationstruggle.F
orexample,asamonarchisthesuppressedtherepublicanideologyinPiedmont-
SardiniathathadhinderedtheunificationstrugglethroughdividingtheItalians.Asaresult,alltheIta
liannationalistsralliedbehindhimwhichenabledthemtoattainunityby1870.
HealsoreducedthepoliticalpowersoftheCatholicChurch,rigiditiesandconservatism.Forexample
,afterthePopePiusIXbetrayingtheItalianrevolutionariesin1848–

1849,VictorEmmanuelIIpursuedananti-
clericalpolicy.Thusin1850,hepassedaseriesoflawsbywhichthechurchlostitsspecialcourts,itsrig
httoinheritpropertywithouttheconsentofthegovernment,anditsexclusivecontrolovermarriage
ceremonies.In1855,allreligiousorderswereabolished,exceptthoseconcernedwiththepreachin
g,teachingandhelpingthesick.Bydoingso,VictorEmmanuelIIavoidedastatewithinastateandthe
reforepromotedtheunificationstrugglewithlessobstructionfromthePopeandtheentireCatholic
ChurchinItaly.
HegaverefugeetoalltheItalianpatriotsinhiskingdom.Before1848,severalItalianpatriotshadfled
toexileasaresultofthebrutalMetternichsystem.Whenherosetopowerin1849,VictorEmmanuelII
gavesuchpeopleunconditionalamnestytoreturnhomeandjointhestruggleforItalianunity.Itwas
becauseofthisamnestythatprominentItalianpatriotslikeMazziniandGaribaldireturnedtoItalyan
dspearheadedtheItalianstruggleforunity.ThisrevivedandacceleratedthestruggleforItalianunit
y.
HeencouragedthepresspropagandainPiedmont-
Sardiniathroughpublishingarticlesintheexistingnewspaperslikethe “ILRisorgimento”thatha
dbeensetupbyCamilloCavourin1847.ThishelpedtosensitizetheItaliansabouttheneedforItalian
unityandindependence,thuspromotingtheunificationstruggle.
HesecuredforeignassistancefortheItalianunification.Forexample,incollaborationwithCamilloC
avour,VictorEmmanuelIIsecuredtheFrenchassistancetotheItaliancausein1859.Thiswasdone
byinvolvingPiedmontintheCrimeanWarof1854–
1856inwhichPiedmont’stroopsjoinedtheBritishandtheFrenchsoldierswhichendedintheallies’vi
ctoryagainstRussia.Consequently,FranceofferedmilitarysupporttoPiedmontinherwaragainstA
ustriain1859inwhichAustriawasdefeated.ThisledtotheliberationofLombardywhichwasamajor
stepintheItalianunificationstruggle.
Morestill,VictorEmmanuelIIpersuadedCavourtoresumehisofficeasPrimeMinsterafterhisresign
ationin1859.CavourhadresignedasPrimeMinsterfollowingNapoleonIII’sdisappointmentoftheI
talianswhenhewithdrewtheFrenchmilitarysupportinawaragainstAustriawhichmadetheItalian
sunabletoliberateVenetiafromtheAustrianrule.WhenCavourfinallyresumedofficeinJanuary18
60,thecontributionshemadetotheItalianunificationstruggleweremany,whichcreditgoestoKing
VictorEmmanuelII.
VictorEmmanuelIIsupportedGaribaldi’smilitaryadventuresorcampaignstoliberatetheItalianst
ates.Forexample,hesupportedGaribaldi’seffortstoliberatetheItalianstatesofNaplesandSicilyin
1860.Aftertheirliberation,thetwostateswerefinallyannexedtoPiedmont-
SardiniawhichwasalsoanimportantstepintheunificationofItaly.

Healsosupportedthenationalistmovementoruprisingsof1860intheCentralDuchiesofModena,P
armaandTuscanyaswellasthePopalstateofRomagna.Thesestatesorganizedpopularuprisingsa
gainsttheirconservativeAustrianrulersanddemandedforaunionwithPiedmont-
Sardinia.Consequently,VictorEmmanuelIIannexedthesestatesin1860throughplebiscitesorref
erenda.
HewasvitalintheformationoftheItalianKingdomin1861.InMarch1861,KingVictorEmmanuelIId
eclaredtheKingdomofItalywithhimasthekingandCamilloCavourasthePrimeMinister.Thiswasa
nimportantstepintheunificationofItalybecausebythistimeitwasonlyVenetiaandRomethathadn
otbeenliberatedsoastocompletetheItalianunification.
HespearheadedthestruggleforItalianunificationevenafterhisstrongman,CamilloCavourhaddie
din1861.KingVictorEmmanuelIIthereforehelpedtocompletetheItalianunificationstrugglein18
70.
HischarismaticorableleadershipalsowontheBritishsympathyandmoralsupporttowardstheItali
anunificationstruggle.ThissupporthelpedtheItalianpatriotslikeGaribalditoliberatetheItaliansta
tesfromforeignrulewhichledtotheunificationofItalyby1870.
VictorEmmanuelIIenteredintoalliancewithPrussiaandthisfacilitatedtheunificationofItaly.Fore
xample,hecooperatedwithPrussiaduringtheAustro-
PrussianWarof1866andAustriawasdefeated.Attheendofthiswar,OttoVonBismarckofPrussiafo
rcedAustriatohandoverVenetiatoItalywhichwasanotherimportantstepintheunificationofItaly.
VictorEmmanuelIIoccupiedRomein1870,afterthewithdrawaloftheFrenchtroops.HeattackedR
omeon20thSeptember1870andon2ndJune1871,heorganizedareferenduminwhichthepeopleof
RomevotedtobepartoftheunitedItalyandthiscompletedtheprocessofItaliansunification.Helate
rtransferredhisfamilyandtheparliamentfromTurininPiedmonttoRome,hencemakingRomethec
apitalofItaly.
TheemergenceofCountCamilloCavourwasalsovitalintheunificationofItaly.CountC
amilloCavourwasbornin1810inTurin,thecapitalofPiedmont.Borntoarespectablearistocraticfa
mily,asonofaPiedmonteenobleman,CamilloCavourtrainedasasoldierandservedinPiedmont’sa
rmybutlaterresignedafterconflictingwiththearmyauthoritiesforhavingsupportedtheFrenchrev
olutionof1830againstCharlesX.HewaswellreadandtravelledwidelyforexampletoBritain,France
,Switzerlandandothercountrieswhereheacquiredavarietyofpoliticalandconstitutionalexperien
ces.
In1848,hebecameamemberofthePiedmontparliament.In1850,KingVictorEmmanuelIIappoint
edhimasMinisterofCommerceandAgriculture.HewaslatermadeMinisterofNavyandFinance.In1

852,hewasmadePrimeMinisterofPiedmont.HeisperhapsthegreatestmakerofItalyandthisisrefl
ectedinhisnumerouscontributionstothestruggleforItalianunificationwhichincludedthefollowin
g;
In1847,hefoundedanewspaperinPiedmontknownas “ILRISORGIMENTO’’meaninga“resurr
ection”movementfortheItalianunification.Itsarticlesadvocatedforindependenceandunityfrom
theAustrianruleandaconstitutionalgovernment.Thisnewspaperthereforesensitizedandmobiliz
edtheItalianstoloveconstitutionalgovernanceandindependence.Itwasthissamenewspapertha
tinspiredKingCharlesAlbertofPiedmonttopickuparmsagainstAustriain1848-
1849.ThenewspaperthereforestrengthenedthespiritoftheItalianstruggleforunificationatatime
whenMazzini’sYoungItalyMovementwascollapsing.
CavourprovidedastronganddeterminedleadershipthatwasnecessaryleadershipfortheItalianu
nification.MorethananyItaliannationalist,itwasCavourasthePrimeMinisterofPiedmontwholedt
hestruggleconvincingmanyItalianstorallybehindhim.Itwashisgoodleadershipthattransformed
thepastattemptsbytheItaliansintopracticalstepsbetween1859and1866.
HereducedtheinfluenceofthePopeandtheCatholicChurchintheaffairsofPiedmontwhichhadbee
namajorobstacletotheunificationofItaly.In1850,CamilloCavourtogetherwithKingVictorEmma
nuelII,passedlawsthatreducedtheinfluenceofthecatholicchurchinthestatesaffairs.Theselawsa
bolishedthechurchprivileges,establishedfreedomofworshipandstatecontrolovereducation,lan
dandfinanceaswellasmarriageceremonies.Suchreformsthereforespeededuptheunificationpro
cessandearnedCavoursupportfromtheliberalandrepublicanswhichfacilitatedtheunificationofIt
alyafter1850.
CavourimprovedtheeconomyofPiedmontwhichsustainedtheunificationstruggle.AsMinisterofC
ommerceandAgriculture,Cavourdevelopedtheagriculturalsectorwhichgeneratedrevenueasw
ellasenoughfoodsuppliestosustaintheunificationstruggleagainstAustria.AsaMinisterofIndustr
yandFinance,CavoursecuredloansfromdevelopedEuropeancountrieslikeBritain,BelgiumandFr
ance.TheseloanswereusedtofinancetheestablishmentofanumberofindustriesinPiedmontwhic
hencouragedPiedmont’stradeandthereforegeneratedmorerevenuesuchthatby1855,Piedmon
thadabalancedbudget.WithsuchastrongeconomyofPiedmont,theunificationofItalybecameea
siersincetheeconomicbackwardnessthatusedtohindertheunificationprocesswasnoweliminate
dbyPiedmontunderCamilloCavour.
CavourimprovedthetransportandcommunicationsystemsofPiedmont.Hebuiltseveralrailwaya
ndroadnetworksinPiedmont.By1860,Piedmontpossessed800kilometersoftrack(roadandrailw
aynetworks)whichwereusedinthetransportationoftroopsandsuppliesthatwereusedtoliberatet
heItalianstatesfromtheAustrianrule.Forexample,the MonscenisRailwayTunnelwhichlinke

dPiedmonttoFranceiswhatwasusedtotransporttheFrenchtroopsacrossPiedmonttoliberateLo
mbardyin1859.Becauseofthistherefore,CamilloCavourdeservescredit.
CavouralsosignedfreecommercialortradetreatieswithEuropeancountrieslikeBritain,Francean
dBelgium.ThesecommercialtreatiesencouragedinternationaltradewhichenabledPiedmonttog
ettheindustrialEuropeangoodswhichwereverymuchneededespeciallyammunitionsfromdevel
opedcountrieslikeBritain.ThisthereforehelpedtofacilitatethestruggleforItalianunification.
HemadepoliticalreformsinPiedmontwhichboostedtheunificationstruggle.Forexample,inhisca
pacityasPrimeMinister,Cavourmaintainedtheparliamentarysystemandconstitutionalgovernm
entasupheldbyKingVictorEmmanuelII.Inhisgovernment,allclassesofpeoplewererepresenteda
ndtheKingappointedministersthatwereanswerabletotheparliament.ThismadetheItaliansmor
eenthusiasticforcompleteindependencefromtheAustrians.Byshowingrespectforindividuallibe
rties,Cavourwasabletoattractthesupportofallpartiesinthenationalcauseandtowintheforeignsy
mpathy.ThatiswhyFranceandBritainrespectivelyassistedtheItaliancausedirectlyandindirectly.
Cavourundertookeducationalreformswhichinturnfacilitatedtheunificationstruggle.Forexampl
e,byabolishingchurchcontrolovereducation,Cavourwasabletoopenuplearningopportunitiesto
alltheItaliansacrossthePeninsular.Healsobuiltschoolsandinstitutionsofhigherlearning.Thisred
ucedilliteracythatusedtohindertheItalianunificationbefore1850.Theproductsofsuchschoolsals
obecamestrongcriticsoftheAustriandominationandgreatlyhelpedinchampioningtheunification
process.
CavourstrengthenedthePiedmont’sarmy.HavingrealizedthattheItalianstrugglesof1848hadfail
edlargelyduetomilitaryweakness,Cavourcreatedabigandefficientarmytoprepareforwar.Hespe
ntmoremoneyonthetrainingofthesoldiersaswellaspurchaseofmodernarmsandammunitions.It
wasthisstrongarmyofPiedmontthatwasusedtofightandchaseAustriaoutofItalyasthecasewasin
1859whenthejointFranco-
SardinianarmydefeatedAustria,leadingtotheliberationofLombardywhichwasanimportantstepi
ntheunificationofItaly.
CavourworkedcloselywithKingVictorEmmanuelIIofPiedmont-
Sardinia.Cavourwasanaristocratbybirthandtherefore,hesupportedmonarchicalruleinItaly.Thi
senabledhimtohaveacloseworkingrelationshipwithKingVictorEmmanuelIIofPiedmontandthis
wasvitalinthestruggleforItalianunificationbecauseitbroughtaboutharmonyinpolicyanddecisio
nmakinginPiedmontasregardstheItalianunificationstruggle.HewasalsosupportedbyotherItali
answhowantedmonarchicalruleinItaly.ThisthereforefacilitatedtheunificationofItaly.

CavoursecuredforeignmilitaryassistanceoraidfortheItaliansunification.OfalltheItaliannational
ists,itwasCavourwhorealizedtheneedforforeignassistanceinthestruggleforItalianunificationsi
ncetheItaliannationalistshadforlongtrieditaloneandhadfailed.HethereforeconnivedwithKingV
ictorEmmanuelIIandinvolvedPiedmont-SardiniaintheCrimeanWarof1854-
1856.Atthecloseofthe1856ParisPeaceConferencethatendedthewar,CavoursecuredtheBritish
andFrenchmilitarysupporttoPiedmontinthestruggleagainstAustria.Consequently,Lombardyw
asliberatedin1859withtheassistanceof20,000Frenchtroops.Theseverypowersprogrammedan
dsupportedaplebiscitevoteorreferendumthroughwhichothersatesofModena,Parma,Tuscanya
ndRomagnagotannexedtoPiedmontin1860.
CavourprovokedAustriatodeclarewaronPiedmontin1859.In1859,CavourmobilizedPiedmont’s
soldiersandtookthemattheborderwithLombardy.ThisprovokedAustriawhichreactedtoCavour’
sactionbydeclaringwaronPiedmont.ThishelpedCavourtowinsympathyfromFranceagainstAust
riawhichappearedtobetheaggressor.Asaresult,NapoleonIIIenteredthewaronthesideofPiedm
ontwithalargeFrenchforceof200,000soldierswhichdefeatedAustriaatthebattlesof MAGENTAa
ndSOLFERINOof1859.ThisledtotheliberationofLombardyfromAustriawhichwasannexedtoPi
edmont-SardiniaandthisbecameamajorstepintheunificationofItaly.
CavourreconciledtheconflictsamongtheItalianfreedomfighters.Forexampleinthepast,therepu
blicansledbyMazziniandGaribaldi,themonarchistsandthemiddleclassmembershadbeenconflic
tingwitheachotherandthishadcontributedtothedelayinItalianunification.Cavourhowever,cons
tantlyappealedtothemonarchistsunderKingVictorEmmanuelII,therepublicansandthemiddlecl
assmembersthatthequestionofunifyingItalywasadutyforallItaliansandnotjustaparticularclass.
ThispromptedunitywhichwasvitalfortheItalianunificationstruggle.
Cavouralsofinancedtheformationofthe ItalianNationalSocietyin1857undertheleadershipof
DoctorManin,GiuseppeLaFarinaandFerrantePallavicino.Thisnationalisticmovementorsocietys
ensitizedandmobilizedtheItaliansagainsttheAustrians.ThisthereforepopularizedtheItaliancau
seacrosstheentirePeninsular,thuspromotingtheItalianunification.
Cavour’sdiplomacyalsohelpedtoliberatetheItalianstatesfromforeignrule.Forinstance,Cavour
managedtotabletheItaliancauseduringtheParisPeaceConferenceof1856thatwasheldinFrance
attheendoftheCrimeanWarof1854-
1856.ThishelpedtowintheBritishandFrenchsupporttowardstheItaliansintheirstruggleagainstA
ustria.Besides,itwasn’tuntilheopeneddiplomatictieswithOttoVonBismarckthatVenetiawasliber
atedfromtheAustrianrulein1866andjoinedtotheItalianKingdomafterhisdeathin1861.Thought
heeventtookplaceafterhisdeath,hisroleinthisregardwasvital.Suchdiplomacythereforeplayeda
bigroleinthecompletionoftheItalianunificationby1870.

CavourusedtrickerytoliberatetheItalianstates.Forexample,Cavour’stricksassistedGaribaldiint
heliberationofNaplesandSicily.CavourrealizedthatGaribaldi’scarelessattackontheabovetwost
ateswouldattractotherpowerslikeFrance,BritainandAustria.Thus,hegaveGaribaldidiplomaticc
overbyorderinghisarrestwhileatthesametimehesecretlyassistedhimwithweaponsandothersu
ppliestoinvadethesatesofNaplesandSicily.ThisgaveafalseimpressionthatCavourwaschecking
Garibaldi’smovements.
Similarly,CavoursecuredthePopalstatesforItalybyrestrainingGaribaldifromattackingRom.In1
860,hesentPiedmont’stroopsintothePopalstatestopreventGaribaldifromattackingRomewhich
wastheseatofthePope.ThiswasbecausesuchanattackwouldattracttheattentionoftheCatholicE
uropeanpowerslikeFranceandAustriaagainsttheItalianstruggleforunity.AsheprotectedthePop
einRome,CavoursecretlyconductedaplebiscitevoteorreferenduminthePopalstatesandtheyallv
otedforaunionwithPiedmontwhichwasanimportantstepintheunificationofItaly.
CavourwasinfluentialintheformationoftheKingdomofItalyin1861whichwasanotherimportants
tepintheunificationstruggle.ThiskingdomwasdeclaredbyKingVictorEmmanuelIIasthekingwith
CavourasthePrimeMinisterinMarch1861atTurinthecapitalofPiedmont.Bythistime,itwasonlyVe
netiaandRomethathadnotbeenliberate.ThisiswhyCavourisregardedasthegreateststatesmana
ndarchitectorplanneroftheItalianunification.
TheOrsinincidentof1858contributedtotheunificationofItaly.Thisincidentwhichoccur
redinJanuary1858involvedanassassinationattemptonEmperorNapoleonIIIofFrance.Napole
onIIIhadacceptedtoassistPiedmontattheendoftheCrimeanWarof1854-
1856becauseoftheassistancePiedmonthadgiventothealliedpowerstodefeatRussia.Hewashow
everreluctanttofulfillhispledgebecausehewasscaredofthegrowingstrengthofItalyintheneighb
ourhoodofFranceandalsohedidnotwantawarwithAustria,afellowcatholicstate.Thisannoyedth
eItalians,includingFeliceOrsin,anItalianexilelivinginPariswhothrewabombtoassassinateEmpe
rorNapoleonIIIandtheEmpressin1858whileontheirwaytoOpera.Thetwosurvivedbutmanypeo
plewerekilledandothersinjured.CamilloCavourusedthisincidenttostrengthenhisnegotiationswi
thNapoleonIIIbyassuringhimthattheincidentwouldnothappenagainiftheEmperorsupportedth
eItaliansintheirstruggleforunification.Thisthereforeledtothesigningofthefamousagreementat
theFrenchresorttownofPLOMBIERESin1858knownasthePactofPlombieres.
THEPACTOFPLOMBIERES,1858
ThiswasasecretagreementsignedbetweenNapoleonIIIandCavouron20thJuly1858.Bythisagr
eement;

 NapoleonIIIpromisedtosupportPiedmontagainstAustriatogettheprovincesofLombardy
andVenetia.
 NapoleonIIIwastogetNiceandSavoyfromPiedmontasareward.
 CavourwastoseethatwarstartedandthatAustriawastoappearastheaggressortogivetheo
pportunitytoFrancetointervene.
CavourthemprovokedAustriabymobilizingPiedmont’ssoldiersandtookthemattheborderwith
Lombardy.AustriareactedtoCavour’sexpectationsanddeclaredwaronPiedmont.Then,Napol
eonIIIenteredthewarwithalargeFrenchforceof200,000soldiersonthesideofPiedmont.Atthe
battlesofMAGENTAandSOLFERINOof1859,theAustriansweredefeated.Thisledtotheliber
ationofLombardywhichwasannexedtoPiedmont-
Sardinia.NapoleonIIIgainedNiceandSavoyasareward.Thiseventwasamajorstepintheunific
ationofItalyconsideringthefactthattheItalianshadacquiredforthemselvesLombardy,oneoft
hetworicheststatesontheItalianPeninsular.
NOTE:However,fearingthathehadannoyedhisfellowCatholicsathomebysupportingtheItali
ansagainstCatholicAustriaandalsoduetothefearofhavingastrongItalyinFrance’sneighbourh
ood,NapoleonIIIsignedatreatywithAustriaandprematurelywithdrewfromthewarbeforeacc
omplishingthetaskofliberatingVenetia.Thiswasthetreatyof VILLAFRANCAof1859.Thisact
greatlydisappointedtheItalianliberalstotheextentthatCamilloCavourwasforcedtoresignfro
mhispostofPrimeMinisterofPiedmont-
Sardiniain1859.ThisconstitutedadisastertotheunificationstruggleofItaly.
TheannexationofthethreeCentralDuchiesin1860wasanothereventthatcontribu
tedtotheunificationofItaly.ThestatesofModena,ParmaandTuscanywereunderAustrian
dukesorrulers.ThepeopleinthesestateswereexcitedbytheliberationofLombardyin1859.Asar
esult,thepeopleinthesestatesandofthePopalstatescalledRomagnastagedasuccessfulrevolt
andexiledtheirAustrianPrinces.Therulerswhotookoveralltheseterritoriesdemandedforunio
nwithPiedmont-
Sardinia.WhenCavourreturnedtoasPrimeMinisterinJanuary1860,hestruckabargainwithNap
oleonIIIthatiftheCentralDuchieswereallowedtounitewithPiedmont-
Sardinia,FrancecouldhaveherrewardofSavoyandNiceasoriginallyarranged(butforegonewh
enshewithdrewwiththejobhalfdone).NapoleonIIIagreedtotheunionandhethereforeconduc
tedaplebiscite(referendum)inthesestates.Theresultsfromthisplebisciteshowedthatthepeo
pleinthesestateswantedtojoinPiedmont.Thus,thethreeDuchies,LombardyandRomagnawer
erenamedEmiliaandaccordinglyjoinedtoPiedmont-
Sardinia.Atthesametime,NiceandSavoyweretransferredtoFrance.Thiswasanotherstepinco
nsolidatingtheItalianunificationprocess.

TheliberationofNaplesandSicilyin1860wasanotherimportantstepintheunificati
onofItaly.NaplesandSicilywereliberatedbyGaribaldiandhis1,000(onehundred)“RedShirts
Army”withthesupportofCamilloCavour.Duringthisstage,CavourestablishedfriendshipwithB
ritainwhicheasedGaribaldi’smovementacrosstheMediterraneanSeatoNaplesandSicily.This
wasbecausetheBritishPrimeMinister–
PalmerstonegavesupportwhenheorderedtheBritishfleettogivecovertoGaribaldi’sforcesas
theysailedtoSicilywhichtheycaptured.GaribaldithenproceededtothemainlandandlandedinS
outhernItalybySeptember1860.TheKingfledhiscapitalthusenablingGaribalditoenterNaples
withoutopposition.GaribaldihandedoverNaplesandSicilytoKingVictorEmmanuelIIofPiedmo
ntandthiswasanotherimportantstepintheprocessofItalianunification.
TheannexationofPopalstatesin1860wasanothereventthatledtotheunificationo
fItaly.ThiswasdonebyCavourthroughpoliticalforesight.Althoughhehadresignedin1859,Bri
tainputpressureonNapoleonIIItoresumesupportingPiedmontandthisencouragedCavourtoc
omebacktoofficeinearly1860andcontinuedwiththestruggleforunification.Cavourrealizedth
athavingconqueredNaplesandSicilyin1860,Garibaldiwaslikelytomovenorthwardsandattack
Rome–
theseatofthePope.ThiswouldhavebroughtinFranceandAustriatofightPiedmontsoastorestor
ethePope,hencecausingproblemstotheItalianunification.CavourthereforesentthetroopsofP
iedmontintothePopalstatestorestrainorpreventGaribaldifromattackingRome.Thismovewas
vitalbecausewhileheprotectedthePopeinRome,CavourwasabletoconductaplebisciteintheP
opalstatesandallthepeoplevotedforaunionwithPiedmontbuthewasverycarefulnottoannexR
ome.ThiswasanotherstepinconsolidatingtheprocessofItalianunification.
TheformationordeclarationoftheKingdomofItalyin1861alsocontributedtotheu
nificationofItaly.CavourdeclaredtheKingdomofItalyin1861withTurininPiedmontasitsCa
pital.VictorEmmanuelIIwasdeclaredasKingandCavourasthePrimeMinisterofthisnewlycreat
edItaliankingdom.Bythistime,itwasonlyROMEandVENETIAthathadnotbeenannexedtoItaly
.Therefore,itwasanimportantstepintheprocessoftheItalianunification.Unfortunately,Cavou
rdiedin1861beforetheannexationofRomeandVenetia.
TheliberationofVenetiain1866wasanothereventthatcontributedtotheunificati
onofItaly.In1866,therebrokeoutawarbetweenPrussiaandAustriaandthiswasknownasthe
Austro–
Prussianwar.Beforethewar,OttoVonBismarckofPrussiaenteredintoanagreementwithKingVi
ctorEmmanuelIIinwhichItalywastoassistPrussiainawaragainstAustriaandthattheItaliangov
ernmentwastobegivenVenetiaifAustriawasdefeated.GaribaldithenledtheFrenchforcesintot
hewarandAustriawaseventuallydefeated.Attheendofthewar,BismarckforcedAustriatohand

overVenetiatoItalywhichwasamajorstepintheunificationofItaly.Bythistime,itwasonlyRomet
hatwasoutofItaly.
TheFranco–PrussianWarof1870–
1871(theannexationofRomein1870)ledtothecompleteunificationofItaly.Betwe
en1870and1871,therewasawarbetweenFranceandPrussiaknownastheFranco–
Prussianwar.ThiswarremindedFranceabouthertroopsinRomewhichhadremainedanobstacl
etothecompletionoftheItalianunification.Asaresult,NapoleonIIIwasforcedtowithdrawtheFr
enchtroopswhichhehaddeployedinRometoprotectthePopesoastogoandfightagainstPrussia
.Earlieron,VictorEmmanuelIIhadfearedtoattackRomebecauseitwouldprovokeFrance’sang
erasitdidin1848and1867whenGaribaldiattackedRomeandwasdrivenbytheFrenchforces.Th
erefore,assoonastheFrenchforceswerewithdrawn,theItaliansenteredRomeandVictorEmm
anuelIIthereforedeclaredaunitedfreesateofItaly.However,PopePiusIXdidnotaccepttheunifi
cationoftheItalianPeninsularandthereforeherefusedtorecognizethelossofhispoliticalcontrol
overRomeuntil11thFebruary1929,whentheLateranTreatywassignedbyMussoliniandP
opePiusXIinwhichtheconflictwassettledbycreatingtheVaticanCityStateorasectionofRome
wherethePopeshavepoliticalandreligiouscontrol.
Samplequestions
1. ExaminethefactorsthatfavouredtheunificationofItalybetween1850and1
871.
Approach:
 ThecandidateisrequiredtogiveaviablebackgroundabouttheItalianunification.
 Shouldgiveandexplainfactorsthatfavouredtheunificationstruggle.
Pointstoconsider:
EffortstowardstheunificationofItalyfailedbefore1850.However,from1850-
1870anumberoffactorsandeventsfavoureditsunificationwhichincluded:
 TheroleoftheCarbonari
 TheroleoftheYoungItalyMovement
 ThecontributionofKingVictorEmmanuelIIofPiedmont
 ThedownfallofMetternichandcollapseofhissystemin1848
 Thesuccessofthe1848revolutioninFranceandtheriseofNapoleonIIIe.g.hesenttheFre
nchtroopstofightalongsidethoseofPiedmontinnorthernItalyagainstAustriainthebattl
esofMagentaandSolferinowhichledtotheliberationofLombardy.

 ThesuccessoftheOrsinincident
 TheroleofGaribaldi
 TheroleofCavourinPiedmont
 TheemergenceofaliberalPopePiusIXin1846resultedintopoliticalandreligiousreforms.
 ThechangeinbalanceofpowerinEuropeinfavourofBritainandFrancefromthe1850sleft
theAustrianempireweaktotheadvantageoftheItalianstates.
 TheroleofBismarckofPrussia,e.g.hewasvitalintheliberationofVenetiain1866andinthe
Franco-Prussianwarof1870-1871whichcompletedtheunification.
 TheBritishmoralandmilitarysupporte.g.theBritishgovernmentunderPrimeMinisterPa
lmerstoneallowedhershipstogivecovertoGaribaldi’sforceswhichcapturedSicilyin186
0.ShealsorefusedtherequestofNapoleonIIIofnotallowingGaribaldi’sforcestocapture
Naples.ShealsosupportedtheannexationofthecentralstatesbyPiedmont.
 TheRussianneutralityduringtheAustro–
Italianconflictsbetween1850and1870enabledtheItalianstodefeatAustria.
 ThepatriotismamongtheItalianrevolutionariesafter1850e.gGaribaldi,Cavouretc.
 Cavour’ssuccessfulplebisciteinthecentralduchiesofParma,Tuscany,ModenaandRom
agna.
 TheeffectsoftheCrimeanwarof1854–
1856i.eAustriaremainedwithoutalliesandaboveall,itchangedtheBritishandFrenchatti
tudetowardsItaly.
2. ExplaintheweaknessesofCamilloCavourintheprocessofItalianunification
.
 CountCamilloCavourhadanumberofweaknesseswhichunderminedtheItalianunificati
onstruggleandtheseincludedthefollowing;
 HistemporarywithdrawalorresignationasaPrimeMinisterin1859afterconflictingwithK
ingVictorEmmanuelIIoverthecontinuationofthewarwithAustriawasamajorweakness
.HeresignedbecauseNapoleonIIIhadwithdrawnfromtheAustro-
ItalianWarof1859prematurelybeforetheliberationofVenetiafromAustria.Thisretarde
dtheprogressoftheItaliansunification,althoughinearly1860hereturnedtopower.
 HegaveawaythecityofNiceandtheterritoryofSavoytoFrancein1860asarewardforhers
upporttoPiedmontagainstAustriain1859.CavourthereforedisappointedotherItaliann
ationalistsforexampleGaribaldiwhowascomingfromNiceandthereforetheycriticizedh
imalotbecauseofthat.ThisthereforeunderminedthestruggleforItalianunification.
 HepursueddifferentpoliticalideologiesthatwerecontrarytothoseofotherItaliannation
alists.Forexample,asanaristocratbybirth,Cavourfavouredmonarchicalruleasthebestf
ormofgovernmentinItaly.ThiscreatedconflictsbetweenCavourandotherItaliannation

alistslikeMazziniandGaribaldiwhowererepublicansandthereforefavouredarepublica
nsystemofgovernmentincaseItalygotunited.Suchconflictsunderminedtheprogresso
ftheItalianunificationstruggle.
 Hispoliciesresultedintotheovertaxationofthemassesespeciallythepeasantsandthemi
ddleclass.ThisthereforemadesuchItalianstohatetheItalianunificationstruggleasitwa
soppressingandexploitingthem,thusunderminingthestruggletounifyItaly.
 Cavour’sinitialbiasagainsttheSouthernItalianstateswasamajorweakness.Giventheir
economicbackwardness,Cavour’sinitialdreamandplanwastouniteonlythesatesinthe
NorthernItalywhicheconomicallybetteroff.Thisgeneratedresentmentfromsuchstate
swhichpartlyunderminedtheunificationstruggleofItaly.
 HepreventedGaribaldifromconqueringRomein1860.HesentthePiedmont’stroopsinto
thePopalstatestostopGaribaldifromattackingRomewhichwasasetbacktotheItalianst
ruggleforunification.
 Cavourdidn’tlivetowitnessthetotalunificationofItaly.Hediedon6 thJune1861beforeVe
netiaandRomewereliberatedandtherefore,hewasunabletoenjoythefruitsofhissweat.
ThiswasamajorweaknessthatalmostledtothefailureoftheItalianunificationstruggle,h
aditnotbeenthepresenceKingVictorEmmanuelIIwhospearheadedthestruggleupto1
870whenitwascompleted.
3. TowhatextentweretheforeignpowersresponsiblefortheunificationofItal
y?
Approach:
 Thecandidatesareexpectedtoindentifyandexplaintheroleoftheforeignpowersinth
eunificationofItaly.
 Otherfactorsarealsorequired.
 Astandpointisrequired.
 Pointstoconsider:
 AviablebackgroundabouttheItalianunification
 Roleofforeignpowers:
 InspirationfromthealreadyunitedmonarchieslikeBritainandFrance
 Theyofferedmoralsupporte.gBritainandFrancebackedthetroopsofPiedmonttoan
nexthecentralItalianstatesofModena,ParmaandTuscanyin1860.
 Theyrejectedinterventione.gBritainrefusedFrancetointerveneagainstGaribaldiin
July1860.

 Theyofferedmilitarye.g200,000FrenchtroopssupportedPiedmontin1858-
1859againstLombardyleadingtotheannexationofLombardy.
 ThedisunityoftheforeignpowersorimperialdisagreementsenabledtheItalianstose
cureforeignassistancei.eBritain,France,TurkeyagainstRussiain1854–
1856,PrussiaagainstDenmark1864,AustriaagainstPrussiain1866andtheFranco–
Prussianwar1870–1871.
 Theyofferedfinancialsupporte.gBritainandPrussia
 TheyofferedasylumtotheItalianrevolutionaries.e.gBritainandSwitzerlandhosted
MazziniwhileFrancehostedOrsin.
 TheypromotedeconomictieswiththeItalianshenceencouragingtradeandcommer
cee.gBritain,BelgiumandBritain.
 Theyexchangedideasaboutunificationstrategiese.gPrussiaunderBismarck.
4. WhyweretheattemptstouniteItalymoresuccessfulafterthe1850’s?
5. AssesstheroleofCavourintheunificationofItaly.
6. ExaminethecontributionofCavourtotheunificationofItaly.

THEUNIFICATIONOFGERMANY,1815-1871
TheunificationofGermany,justliketheItalianunification,involvedtheamalgamation(union)of
thevariousGermanstatestoformtheGermanEmpire.ItwasaprocessspearheadedbyPrussia.T
hevariousGermanstateswhichwerebroughttogetherwereHanover,Silesia,Posen,Nassau,H
assel-
Cassel,Saxony,Holstein,Schleswig,Baden,Bavaria,WurttembergandPrussiaamongothers.T
heGermanunificationwasofficiallycompletedin1871.TheGermanempirewasproclaimedon1
8thJanuary1871atVersaillesPalaceintheHallofMirrorsinFranceaftertheFranco-
PrussianWarof1870-1871.
OBSTACLESTOTHEUNIFICATIONOFGERMANY
TheinfluenceofNapoleonIofFranceupto1815delayedtheunificationofGermany.In1806,Nap
oleonIdefeatedAustriawhichwascontrollingtheGermanstatesandthereforeAustriasurrende
redtheGermanstatestoFrance.NapoleonIthenreducedtheGermanstatesfromoverthreehun
dredtoonlythirtynine(39)statesandformedthemintotheConfederationoftheRhinewhichhep
utundertheFrenchcontroluptohisdownfallin1815.ThisthereforemeantthattheGermanstates
couldnotgaintheirindependenceundertheFrenchcontrolwhichwasagreatpower.
TheViennasettlementof1815delayedtheunificationofGermany.The1815Viennasettlementc
reatedtheGermanConfederationof39statesundertheleadershipofAustriawithaDietorParlia
mentatFrankfurt.ThisarrangementbecameamajorroadblocktotheunificationofGermanybec
auseAustriawhichpresidedovertheGermanConfederationParliamentwasjustinterestedinpr
eservingherstrongempire.Therefore,shedidnotallowdiscussinganymattersconcerningtheu
nificationofGermany.

TheAustrianinfluencewasamajorobstacletotheunificationofGermany.Austriaremainedado
minantpowerinGermanyandhersurvivalasanempirewasmadepossiblebythedisunityoftheG
ermanstates.From1815,Austriaeffectivelycontrolledthethirtynine(39)statesthatformedthe
GermanConfederationwithaparliamentatFrankfurt.Austriawasalwaysagainsttheforcesoflib
eralismandnationalismandthereforeshedidnotsupportthecreationofaunitedGermany.Besid
es,AustriaexploitedtheresourcesoftheseGermanstateswhichledtoeconomicbackwardnesst
hathinderedtheunificationprocess.ItwasalsoAustriathatinfluencedKingFredrickWilliamIVof
PrussiatorefusetheleadershipoftheGermanunificationin1848duringtheliberalresolutionswh
ichledtothefailureoftheunificationattemptsof1848-
1849.Aboveall,PrussiaalwaysfearedthemilitarysuperiorityofAustriaandthisthereforedelaye
dtheGermanunification.
BesidesAustria,therewereotherforeignpowersthatwerecontrollingtheGermanstatesandyet
theywerenotinterestedincreatingaunitedGermany.Forexample,HanoverwasunderBritain,H
ollandcontrolledLuxembourgwhileSchleswigandHolsteinwereunderDenmark.Thisdelayedt
heunificationofGermanybecausenoneoftheaboveforeignpowerswasreadytosurrendertheG
ermanstatessoastocreateaunitedGermany.
MetternichandhisoppressivesystemdelayedtheunificationofGermany.Hehatedliberalisman
dnationalismwhichhefearedwouldleadtothecollapseoftheAustrianempire.Hethereforesupp
ressedalltheliberalandnationalisticmovementsintheGermanstates.Forexample,heintroduc
edtheCarlsbadDecreesof1819whichimposedstrictcensorshipofthepress,bannedpolitica
lmeetingsandstudents’politicalsocieties,dismisseduniversityprofessorsandtheliberalleader
sinGermany.TheMetternichsystemthereforeeffectivelyworkedagainstthesuccessoftheGer
manliberalsandnationalistsandthereforeledtofailureofthe1830and1848revolutionsintheGe
rmanstateswhichdelayedtheunificationofGermany.
TheindividualismofthesmallGermanstatesdelayedtheunificationofGermany.Theprincesorle
adersofstateslikeBavaria,Wurttemberg,HanoverandHamburgfearedthattheunificationofG
ermanywouldmakethemlosetheirpowersandindependence.Theythereforeopposedanyatte
mptstobringtogetherthevariousGermanstatessoastocreateaunitedGermany.
EconomicbackwardnesswasanotherobstacletotheGermanunification.By1848,Germanyasa
wholewaseconomicallybackwardandtheindustrialrevolutionhadnotmadeanyprogressinGer
many.TheGermanstatesthereforeremainedbasicallyagriculturalstates.Aboveall,transporta
ndcommunicationfacilitiesremainedpoortogetherwithlowlevelsoftrade.Therefore,suchwid
espreadpovertyintheGermanstateshinderedthesuccessoftheunificationstruggleinGermany
.
ThemilitaryweaknessoftheGermanstateswasanotherobstacletotheirunification.TheGerma
nstateswereverypoorandthereforetheycouldnotraiseandmaintainastrongarmytochallenge
theAustrianmilitarymight.EvenPrussiawhichwastheleadingGermanstatewasmilitarilyweak
ascomparedtoAustria.Thisthereforeexplainsthefailureofallthefirstattemptstogetridofforeig
nruleinGermanysincethe1814-

1815Viennacongresslikethe1830and1848revolutions.Hence,AustriadominatedtheGerman
statesforalongertimebecauseofbeingdefenseless.
TheweaknessoftheGermanConfederationParliamentorDietdelayedtheunificationofGerman
y.ThisparliamentwascreatedbytheViennasettlementin1815atFrankfurtbutitwastooweakto
promotetheGermanunification.Forexample,itwaspenetratedbytheinfluenceofAustriaandM
etternichwhowasagainsttheGermanunification.TheparliamentwascomposedofAustrianrep
resentativeswhowereenemiesoftheGermanunification.Asaresult,theyonlycateredfortheint
erestsofAustriaattheexpenseofGermany.Thisparliamentthereforecouldnotpassresolutions
thatwereinfavoroftheGermanunityandindependence.Asaresult,itdelayedtheGermanunific
ation.
TheweaknessoftheGermannationalistswasanotherobstacletotheunificationofGermany.Th
eGermanynationalistswerecomposedoftheintellectuals,workingclass,universityprofessors
andstudentswhowerelargelyurbanbasedanduncoordinated.Theydependedonparliamentar
yspeeches,meetings,banquetsandresolutionsandneverhadthemilitaryabilitytochallengeth
eAustriandominationoftheGermanstates.ThisthereforeexplainswhyAustriaeasilydefeatedt
hemduringthe1848-
1849revolutionaryperiod,thusdelayingtheprocessofGermanunification.
ThelackofableleadershipdelayedtheunificationofGermany.Germanylackedableleaderswho
wouldprovidethekindofleadershipnecessarytounitealltheGermanstates.KingFredrickWillia
mIIIofPrussiawhowasinabetterpositiontoleadthestruggleforGermanunificationwasweakan
dacloseallyofAustria.EvenkingFredrickWilliamIVwhosucceededhimin1840wasalsoweakan
dthereforehefailedtoleadtheunificationstruggle.HedisappointedtheGermansin1848whenh
ewasofferedtheleadershipofthestrugglebutheturneditdown.Thiseventuallyledtothefailure
ofthe1848revolutionsintheGermanstatesagainstAustria.Therefore,itwasafterthecomingto
powerofKingWilliamIin1861thattheunificationprogramwasdrawnupespeciallywithhisappo
intmentofOttovonBismarckastheMinister-PresidentofPrussiain1862.
ThelackofforeignassistancedelayedtheunificationofGermany.AlleffortstounitetheGermanst
atesbefore1860failedmainlybecauseofthelackofforeignassurance.Thiswasbecauseallthem
ajorpowersofEuropewerehostiletotheGermanstruggletoachieveherindependence.Itwasth
ereforedifficultfortheGermanstateswhichweremilitarilyandeconomicallytooweaktoachievei
ndependenceandunityontheirownwithoutexternalsupport.Thislackofforeignassistanceexpl
ainswhyboththe1830and1848revolutionsintheGermanstatesfailed,thusdelayingtheunificat
ionstruggle.
ThelackofacommonplanbytheGermannationalistsalsodelayedtheGermanunification.TheG
ermannationalistswhowouldhaveworkedforGermanunitylackedacommonunificationplanor
methodandinsteadweredividedalongtwoconflictingplansfortheunificationprocess.SomeGe
rmanslookedatAustriaforleadershipintheGermanaffairswhileotherGermansfavoredPrussia
nleadershipandtheydidnotwanttoinvolveAustriaintheGermanaffairs.Thisthereforecreatedd

ifferencesanddisagreementsamongtheGermanrevolutionaryleaderswhichdelayedtheunific
ationofGermany.
ReligiousdifferencesamongtheGermanstatesdelayedtheunificationstruggle.TheNorthernG
ermanstateswerepredominantlyProtestantandthereforetheylookedtowardsPrussiaforthe
leadershipoftheUnitedGermanywhiletheSouthernGermanstateslikeBaden,BavariaandWurt
tembergweredominatedbytheCatholicswhofavoredAustria,afellowcatholicstate.Thesecat
holicstatesnevertrustedPrussiaandthereforetheylookedatherwithalotofsuspicion.Thesereli
giousdifferencesthereforecreateddisunitybetweentheGermans,hencedelayingtheentirepr
ocessofGermanunification.
TheoppositionfromtheliberalsinthePrussianparliamentatBerlinandtheconservativeJu
nkersdelayedtheunificationofGermany.Theliberalswastedvaluabletimediscussinguselessi
ssuesandopposedcrucialissuesintheunificationprocesslikeraisingastrongPrussianarmythat
wouldbeusedtoexpeltheforeignersoutoftheGermanstates.Thisthereforeexplainswhythe18
48revolutionsfailedintheGermanstates.Evenafter1850,theliberalscontinuedtoopposerefor
mslikeincreaseintaxation,raisingandmaintainingabigPrussianarmy.Therefore,itwasonlyaft
ertheirsuppressionbyOttoVonBismarckin1862thattheunificationofGermanywasrealized.Si
milarly,thePrussianJunkers(landlords)inthegovernmentopposedbeinginvolvedintheGerma
naffairsbecausetheunificationwouldmaketheeconomicallyprosperousPrussiaresponsiblefo
rthegeneralpovertyoftheSouthernGermanstates.ThisthereforedelayedattemptstounifyGer
many.
ThesocialbackwardnessoftheGermansalsodelayedtheunificationofGermany.Themajorityof
thepeopleintheGermanstatesespeciallyintheruralareaswereilliterateandthereforetheywere
sociallybackward.Theeliteclasswasverysmallandbecauseofthis,theilliterateGermanpeoplec
ouldnoteasilybemobilizedtojointhenationalisticmovementsthatwereintendedtounitetheGe
rmanstates.
ThenegativeattitudeofFrancetowardsaunitedGermanyalsodelayedtheunificationofGerma
ny.ThepositionofFranceasgreatpowerinEuropehadforlongbeenmadepossiblebytheweakne
ssofherneighbour,Prussia.FranceforthatmattercouldnottoleratethecreationofaunitedGerm
anyinherneighbourhoodbecauseastrongGermanywouldbeamilitarythreattoFrance’spositio
nasalandmasterinEurope.Therefore,FranceespeciallyunderEmperorNapoleonIIIopposeda
nyattemptsaimedatestablishingaunitedGermanEmpireuntil1871whenshewasdefeatedand
humbledbyPrussiaunderOttoVonBismarck.
ThepoormobilizationofthemassesdelayedtheunificationofGermany.Before1860,mostGerm
answereignorantaboutthebenefitsofunificationbecausetheywerenotfullysensitizedaboutth
eadvantagesofaunitedGermanyasopposedtoadividedGermany.ThiswasbecauseunliketheI
talianswhohadmenlikeMazzini,theGermanslackedstrongpersonalitiestoaddresstheproblem
oftotalunification.Thisexplainswhythethirtynine(39)Germanstateshadstronglybelievedinth
eAustriandominationuntil1866yetAustriawantedtopromoteherselfishinterestsinGermany.

FACTORSTHATFAVOUREDTHEUNIFICATIONOFGERMANY
AlthoughtheUnificationofGermanywasdelayedbynumerousobstacles,theyearsafter1860wi
tnessedrapidmovementtowardstheachievementofGermanunificationunderthePrussianlea
dershipwhichwasfinallycompletedinJanuary1871.Thiswasbecauseofthefollowingfavorable
factors;
TheworkofNapoleonIofFrancefavouredtheUnificationofGermany.Duringhisreign,Napoleon
IconqueredtheGermanstatesfromAustriaandreducedthemfromoverthreehundredtoonlythi
rtynine(39)states.NapoleonIthenspreadthe1789Frenchrevolutionaryideasofliberty,equalit
yandfraternitytotheGermanstatesunderhiscontrol.HealsoremindedtheGermansthattheirgl
oryandachievementsofthepastcouldstillberevived.Thisstrengthenedthespiritofnationalism
andunityamongthethirtynine(39)Germanstateswhicheventuallypavedwayfortheunificatio
nofGermanyby1871.
ThecommoncharacteristicsamongtheGermanfavouredtheunificationprocess.TheGermans
hadacommonlanguage,cultureandothertraditions.ThispromotedsomeformofunityandtheG
ermansthereforelookedatthemselvesasonepeople.Thisthereforestimulatedtheideaofnatio
nalismamongtheGermans,thuspreparingabackgroundfortheGermanunificationwhichwasa
chievedin1871.
ThecreationoftheZollvereinalsofacilitatedtheunificationofGermany.Thiswasaneconomicuni
onoftheGermanstatesformedin1834undertheleadershipofPrussiatoeliminatecustomduties
ortariffsintheGermanstates.By1844,nearlyalltheGermanstatesweremembersofthiseconom
icunionexceptthosewhichwerestillunderthedirectcontrolofAustria.ThoseGermanstatesthat
refusedtojointheUnionsufferedheavytariffs(Customduties)ontheirexportstotheunionmem
bers.TheUnionthereforecreatedeconomicco-
operationamongtheGermanstates.ThiseconomicunitybetweenPrussiaandotherGermansta
tespreparedgroundforapoliticalunionwhichwasachievedin1871.
ThecollapseoftheCongressSystemby1830favouredtheunificationofGermany.WhentheCon
gressSystemcollapsed,Europeremainedwithoutaconcertedeffortortogethernesstosuppres
sanyliberalandnationalisticmovementsliketheunificationofGermany.Thefactthattheunificat
ionofGermanywasaviolationoftheViennasettlementof1815meantthatthecongresspowersw
ereboundtosuppressitifthecongresssystemhadexisteduptothe1860s.
ThedownfallofMetternichandhisoppressivesystemin1848greatlycontributedtotheUnificatio
nofGermany.Hewasoverthrownbythe1848revolutioninViennaandhisdownfallmeanttheend
oftheoldorderandthetriumphoftheneworder.Before1848,Metternichhadsuppressedthelibe
ralandnationalisticmovementsintheGermanstatesthroughtheCarlsbadDecreesof1819.Hiss
uccessorsi.e.Schwarzenberg(1848-1852)andlaterCountVonBoul(1852-
1859)wasweakandprovedtobelessrepressivelikeMetternichhimself.ThisthereforeenabledO
ttoVonBismarcktomobilizetheGermansfreelywhichresultedintothetotalGermanunificationb
y1871.

TheCrimeanWarof1854-
1856favouredtheunificationofGermany.Afterthewar,Austriaexperiencedstrainedrelations
withRussiaandtheWesternEuropeanpowers.Austria’sneutralityinthiswardestroyedthehisto
ricalconnectionandfriendshipbetweenherandRussiaandtheWesternEuropeanpowers.Ther
efore,coupledwithAustria’spoorleadershipandotherdomesticchallenges,Prussiawasinpositi
ontochallengeher,therebyenablingOttoVonBismarcktoleadtheGermanUnificationupto1871
whenitwascompleted.
Thelessonslearntfromthe1848revolutionsandthefailureoftheliberalstounifyGermanyin184
8favouredtheunificationstruggle.In1848,theGermansattemptedtounifytheirnationbyconsti
tutionalmeans.UsingtheirparliamentatFrankfurt,theybeganthetaskofmakingaconstitution
whichwouldgivetheGermansunityandliberty.Aftermanydiscussions,theGermanConfederati
onparliamentresolvedtoexcludeAustriaandestablishaPrussianledEmpire.Prussiasupportedt
hembuteventuallyAustriamobilizedherforcesanddefeatedthem.Becauseofthishumiliation,it
waslearntthatGermanunitywouldnotbeachievedbyliberaldiscussionsandresolutionsofthem
ajoritybutby“bloodandiron”orforceormilitarism.Therefore,underOttoVonBismarcktheadop
tedmilitarismorforceagainstAustriaandotherforeignpowersandthiseventuallycontributedto
theunificationofGermanyby1871.
TheemergenceofPrussiaasaleadingstatefavouredtheUnificationofGermany.Prussialedtheu
nificationstrugglebecauseoftheadvantagesthatshehadoverotherGermanstates.Bythe1815
ViennasettlementPrussiawasstrengthenedterritoriallybyacquiringpartofSaxonyandtheRhin
elandprovince.Therefore,PrussiaacquiredGermannationalsandannexedthemontoherpopul
ation.PrussiaalsoremainedindependentandunitedastheresttheGermanstateswereunderfor
eigndominationanddisunited.Becauseofthistherefore,shewasstrongenoughtochallengethe
disunitedAustrianEmpirewhentheunificationstrugglestarted.
TheworkoftheGermanscholarsalsofacilitatedtheunificationofGermany.TheGermanscholars
sensitizedtheGermansandmadethemawareoftheiridentityasasuperiorracebycapitalizingon
thepastgloryoftheGermans.ThesescholarsthereforemadetheGermansproudpeopleandthis
explainswhyitwaseasytomobilizethemagainstforeigndominationduringtheunificationstrug
gle.
Theroleoftheforeignpowersafterthe1860sfacilitatedtheunificationofGermany.Forexample,
AustriaassistedPrussiaintheliberationofSchleswigandHolsteinfromDenmarkin1864.Also,th
eItalianunificationstruggleweakenedtheAustrianstotheadvantageofPrussia.TheItaliansals
ohelpedthePrussiantroopsagainstAustriain1866whichresultedintotheliberationofHolsteinfr
omAustriaandtheannexationoftheNorthernGermanstatesbyPrussia.OttoVonBismarckalsos
ecuredtheneutralityofEuropeanpowerslikeBritain,FranceandRussiawhoseco-
operationandgoodwillenabledPrussiatosucceedoverherenemies,thusleadingtotheunificati
onofGermanyby1871.
TheriseofKingWilliamIfavouredtheunificationofGermany.HereplacedKingFredrickWilliamI
Vasaregentin1858andbecameKingofPrussiain1861.WilliamIwasanti-

liberalandalsohatedtheAustriandominationoftheGermanaffairs.Hefavouredthemodernizati
onofthatPrussianeconomywhichhadbeenbackward.HealsomodernizedthePrussianarmytot
hehighestdegreeofmilitaryefficiency(ability)anditwasthisstrongarmythatwasusedtodefeat
Prussia’senemiesduringtheunificationstrugglelikeDenmark,AustriaandFrance.Aboveall,he
appointedmenwhohadtheGermanunificationatheartlikeVonMoltkeasChiefofStaffandVonR
oonasMinisterofWarin1859.HealsorecalledandappointedOttoVonBismarckasMinister-
PresidentorPrimeMinisterofPrussiain1862,amanwholedtheunificationstruggleofGermanyu
pto1871whenitsucceeded.
TheriseofOttoVonBismarckgreatlyfavouredtheunificationofGermany.Hewasbornon1stApri
l1815inaProtestantJunkerornoblefamilyinPrussia.Hewasawell-
educatedmanwhostudiedLawattheUniversitiesofGottingenandBerlin.OttoVonBismarckser
vedinthearmyaasaLieutenantandthenreturnedtohisfamilyestates.Asapolitician,Bismarckw
asconservativeandanti-liberal.
In1847,BismarckwaselectedtothePrussianparliamentatBerlin.Hewasveryoutspokenandinf
acthespokeviolentlyagainsttheliberalswhowerethemajorityinthePrussianparliament.Heals
ospokeviolentlyagainstAustriaandtohimtheliberalsandAustriawerethegreatestobstaclestot
heGermanunification.
Between1851and1859,hewasthePrussianrepresentativetotheGermanConfederationDietor
ParliamentatFrankfurtwhichwasunderthepresidencyofAustria.Between1859and1862,hese
rvedasthePrussianambassadortoRussiaandlatertoFrance.In1862,duetotheproblemsthatw
erebeingcausedbytheliberalsinPrussia,hewasrecalledandappointedastheMinister-
PresidentorPrimeMinisterbyKingWilliamI.
OttoVonBismarckisregardedasthefatherofmodernGermanyandthisisbecauseofthegreatrol
ethatheplayedinthecreationofaUnitedGermanyasnotedbelow;
HesuppressedtheliberalsinthePrussianParliamentwhohadrejectedKingWilliamI’smilitaryr
eforms.In1862,KingWilliamIpresentedbudgetproposalsforthearmytothePrussianparliame
nt.TheproposalswhichinvolvedincreaseintaxeswouldenablehimtostrengthenthePrussianar
mybuttheliberalswhowerethemajorityintheparliamentrejectedthem.WhenBismarckwasap
pointedMinister-
Presidentin1862,heembarkedonthetaskofcrashingtheliberaloppositioninPrussia.Heremark
edthat;“GermanyhasitseyesnotonPrussianLiberalismbutonitspowerorstrength.Thegreatqu
estionofthedayshallnotbedecidedbyspeechesandresolutionsofthemajority-
thatwasthemistakeof1848-
1849,butbybloodandIron”.Asaresult,heeliminatedalltheliberalsfromallimportantpositionsi
nthecivilserviceandthearmy.Theirnewspaperswereallcensored,otherswerearrestedandimp
risoned.Becauseofthis,theKingwasabletocollecttaxesormoneysoastoimplementthepropos
edmilitaryreforms.ThisstrengthenedPrussia,thusenablinghertoleadtheGermanunification.

BismarckimprovedthePrussianeconomywhichfacilitatedtheunificationofGermany.Hebuiltm
odernroads,railwaylinesandtelegraphicsystemswhichpromotedtradeandcommerceinPruss
ia.Healsosetupindustriesaswellasmodernizingagriculture.ItwasthisstrongPrussianeconom
ythatwasusedtoshoulderorfinancetheexpensiveGermanunificationstruggleupto1871wheni
tsucceeded.
BismarckmodernizedthePrussianarmywhichhelpedtounifyGermany.ThePrussiaarmywase
nlargedfrom500,000to750,000soldiersandtheseweretrainedtothehighestdegreeofmilitary
ability.Healsocollectedtaxeswhichheusedtopurchasemodernweaponsthatweremoresuperi
ortothoseofPrussia’senemieslikeAustria.ItwasthisstrongPrussianarmythatdefeatedDenma
rkintheDanishwarof1864,AustriaintheAustro-Prussianwarof1866andFranceintheFranco-
PrussianWarof1870-1871,therebypavingwayfortheunificationofGermany.
HealsohelpedtoimprovethePrussianeducationsector.Lowlevelsofeducationandsocialbackw
ardnesshadhamperedtheGermanunificationforlong.However,whenOttoVonBismarckroset
opower,heworkedwithKingWilliamIofPrussiatoestablishanumberofschoolswhicheducated
manyPrussians.ThisthereforereducedilliteracywhichinturnmadethemobilizationoftheGerm
ansfortheunificationstruggleeasy.
BismarckledtotheliberationofHolsteinandSchleswigfromDenmarkin1864.ThesetwoGerma
nstateswereliberatedthroughawarthatBismarckfoughtagainstDenmarkin1864.Inthiswar,B
ismarcksecuredmilitaryassistancefromAustriaandtheneutralityofRussiaandFrancewhichhel
pedPrussiatoeasilydefeatDenmark.Afterthewar,BismarckannexedtheGermanstateof Schle
swigtoPrussiawhileHolsteinwasgiventoAustria.ThiswasanimportantstepintheUnificationof
Germany.
HeplayedamajorroleintheAustro-
PrussianWarof1866.ThiswarenabledPrussiatoannexHolsteinandtheNorthernGermanstates
ofSaxony,Hanover,Hassel-
CasselandNassauamongothers,whichhadbeencontrolledbyAustria.Beforethewar,Bismarck
persuadedEmperorNapoleonIIIofFrancetokeepneutralbypromisinghimterritoriesalongRiv
erRhine.HealsoaskedtheItalianstosupporthiminthiswarbypromisingthemthestateofVeneti
awhichwasstillunderAustria.Consequently,Austriawasdefeatedin1866whichledtotheliberat
ionofHolsteinandotherNorthernGermanstatesfromAustriancontrolwhichwasamajorstepin
theUnificationofGermany.
BismarckwasvitalinthecreationoftheNorthGermanConfederation.In1867,Bismarckan
dKingWilliamIdecidedtounitealltheGermanstatesthathadsofarbeenliberatedin1866intoane
wunionknownastheNorthGermanConfederationwhichwasledbyPrussiaandthereforeA
ustriawascompletelyexpelledfromtheGermanaffairs.ThesestatesincludedamongothersSch
leswig,Holstein,Hassel-
Cassel,Hanover,NassauandFrankfurt.BismarckbecametheChancellorofthisnewconfederati
onwhileWilliamIbecametheKing.ThisincreasedthedeterminationoftheGermanseventoliber
atetheremainingthreeSouthernGermanstates.

HewasvitalintheunificationofGermanybydiplomaticallyisolatingFranceunderEmperorNapol
eonIII.HefrequentlyexposedNapoleonIII’splanofannexingtheSouthernGermanstatesandB
elgium.ThisconsequentlyprovokedhostilityfromtheSouthernGermanstatesagainstFrancea
ndalsohostilityfromBritaintowardsFrancebecauseofNapoleonIII’sattempttoviolatethe 183
9LondonTreatythathadgrantedBelgiumindependenceandneutrality.Becauseofthisstateo
faffairs,PrussiawasabletosucceedoverFranceduringtheFranco-PrussianWarof1870-1871.
ItwashisskillsandcalculationthatledtothattotheFranco-PrussianWarof1870-
1871.Hemanipulatedthe1868SpanishsuccessiondisputetotheadvantageofPrussia.Hechan
gedthetelegramwhichKingWilliamIhadsenttohimafterthediscussionswiththeFrenchambass
adoratEMS.BismarckchangedthetelegramtoappearasiftheFrenchambassadorhadbeeninsu
ltedandhumiliatedbyKingWilliamI.ThisprovokedEmperorNapoleonIIItodeclarewaronPrussi
ain1870whichendedwiththedefeatofFrance.Afterthewar,BismarckannexedthethreeSouthe
rnGermanstatesofBavaria,WurttembergandBadenwhichwereundertheinfluenceofFrance.T
hisledtothecreationoftheUnitedGermanEmpireinJanuary1871whichcompletedtheUnificati
onofGermany.
BismarckworkedcloselywithVonRoonandVonMoltkewhoweremilitaryofficersofthePrussian
armyappointedbyKingWilliamIin1859.VonRoonwasthe MinisterofWarandVonMoltkewasthe
ChiefofGeneralStaff.Bothwereanti-
AustrianandwereafterincreasingthesizeofthePrussianarmy.TheygavetheKingandBismarck
militaryguidancethathelpedthePrussianarmytosucceedoverherenemies.Theyalsoprovided
militaryleadershipandmoraletothePrussiansoldierswhichmotivatedthemtofightharder.This
thereforeledtothesuccessofallthewarsthatwerefoughtbyPrussiaduringthecourseoftheGer
manUnification.
1. AssessthecontributionofOttoVonBismarcktotheUnificationofGermany.
2. “WithoutOttoVonBismarck,Germanunitywouldhaveremainedadream”.Discuss.
3. ExaminethecontributionofOttoVonBismarcktotheUnificationofGermany.
OTHERARCHITECTSOFTHEGERMANUNIFICATION
KINGWILLIAMI
HewasaKingofPrussiaandlaterGermanyfrom1861upto1888.HesucceededhisbrotherKingFr
edrickWilliamIVofPrussia.However,unlikehisbrother,KingWilliamIhadaclearmindandstrong
willtounitetheGermanstates.Hewasmoreauthoritative,aggressiveandnotscaredofAustria.H
ewasaprofessionalsoldierwhocloselyworkedwithBismarcktouniteGermany.
Hisroles
Hehelpedintheimprovementofinfrastructure.KingWilliamIdevelopedPrussia’sinfrastructure
slikeroadsandrailwaylineswhichmadethemobilizationofthemassesandtransportationoftheP
russiantroopspossible.ThisquickenedtheGermanUnification.

HestrengthenedthearmyofPrussiawhichplayedanimportantroleinthestruggleforGermanUn
ification.KingWilliamIembarkedonaprogrammeofstrengtheningthePrussianarmybyusingits
numbersandequippingitwithmodernweaponsreadytochallengetheGermanenemies.It’sthis
armythatfoughtDenmark,AustriaandFrancetouniteGermany.
HeappointedBismarckasMinister-
Presidentin1862.BismarckwhowasaGermannationalistplayedaveryimportantroleintheGer
manUnification.FredrickWilliamIVhadisolatedBismarckfrompoliticswhichdelayedtheGerma
nUnification.However,whenKingWilliamIcametopower,heputBismarckatthecentreofPrussi
a’spoliticsandthispositionenabledBismarcktounitetheGermanstatesby1871.
HeplayedanotherroleintheannexationofSchleswigwhichhadbeenunderthecontrolofDenma
rk.HewasbehindtheDanishWarof1864inwhichDenmarkwasdefeatedbythePrussianarmyan
dSchleswigwasannexedtoPrussiain1864.
HeprovidedableandclearleadershiptoPrussiawhenheputinplaceastableandfavourableatmo
spheretochampiontheunificationprocess.Forexample,therewasmaintenanceoflawandorde
r.HealsoappointedimportantmentohelphiminmodernizingthePrussianarmylikeVonRoonan
dVonMoltek.
HeplayedanotherroleintheannexationofHolsteinandotherNorthernGermanstateswhichwer
eundertheAustrianrule.HesupportedBismarckinthe1866waragainstAustria.Austriawasdefe
atedafterwhichthestateofHolsteinandotherNorthernstateswereliberated.BysupportingBis
marckinthe1866Austro–Prussianwar,KingWilliamIplayedabigroleintheGermanUnification.
HehelpedintheannexationoftheSouthernGermanstatesin1871whichmarkedtheendofunific
ationprocess.KingWilliamIsupportedBismarckduringthewaragainstFrancewhichhadinfluen
ceovertheSouthernGermanstates.Francewasdefeatedby1871andtheSouthernGermanysta
teswereannexedtotheNorthernGermanConfederationtocompletetheprocessofGermanunifi
cationby1871.
WhentheunificationofGermanywasachievedin1871,KingWilliamIbecameitsfirstEmperor(K
aiser)whileBismarckbecameChancellor.ThiswasinrecognitionoftheroleplayedbyKingWillia
mIinthestrugglefortheGermanUnification.HeremainedtheKaiserofGermanyuntilhisdeathin
1888.
VONROONANDVONMOLTEK
ThesewerePrussianmilitaryofficerswhoplayedabigroleintheGermanUnification.VonRoonw
astheMinisterofWarandVonMoltekwastheChiefofGeneralStaff.TheywereassistedbyBismar
ckandKingWilliamItostrengthenthePrussianarmyi.e.theyincreaseditfrom500,000to750,00
0soldiers.ItwasthisstrongarmythatfoughtDenmark,AustriaandFrance.
NAPOLEONI

HetookovertheGermanstatesfromAustriaandcreatedtheRhineConfederationwhichcompris
edof39Germanstates.ThisarrangementhelpedtounitealltheGermanstatesunderoneconfed
erationwhichlaterledtotheriseofnationalisticfeelingsamongtheGermansastheyrealizedthat
unitywouldbepossible.
NAPOLEONIII
HealsofacilitatedtheGermanUnification.BismarckappealedtoNapoleonIIIbeforetheDanish
warof1864tobeneutralwhichhedidandin1866beforetheAustro-
Prussianwar.HewaspromisedtheRhinelandterritoryincasehewasneutralinthewarandheacc
eptedwhichledtoannexationofHolsteinandotherNorthernGermanstateslikeSaxonyandHass
el-Hassel.
AlsoNapoleonIIIhadahandinoftheliberationoftheSouthernGermanstateswhenheblundered
bydemandingtoberewardedtheRhinelandterritorywhichBismarckwasnotreadytodo.Thisled
totheoutbreakofthe1870-1871Franco–
PrussianwarthatledtotheliberationoftheSouthernstatesofBavaria,WurttembergandBaden.
TSARALEXANDERIIOFRUSSIA
HemadeRussianforcesneutralintheDanishwarOF1864whichledtoofliberationofSchleswigfr
omDenmark.RussiawasalsoneutralintheAustro–Prussianwarof1866aswellastheFranco-
Prussianwarof1870-
1871whichledtotheliberationoftheNorthernstatesandSouthernGermanstatesrespectively.
VICTOREMMANUELII
HewastheKingoftheItaly.HesentthePediment’sarmywhichdirectlysupportedthePrussianar
myintheAustro–Prussianwarof1866whichledtotheliberationoftheNorthernGermanstates.
VictorEmmanuelIIwasneutralintheFranco–PrussianwarOF1870–
1871whichledtotheannexationofSouthernGermanstatesbyPrussia.
STEPSTOTHEGERMANUNIFICATION
TheunificationofGermanywascompletedin1871byOttoVonBismarckthroughthreesuccessfu
lwarsandthesewere;
 TheDanishwar,1864
 TheAustro-Prussianwar,1866
 TheFranco-Prussianwar,1870-1871
THEDANISHWAROF1864

ThiswarbrokeoutbetweenDenmarkandPrussiaovertheissueofthetwostates(Duchies)ofHols
teinandSchleswigwhichwerelocatedinthesouthofDenmark.Thestateswerehistoricallyruled
byDenmarkbuttreatedasseparatestatesbecausetheycontainedaGermanpopulation.Holstei
nhadmoreGermansthanSchleswig.In1848,theGermansinthetwostatesattemptedtobreaka
wayfromDenmarkbuttheyfailedandtheircasewassettledbytheLondonTreatyof1852.Acc
ordingtothistreaty,itwasstatedthatthetwostateswouldremainundertheDanishkingdom,but
wouldnotbesubjectedtoitslaws.However,inMarch1863thekingofDenmarkissuedanewcon
stitutionwhichtriedtoannexSchleswigandHolsteintoDenmark,ignoringtheindependenceoft
hetwostates.BismarckthereforeusedthisopportunitytoprepareforafullscalewaragainstDen
mark.
Beforethewar,Bismarcksecuredfriendlyrelationswiththeneighboringcountries,thusisolating
DenmarksuchthatshecouldnothavefriendstohelpheragainstPrussia.Forexample,hesecured
theneutralityofRussiabyassistingtheTsarofRussiaduringthePolishrevoltof1863whenhearre
stedandhandedoverthePolishrebelswhohadrantoPrussia.Therefore,Denmarkwasisolatedfr
omRussia.
BismarckalsosecuredtheneutralityofFrancebypromisingNapoleonIIIaterritoryalongRiverR
hineincasehedidn’tintervenetosupportDenmarkagainstPrussia.Therefore,NapoleonIIIrem
ainedneutralduringtheDanishwar.BismarckalsosecuredanalliancewithAustriainJanuary1
864withaconditionthatafterthewar,AustriawouldbegiventhestateofHolstein.
HavingisolatedDenmarkfromRussia,FranceandAustria,BismarckdemandedDenmarktowith
drawthe1863constitutionandsubmitthematterofSchleswigandHolsteintoacongressofEurop
eanpowers.Asexpected,DenmarkrefusedtocomplywhichpromptedBismarckandAustriatojo
intlydeclarewaronDenmarkin1864.
WiththesupportofAustria,Denmarkwasdefeatedandthetwoterritorieswereliberated.Atthee
ndofthewar,theTreatyofViennawassignedinOctober1864andaccordingtothistreaty,Den
marksurrenderedHolsteinandSchleswigtoAustriaandPrussiawhichweretojointlyadministert
hetwoterritories.Later,theaffairsthetwoterritoriesweredecidedbyPrussiaandAustriaintheG
asteinConventionofAugust1865.
THEGASTEINCONVENTIONOF1865
ThistreatywhichwasbetweenPrussiaandAustriawasarrangedbyBismarckaftertheDanishwa
rof1864.Bythistreaty,PrussiawastoadministerSchleswigwhichhadalessGermanpopulation
whileAustriatookoverHolsteinwhichhadabigGermanpopulation.Bismarckdidthissoastocrea
tefuturemisunderstandingwithAustriainordertoendtheAustrianinfluenceintheGermanconfe
deration.Indeed,thisiswhatsparkedofftheAustroPrussianWarof1866whichledtotheexpulsio
nofAustriafromHolsteinaswellasthecompleteeliminationofAustriafromtheGermanaffairs.All
inall,theDanishwarof1864wasanimportantstageintheprocessofGermanunificationbecause
SchleswigwasaddedtoPrussiafromDenmark.

THEAUSTRO-PRUSSIANWAROF1866
ThiswasawarbetweenAustriaandPrussiaanditwasanotherimportantstageintheprocessofGe
rmanunificationbecauseitinvolvedthecompleteeliminationofAustriafromtheGermanaffairss
incethe1815Viennasettlement.ToachievethisPrussianvictory,BismarckskillfullyisolatedAust
riabeforethewarsoastodenyheranypossibilityoffriendshipwithanyEuropeanpowerincaseof
warwithPrussia.
BismarcksecuredtheneutralityofRussia.ThiswarbecauseRussiawasalreadyfriendlytoBismar
cksince1863whenthePolishrevoltbrokeoutinthePolishterritoriesofRussiaandBismarckassist
edtheRussiangovernmenttocrashit.BismarckalsopromisedtosupportRussiatoviolatethe185
6BlackSeaclausesintheParisTreatyof1856signedattheendofthe1854to1856CrimeanWarsu
chthattheRussianwarshipswouldoperatefreelyontheBlackSea.
BismarckalsoisolatedAustriafromFrance.ThroughthesecretBiarritzmeetingof1865withNa
poleonIII,BismarckwontheFrenchneutralityintheeventofawarbetweenAustriaandPrussiab
yaverbalpromisetosupportNapoleonIIItotakeoverBelgium.Bismarckwasalsotofulfillthepro
miseofgivingNapoleonIIIsometerritorylocatedwestoftheRhineRiver(SouthernGermany)inc
aseFranceremainedneutralinawarbetweenPrussiaandAustria.
BismarckalsoisolatedAustriafromItalywhenhecametoanunderstandingwiththeItaliangover
nmentunderKingVictorEmmanuelIIin1866.Bythisunderstanding,BismarckpromisedItalyth
estateofVenetiawhichwasstillundertheAustriancontroliftheItaliangovernmentsupportedP
russiaagainstAustria.AccordingtothisPrusso-
Italianalliance,PrussiawastoattackfromthenorthwhileItalyfromthesouth.
AfterisolatingAustria,BismarckwhowantedwarprovokedAustriabysendingthePrussiantroop
stooccupyHolsteinwhichwasunderAustriaandthisannoyedAustria.Healsoproposedchanges
intheGermanConfederationParliamentatFrankfurtwhichwouldexcludeAustria.
AustriarejectedBismarck’smovesandstatedthattheoccupationofHolsteinwasaviolationofthe
GasteinConventionof1865whichhadgivenHolsteintoAustria.ShealsostatedthatexcludingAu
striafromtheGermanConfederationParliamentwasaviolationoftheViennasettlementof1815
whichhadcreatedtheGermanconfederationparliamentunderAustria.Austriathereforedecide
dtoallywiththeNorthernGermanstatesagainstPrussiaandon14 thJune1866,Austriadeclaredw
aronPrussia.AustriawasdefeatedbythePrussian-
ItalianforcesatSadowainBohemiaon23rdAugust1866.Thewarendedwiththesigningofthe
TreatyofPragueof1866.
THETREATYOFPRAGUEOF1866
ThistreatywhichwassignedinthecityofPraguewasarrangedbyBismarckbetweenPrussiaandA
ustria.Bythistreaty,AustriawhichhadbeendefeatedsurrenderedalltheGermanstatesnorthof
RiverMaintoPrussiai.e.PrussiaannexedHolsteintogetherwiththeNorthernGermanstatesof

Hanover,Hassel-
Cassel,NassauandthecityofFrankfurt.TheannexationoftheseGermanstatesbyPrussiawasab
igsteptowardstheGermanunification.
Laterin1867,BismarckandKingWilliamIdecidedtojoinalltheliberatedGermanstatesintoanew
organizationunderPrussianleadershipknownastheNorthGermanConfederation.Thisorg
anizationwasmadeupofPrussia,Schleswig,Holstein,Hanover,Hassel-
Cassel,Saxony,NassauandthecityofFrankfurt.Austriawasexcludedfromthisneworganizatio
nwhichmarkedtheendoftheAustrianinfluenceintheGermanaffairsandthiswasabigsteptowar
dstheGermanunification.Bythistime,itwasonlythethreeSouthernGermanstatesofBavaria,B
adenandWurttembergthathadnotbeenannexedtoPrussiatocompletetheunificationofGerma
ny.
NOTE;BismarckcarefullyhandledAustriaafterthewarbecausehedidn’twanttomakeheraper
manentenemytoPrussia.Therefore,BismarckopposedthevictorymarchofthePrussianarmyto
Vienna.Hedidn’teverimposeanywarindemnityonAustria.ThislenientpolicyenabledBismarck
toisolateFrancefromAustriaduringtheFranco-PrussianWarof1870-1871.
THEFRANCO-PRUSSIANWAR,1870-
1871ORTHEANNEXATIONOFBAVARIA,BADENANDWURTTEMBERG
ThiswasawarbetweenFranceunderNapoleonIIIandPrussiaunderOttoVonBismarckandKing
WilliamI.Thewaroccurredbetween1870and1871anditwasfoughtpurposelytoeliminatethere
mainingobstacletotheGermanunification(France).Itwasthereforethefinalstageintheunificat
ionofGermanybecauseafterthedefeatofFrance,PrussiamanagedtoannextheSouthernGerm
anstatesofBavaria,BadenandWurttemberg.Consequently,theGermanEmpirewasdeclaredo
n18thJanuary1871atVersaillesplaceintheHallofMirrorsinFrance.
ThewarhadmanycausesaswillbeseenlaterbutitwassparkedoffbytheEMSTELEGRAMwhichw
astwistedorchangedbyBismarck.ThewarwasthereforeencouragedbyBismarck.
In1868,QueenIsabellaofSpainwasoverthrowninarevolution.Therevolutionariesofferedthet
hronetoaPrussianpriceLeopoldwhowasrelativeofKingWilliamIofPrussia.TheFrenchgovern
mentopposedthecandidatureofLeopoldinSpainbecauseNapoleonIIIdidnotwantFrancetobe
surroundedbyaGermandynastyintheEastandSouth.ThePrussiankingalsoopposedthecandid
atureandasaresult,Leopoldwithdrewhiscandidature.
In1869,BismarckdecidedtorevivethecandidatureofLeopoldinSpain.HeencouragedLeopoldt
oaccepttheoffersoastocauseaconflictbetweenPrussiaandFrance,defeatherandannextheSo
uthernGermanstates.In1870,theSpanishgovernmentofficiallyofferedthethronetoprinceLeo
poldwhichheaccepted.ThisgreatlyannoyedFrance.Consequently,theFrenchForeignMinister
,GramontstatedthatunlessLeopoldwithdrew,Francewastotakethematterasacauseforwar.
LeopoldbecamescaredandafterbeingadvisedbythePrussiankingnottoacceptthethrone,hew
ithdrewhiscandidatureforthesecondtime.

TheFrenchgovernment,however,insistedthattheKingofPrussiagivesguarantee(assurance)t
hatthecandidatureofLeopoldinSpainwouldnotberenewedinfuture.ThePrussiankingmetthe
FrenchambassadorBenedettiatEMSandrefusedtogiveanyguaranteeonLeopold’scandidat
ure.ThekingsentatelegramtoBismarckinforminghimofwhathadtakenplacewithBenedettiat
Ems.Bismarckwaspermittedtogiveanaccountoftheeventstothepress.
BismarckrealizedthattheopportunityoffightingFrancewastobemissedgiventhewithdrawalof
Leopold.Hethereforedecidedtoeditthetelegramsothatthetwistedorchangedversionwouldgi
veadifferentinterpretation.HemadeittoappearthatthekinghadrefusedtoseeBenedettibeca
usetheFrenchdemandswereveryunfriendly.ItwasthereforemadetoappearasiftheFrencham
bassadorhadbeeninsultedbytheking.
Whenthepressbrokethenews,thepublicinGermanyrejoicedthatKingWilliamIhadsavedtheho
nourandprestigeoftheircountrybyrejectingtheFrenchdemands.InFrancehowever,thepublic
wasannoyedbecausethePrussiankinghadinsultedtheirambassadorandhadunderminedFran
ceasawhole.TheFrenchthereforedecidedtodeclarewaronPrussiain1870.However,Francew
asdefeatedbecauseBismarckhadforlongpreparedforthiswar.
THECONTRIBUTIONOFBISMARCKTOTHESUCCESSOFTHEFRANCO-
PRUSSIANWAR
Beforethewar,BismarckdiplomaticallyisolatedFranceinEuropesothatshehadnoallytoassisth
er.Forexample,heisolatedFrancefromthethreeSouthernGermanstatesofBavaria,Badenand
WurttembergbymakingthemsignamilitaryalliancewithPrussia.HerevealedtothemthatNapol
eonIIIhadaplantoannexthemtoFrance.
HealsoisolatedFrancefromAustria.ThiswasdonebythelenienttermsofthetreatyofPrague186
6.PrussiadidnotwantpermanentenemitywithAustriaandthereforedidnotannexanyterritoryf
romAustria.AustriawasjustmadetosurrendertheGermanstatestoPrussia.Austriathereforeco
uldnotsupportFrance.
FrancewasalsoisolatedfromItaly.AlreadyBismarckhadassistedItalytogetVenetiain1866.To
makeitworse,FrancestilloccupiedRomewhichtheItaliansbadlyneededtocompletetheirunific
ation.
BismarckisolatedFrancefromBritain.Hedidthisbypublishingthe1865proposalbyFrancetoann
exBelgiumwhichwasundertheguardianshipoftheBritish.ThisannoyedBritainandthereforeth
erewaswaynoshecouldsupportFranceagainstPrussia.RussiahadalreadybeenisolatedbyBis
marckfromanycountryagainstPrussia.Therefore,Francehadnofriendtoassistherwhichcontri
butedtothevictoryofPrussiaoverFrance.
THECOURSEOFTHEFRANCO-PRUSSIANWAR

Whenthewarstarted,theFrenchsoldiersweresurroundedtogetherwithNapoleonIIIandhisso
n.ThetwowerearrestedandFrancewasdefeatedbyPrussiaattheBattleofSedanin1871.Theca
ptureofNapoleonIIImarkedtheendoftheSecondFrenchEmpire.Whenthenewsofthecapture
ofNapoleonIIIreachedParis,arevolutionwasstagedandhisgovernmentwasreplacedbyanew
president.Thus,therewastheestablishmentofThirdRepublicinFrance.Thewarendedwiththe
signingoftheFrankfurtTreatyof1871.
THEFRANKFURTTREATYOF1871
Thetermsofthetreatyincluded;
 Francewasmadetopayawarindemnityof500millionFrancstoGermany.Thiswastobepa
idinthreeyearsanditwasamajorstrainonFrance’seconomy.Francewasalsotosufferanarmyof
occupationuntilthepaymentofthewarindemnitywascompleted.
 Bythesametreaty,FrancelosthernorthernprovincesofALSACEandLORRAINEtoGerm
any.Theseprovinceswererichiniron,coalandalsohadover1.6millionFrenchpeopleandtherefo
retheirlossgreatlyannoyedtheFrenchmen.ThisactionpromptedFrancetothinkaboutrevenge
onGermany.
NOTE:
TheFranco-
PrussianwarenabledBismarcktocompletetheGermanunification.On18 thJanuary1871,theGe
rmanswenttoParisinFranceandorganizedavictoriousceremonyintheHALLOFMIRRORSat
VERSAILLESPALACE.Francewasadefeatednation.Itwasleftheartbrokenanditshouldbeobser
vedthatanewandverystrongGermanyemergedonthemapofEurope.
CAUSESOFTHEFRANCO-PRUSSIANWAR
ThedesirebyBismarcktocompletetheGermanunificationcausedtheFranco-
PrussianWarof1870-
1871.InordertocompletetheGermanunification,therewasaneedtobringtheSouthernGerma
nstatesofBavaria,BadenandWurttembergunderthePrussiancontrolbutthegreatestobstacle
wasFrance.NapoleonIIIhadinsistedthattheseCatholicstatesremainoutsidethenewNorthG
ermanConfederationthatBismarckhadcreatedaftertheAustro-
PrussianWarof1866.ThisthereforeinfluencedBismarcktodevelopthedeterminationanddesir
eforwarbetweenFranceandPrussiaandindeedexplainswhyBismarckexploitedeveryopportu
nityliketheEmstelegramtoprovokeFranceintowarby1870.
ThetraditionalenemitybetweenPrussiaandFrancesince1789causedtheFranco-
Prussianwarof1870-

1871.Historically,therelationshipbetweenFranceandPrussiawasthatofenemityandsuspicio
n.Thiscanbetracedasfarbackas1789.WhentheFrenchrevolutionbrokeoutin1789,itthreaten
edthesurvivaloftheregimeinPrussiawhichwasautocratic.Thisthereforeledtotheformationof
acoalitionthatincludedPrussiaagainstrevolutionaryFrance.ThiswasworsenedbytheFrenchd
efeatofPrussiaattheBattleofJenain1804andaswellasin1807.In1813-
1814duringtheFourthCoalition,PrussiaalsofoughtagainstFranceandin1814to1815Prussiaw
asamongtheGreatPowersthatmetatViennatopunishFrancefordisturbingEuropeanpeace.Iti
sthereforethislongtermenemitybetweenthetwocountriesthatBismarckexploitedtoprovokeF
ranceintowarby1870.
TheriseofuncompromisingleadersinbothcountriesalsocausedtheFranco-
Prussianwar.InFrance,therewasEmperorNapoleonIIIwhorosethroughacoupin1852whileOt
toVonBismarcktookoverasMinister-
PresidentinPrussiain1862.BismarckwasmoreinterestedincompletingtheunificationofGerma
nywiththeuseofthePrussianmilitarymight.NapoleonIIIontheotherhandwasdeterminedtore
storetheFrenchgloryandmilitarypowerbydefeatingPrussia.Thepresenceofsuchmenwithanu
ncompromisingcharacterthereforeworsenedthealreadyfragilerelationsbetweenthetwocou
ntrieswhicheventuallycausedtheFranco-Prussianwarby1870.
TheviolationoftheBiarritzverbalagreementtoNapoleonIIIbyBismarckcausedtheFranco-
Prussianwar.TheBiarritzagreementof1865wasanunderstandingthatwasreacheduponbetw
eenBismarckofPrussiaandNapoleonIIIofFranceontheeveoftheAustro-
PrussianWarof1866.Inthisagreement,BismarckhadpromisedtocompensateNapoleonIIIwit
haterritoryintheSouthernGermanstates(Rhinelands)incaseheplayedaneutralroleintheAustr
o–
Prussianwarof1866.However,BismarckcompletelychangedhismindafterthevictoryofPrussi
aagainstAustriaatSadowa.ThisannoyedNapoleonIIIwhodecidedtoattackPrussiain1870,thu
sleadingtotheFranco–PrussianWar.
TheSpanishsuccessiondisputebetweenPrussiaandFrancecausedtheFranco–
Prussianwar.ThisdisputeemergedaftertheoverthrowofQueenIsabellaofSpainin1868andt
hesubsequentofferoftheSpanishthronetoaPrussianprinceLeopold.NapoleonIIIwascompell
edtogetinvolvedinthisdisputebecausehefearedtheencirclementofFrancebyanalliancebetwe
enPrussiaandSpain.Thisdisputethereforecomplicatedanddestroyedthealreadyfragilerelatio
nsbetweenFranceandPrussiawhicharousedmistrustandsuspicionbetweenthetwostates.Thi
seventuallyresultedintotheFranco–Prussianwarof1870–1871.
ThechangingoftheEmstelegrambyBismarckcausedtheFranco–
Prussianwar.ThistelegramhadbeensenttoBismarckbyKingWilliamIofPrussiainforminghimof
whathadtakenplaceinthemeetingbetweenthekingandtheFrenchambassadorBenedetti.Bis
marck’smessageinthechangedtelegramwhichwaspublishedbothintheGermanandFrenchne
wspapersmadeitsoundasifthekinghadinsultedtheFrenchambassador.ThisannoyedtheFre
nchpeoplesomuchtotheextentofdeclaringwaronPrussiain1870soastodivertthehumiliationt

hathadbeeninflictedonFrance,hencemakingtheoutbreakoftheFranco–Prussianwarof1870–
171inevitable.
TheinfluenceofEmpressEugenie,thewifeofNapoleonIIIcausedtheFranco–
Prussianwarof1870–1871.By1870,NapoleonIIIwasbed–
riddenbecauseofachronicurinarytractinfection.ThisgaveachancetoEmpressEugenieandher
friends,includingtheFrenchGeneralsandMarshalstopressurizeNapoleonIIItodeclarewaronP
russiain1870.ThisiswhyEugeneproudlyremarkedthat“Thisismywar”.
Prussia’smilitarymight(strength)contributedtotheoutbreakoftheFranco–
Prussianwarin1870.By1870,Prussiawasundergoingrapidmilitaryprogressduethemilitaryref
ormsundertakenbyOttoVonBismarck.Forexample,Prussiahadchemicalindustrieswhichprod
ucedmodernweaponswhichhelpedtomoderniseherarmythatfoughttheDanesandAustriansi
n1864and1866respectively.ThismilitarymightgreatlyinspiredBismarcktoprovokeFranceint
owarby1870,thuscausingtheFranco-PrussianWarof1870-1871.
NapoleonIII’sdesiretoregainprestigeathomeandforeignrespectcausedtheFranco-
Prussianwar.From1860,NapoleonIIIhadallowedalotoffreedomofspeechinFrancewhichgav
ehiscriticsachancetoexposehisweaknesses.Forexample,theMexicanadventureof1864–
1866andhisneutralityintheAustro-
Prussianwarof1866hadtotallydestroyedhisprestige(reputation)internallyandexternally.The
refore,NapoleonIIIfoughtagainstPrussiabecausehewantedtoregainhisprestigeandpopulari
tyinFranceandEuropeatlarge,henceleadingtotheFranco–Prussianwarof1870–1871.
TheroleofthepressledtotheoutbreakoftheFranco–
Prussianwarin1870.ThenewspapersinbothPrussiaandFrancepublishedinformationwhichinf
luencedpublicopinioninthosecountriestodemandforwar.Forexample,theypublishedBismarc
k’stwistedorchangedversionoftheEmstelegramandthisworsenedthealreadyfragilerelations
betweenFranceandPrussia.ThiseventuallycontributedtotheoutbreakoftheFranco–
Prussianwarin1870.
Bismarck’sdesiretosilencetheCatholicsathomeandabroadalsocausedtheFranco–
Prussianwarof1870–1871.Rightfrom1862whenBismarckbecameMinister–
PresidenthisrelationshipwiththeCatholicsinPrussiaremainedbadbecausehewasaprotestant
.Externally,BismarckfearedthatcatholicFrancewouldallywiththecatholicGermanstatesofBa
den,BavariaandWurttembergtofrustratetheprocessofGermanunification.Hethereforethou
ghtthatbyfightinganddefeatingFrance,thiswouldweakenthecatholicinfluencebothathomea
ndabroad.
TheneutralityofotherEuropeanpowerscausedtheFranco–Prussianwarof1870–
1871.By1870,BismarckhadsucceededincompletelyisolatingFrancefromtheEuropeanpower
sthroughdiplomacy.Forexample,hehadisolatedFrancefromtheSouthernGermanstatesofBa
den,BavariaandWurttembergbysigningamilitaryalliancewiththemafterrevealingtothemthat
NapoleonIIIwantedtoannexthem.BismarckfurtherpublishedFrance’splanstotakeoverBelgi

umandLuxembourgwhichannoyedBritain.By1870thereforeFrancehadnoallytoassistherina
waragainstPrussia.ThisincreasedBismarck’sdeterminationtofightagainstFrancewhichevent
uallysparkedofftheFranco–Prussianwarof1870–1871.
ThedishonestyortreacherycharacterofBismarckalsocausedtheFranco-PrussianWarof1870-
1871.BismarckhadfrustratedNapoleonIIIonanumberofoccasionstotheextentthatNapoleon
IIIlostpopularityinFrance.Forexample,helookedstupidaftertheAustro–
PrussianWarof1866whenhedemandedfortheRhinelandterritoryorSouthernGermanywithou
tevidence.TheFrenchathomewereannoyedthatBismarckhadfooledNapoleonIIIwhiletheBo
napartistsandothergloryseekersdecidedtoopposeNapoleonIIIforhavingacceptedtobedecei
vedbyBismarckwhichunderminedthegloryofFrance.ThealreadydisappointedNapoleonIIIde
cidedtodeclarewaragainstPrussiain1870.
TheimpactoftheAustro–Prussianwarof1866alsoledtotheoutbreakoftheFranco–
Prussianwarof1870–
1871.ThiswasoneofthemajorunificationbattlesinwhichPrussiasupportedbytheItaliansfoug
htagainstAustria.Duringthiswar,thePrussianarmyputupaveryimpressiveorgoodfightagains
tthemilitarypowerofAustria.Consequently,AustriawasdefeatedbyPrussiaatSadowain1866.
ThesuccessofthePrussianarmyinthiswarencouragedBismarcktofightagainstFrance,thusca
usingtheFranco–Prussianwarby1870.
France’sdesiretomaintainhersupremacyinEuropealsocausedtheFranco–
Prussianwarof1870–
1871.By1870,thebalanceofpowerinEuropewasinfavourofFranceandBritain.Francewasthed
ominantpoweronlandwhileBritainwastheseamaster.However,Prussia’smilitarygrowthby18
70threatenedFrance’spositioninEuropewhichNapoleonIIIcouldnottolerate.Francetherefor
ethoughtthatthedefeatofPrussiawouldsafeguardherpositiononthecontinentasalandmaster
.ThisthereforemadetheoutbreakoftheFranco–Prussianwarinevitableby1870.
EFFECTSOFTHEFRANCO–PRUSSIANWAR
TheFranco–
PrussianwarresultedintothedefeatofFrancein1871byPrussiaattheBattleofSedanclosetothe
borderofBelgium.ThisdefeatwastoohumiliatingtoFranceandNapoleonIIIasaleader.ManyFr
enchtroopsperishedandEmperorNapoleonIIIwastakenasacaptive.Similarly,theFrenchnatio
nalflagwasalsotakenbytheGermans.ItwassuchahumiliatingdefeatthattheFrenchmenneverf
orgot.
ItledtothesigningoftheFrankfurtTreatyof1871.ThistreatywassignedbetweenFranceand
Germanyattheendofthewar.Accordingtothistreaty,FrancelosthertwoprovincesofAlsaceand
LorrainerichincoalandirontoGermanywhichsheretaineduntiltheendofWorldWarIof1914-
1918.ThisbecameagreatassetintheindustrializationofGermanyafter1871.Bythesametreaty
,Francewasforcedtopayaheavywarindemnityorfineof500millionFrancstoGermanywithinap

eriodofjustthreeyearsandalsotosufferanarmyofoccupationuntilthepaymentofthewarindem
nitywascompleted.Generally,Francewasweakenedeconomicallyandmilitarilybythistreaty.
ThewarledtotheendofthesecondFrenchEmpire.SinceNapoleonIIIhadbeenexiledbytheGer
mansduringthecourseoftheFranco–
Prussianwar,thismarkedtheendofthesecondFrenchEmpirethathehadestablishedin1852foll
owinghiscoupd’état.ThiswasanotherhumiliationsufferedbytheFrenchmenbecauseofthiswa
r.
ThewarcompletedtheunificationofGermanyunderKingWilliamI.BecauseoftheFranco-
Prussianwar,NapoleonIII’sclaimsoverthecatholicSouthernGermanstatesofBaden,Bavaria,
andWurttembergendedandthereforetheywereabletojointheotherGermanstatesinthenorth
soastoachievethetotalunificationofGermanyby1871.
Inthesameway,thewarledtothecompletionoftheItalianunification.WhentheFranco–
Prussianwarbrokeoutin1870,FrancewithdrewhertroopsinRome.Thesetroopshadbeenkeptt
herebyFrancetoguardthePopesince1849whentheItalianrevolutionariesledbyMazziniandGa
ribaldihadforcedhimintoexileandhadestablishedaRepublicoverRomewhichwasshortlived.
WhentheseFrenchtroopsinRomewerewithdrawnatthestartofthewar,theItaliansusedthatop
portunitytooccupyRomeandtheydeclaredItalyasaunitedstatein1870.
TheFranco–
PrussianwarledtotheriseoftheThirdFrenchRepublicin1870underAdolphThiersandlaterPa
tricedeMacMahonaspresidents.Thisrepubliclasteduntil10thJuly1940whentheVichygo
vernmentwasformedinFranceafterherdefeatbyNaziGermanyinWorldWarII.
Thewarledtotherepudiationorviolationofthe1856ParisTreaty.Thistreatyhadbeensignedatth
eendoftheCrimeanwarof1854–1856.AftertheFranco–
Prussianwar,Russiaexploitedtheopportunityandviolatedorcancelledthistreatythathadstopp
edherfrommovingherwarshipstotheBlackSea.RussiadidsowiththesupportofChancellorBism
arckofGermanysoastocompensateherforhavingremainedneutralduringtheFranco–
Prussianwar.The1856ParistreatywasviolatedwhenRussiaextendedherimperialismtowardst
heTurkishEmpirethroughtheBlackSea.ThisthreatenedEuropeanpeaceasitcausedconflictsb
etweenRussiaandotherEuropeanpowersparticularlyBritainandAustriainthe1870s.
ThewarchangedtheEuropeanbalanceofpowercreatedbythe1814–
1815congressofViennaaftertheendofthe“NapoleonicWars”.Thisbalanceofpowerhadbeenin
favourofFranceandBritaini.e.FrancewasthelandmasterwhileBritainwastheseamaster.Howe
ver,theFranco–
PrussianwarchangedthisbalanceofpowerinfavourofGermanyasitestablisheditselfasthenewl
andmasterincontinentalEuropewithoneofthemostpowerfulandprofessionalarmiesinthewor
ld,hencereplacingFrance.ThiscreatedastrugglebyFrancetoregainherformerglorywhicheve
ntuallycontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.

ThewarcontributedtotheScrambleandPartitionofAfrica.ThelossofAlsaceandLorrainetoGer
manyinfluencedFrancetolookforcompensationinAfricabyacquiringsomecolonies.Francewa
ntedthesecoloniestoraiseenoughmanpowerandfinancialresourcesforhersuccessfulwarofre
vengeagainstGermany.GermanyalsostartedsupportingFrance’sacquisitionofmorecoloniesi
nAfricainordertodivertherattentionfromrecoveringAlsaceandLorraine.Forexample,German
ysupportedtheFrenchconquestofTunisiain1882intheinterestofmakingherforgetaboutAlsac
eandLorraine.ThescrambleforAfricacreatedcolonialconflictsamongtheEuropeanpowerswhi
chalmostbroughtaboutawarovercoloniesby1884.
Thewarcreateda“revengistmovement”inFranceagainstGermany.ThedefeatofFranceint
heFranco-
Prussianwarledtothebirthofaspiritof“revenge”inFrancecharacterizedbyadeepsenseofbitter
ness,hatredanddemandforawarofrevengeagainstGermany.Thiswasparticularlymanifested
inthedesireforanotherwarwithGermanyinordertorecoverAlsaceandLorraine.Thisbecameon
eofthefactorsthatcontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIof1914-
1918asFrancefoughtagainstGermanysoastorecoverherlostterritoriesofAlsaceandLorraine.
ItlaidafoundationfortheAlliancesysteminEurope.ThissystemwasinitiatedbyBismarckwhenh
ewantedtoisolateFranceanddenyherachanceofgettingfriends(allies)inEuropethatshewould
usetowageasuccessfulwarofrevengeagainstGermany.Itstartedwiththe DreikaiserbundT
reatyof1872signedbetweenAustria-
Hungary,RussiaandGermanyfollowedbytheDualAllianceof1879betweenGermanyandAus
tria-
Hungaryandin1882itbecametheTripleAlliancewithItalyonboard.ThisprovokedBritainand
FrancetofromtheDualEntenteof1904whichbecametheTripleEntentewithRussiaonboar
din1907.ThisAlliancesystemdividedEuropeintotwohostilecampswhichcreatedsuspicionand
mistrustamongtheEuropeanpowersandbecameamajorfactorthatcausedWorldWarIin1914.
Thewarledtomassivelossoflives.TheFrencharmyofabout200,000soldierswasencircledbythe
PrussiantroopsintheFrenchcityofMetzintheWesternpartofLorraine.Someofthemwerekilled
andotherswounded.NapoleonIIIwasforcedtosurrendertothePrussiantroopsatSedanwhich
wasclosetotheborderofBelgium.Hewasarrestedtogetherwitharound100,000troopsandsent
toexilefromwherehediedlater.Besides,anumberofGermantroopsperishedeitherwithintheSo
uthernGermanstatesorinParisafterbeingbesiegedforalongtime.
Thewarledtothedestructionofproperty.Duringthecourseofthewar,alotofpropertywasdestro
yedintermsofinfrastructureslikerailways,bridges,buildingsaswellasindustries.Thiswasthec
aseinFrancewherethePrussiansusedtheiradvancedmilitaryhardwareorweaponstobombard
severalinfrastructuresandfacilitiessoastoforceNapoleonIIIintosurrendering.
ThewarinspiredtheriseofnationalisminEuropeafter1871.Anumberofnationalitieswhoweren
otunitedanddominatedbytheforeignofpowerswereinspiredbyBismarck’spolicyof“Bloodand
Iron”tofightforfreedomandunity.Nationalisticmovementslike“Pan-
Slavism”andthe“GreatSerbianMovement”intheBalkansaswellastheYoungTurksMov

ementinTurkeytooklessonsfromtheGermannationalismthathadcrashedFranceatSedanin
1871.
ThewarledtothedeclarationoftheGermanEmpireinFrance.On18thJanuary1871,followingt
hedefeatofFrancebyPrussia,theGermanswenttotheFrenchcapitalofParisanddeclaredtheirE
mpireintheHALLOFMIRRIRSatVersaillesPalace.ThiswasreallytoomuchfortheFrenchtoco
ntainandtherefore,itwasextremelyhumiliating.KingWilliamIofPrussiabecamethefirstEmper
orofthenewlycreatedGermanEmpirewithOttoVonBismarckastheChancellor
Thewargavebirthtothe“Bismarckianera”orperiodinEuropebetween1871and1890.Afterthe
war,OttoVonBismarckwhohadservedasMinister-
PresidentinPrussiasince1862becametheChancellorofthenewunitedGermanEmpire.Conseq
uently,BismarckdominatedEuropeanaffairsforthenexttwodecadesupto1890whenheresign
edfromoffice.AsChancelloroftheGermanEmpire,OttoVonBismarckhelpedtomaintainpeacei
nEuropeuntiltheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.
1. Discussthecausesandconsequencesofthe1870-1871Franco-Prussianwar.
2. Assesstheimpactofthe1870-1871Franco-PrussianwaronEuropeupto1918.

GERMANYUNDEROTTOVONBISMARK,1871–1890
From1871whentheunificationstrugglewascompleted,Germanybecameaunitedempireunde
rtheleadershipofKaiserWilliamIandOttovonBismarckwhobecametheChancellor.AstheChan
cellorofthenewGermanempire,Bismarckwasresponsibleforboththedomesticandforeignaffa
irs.Therefore,from1871to1890BismarckdominatedthehistoryofthisnewempireofGermany.
Bismarck`sgreatesttaskwastoconsolidatetheinternalunityoftheGermanempireafter1871.H
owever,hefacedanumberofchallengesinhisattempttomaintainaunitedGermany.Inordertoo
vercomethesechallenges,Bismarckusedcombinationofmethodrangingfromdiplomacy,reco
nciliationandifneedbe,heusedforce.Wherenecessaryhereconciledwithhisformerenemiesan
ddevelopedqualitiesthatenabledhimtoavoidmakingpermanentenemiesduringhispoliticalca
reerupto1890whenheresigned.
THEDOMESTICPOLICYOFOTTOVONBISMARCK,1871-1890
Inhisdomesticpolicy,Bismarckwasguidedbythefollowingobjectives(aims);
 ToconsolidateunitybetweentheGermansandnon-Germans.
 Tocheckandeliminatethedisruptiveforcesofliberalism,socialismandCatholicism.
 TomaintaininternalandexternalpeaceinordertoconsolidatetheGermanEmpire.
 TocreateapowerfulGermanythatwouldcontrolandinfluenceEuropeanpolitics.
 TocreateapowerfulGermaneconomy.
 TocontroltheparliamentandpublicopinioninPrussia’sfavour.
THE1871GERMANCONSTITUTION
Theconstitutionof1871inGermanywasmanipulatedbyBismarcktohisownadvantageandthat
ofPrussia.TheconstitutionprovidedforaparliamentarydemocracywithtwoHouses(Assemblie
s)i.e.theBundesratandReichstag.
TheBundesratwasalawmakingbodyconsistingof58membersfromthedifferentGermanstates
.Outofthe58members,Prussiaalonehad17whowereBismarck’sownmen.Thedecisionsofthe
BundesratcouldbevetoedbythePrussianrepresentatives.ThisgavePrussiaandBismarckanup
perhandtoinfluencetheGermanpoliticsandunderminetheopposition.
TheReichstagwasanassemblyelectedthroughuniversaladultsuffrage.Itwasmadeupof400m
embersandmorethanahalfofthememberswerePrussians.ThepowersoftheReichstagwereli
mitedmainlytopassandamendlawsagainsttheoppositioninfavourofBismarckorPrussianinter

ests.Aboveall,itcouldbedissolvedbytheEmperorwiththeapprovaloftheBundesratandfreshel
ectionsordered.ThisfurthergavetheEmperorandBismarckfullcontrolofGermanaffairs.
Morestill,accordingtotheconstitution,thePrussianKingwastobeHeadofthestate.Thekingcoul
dappointanddismisstheChancellor,ministers,armycommandersandnavalofficers,appointhi
ghofficersandreceiveambassadors.Unfortunately,throughoutthereignofEmperorWilliamI,
BismarcktheChancellorcontrolledtheempire,chiefministersandministerswerealltobesubord
inatetohim.
BISMARCK’SDOMESTICPROBLEMS
Inhisdomesticpolicy,Bismarckfacedseveralchallengesthatincludedthefollowing;
 TheCatholicChurch
 TheSocialists
 TheNationalLiberals
 TheConservatives
 TheEconomy
 TheMinorities
ItisimportanttoshowthedegreeofBismarck`ssuccessorfailureinovercomingtheabovechalle
nges
BISMARCKANDTHECATHOLICCHURCH
Rightfrom1862,therelationshipbetweenBismarckandtheCatholicsinGermanyremainedbad.
ThePopeandtheCatholicshatedtheGermanEmpirebecauseitcameintoexistenceafterhumilia
tingtwogreatcatholicstatesi.e.AustriaandFranceandsecondly,itwascontrolledanddominate
dbytheProtestantPrussia.BismarckthereforelaunchedaseriousstruggleinPrussiaknownas K
ulturkampforthestruggleforcivilizationtoreducethepoweroftheCatholicChurch.
In1870,thePrussianCatholicsreactedtoBismarck`sstrugglebyformingapoliticalpartyknown
astheCenterParty.TheCenterPartyhadrepresentativesintheGermanparliamentknownast
heReichstagandwhileinthisparliamenttheycriticizedBismarckallthetime.WhatannoyedBis
marckmorewasthatthePopewasinterferingintheinternalaffairsofGermany.In1870,thePopei
nVaticanissuedthe``DogmaoftheInfallibilityofthePope’’whichworsenedtheconflictsb
etweenthePopeandBismarck.Accordingtothisdogma,thePopewasinfallible(couldnotmake
mistakes)onmattersoffaithandmorals.Therefore,hisdecisionwasneithertobequestionednor
rejectedbythecatholicworldbecauseitwasbelievedthatthePopewasholyandthusguidedbydi
vineassistance.
Unfortunately,thePope’sdogmawasopposedbytheeducatedCatholicslikethelecturers,theol
ogians,teachers,academiciansandscientists.ThePopereactedbyexcommunicatingtherebelli
ousCatholicsfromthechurchandalsodemandedfortheirexcommunicationfromthestatesoffic
es.BismarckrefusedandtheCentrePartycriticizedhimbitterly.Bismarckeventuallyignoredthe

dogmaandsupportedtherebelliousCatholicswhoopposedit.Bismarckreinstatedallthepriests
andschoolofficialswhoweredismissedbythePopeforrefusingtocomplywiththedogma.Asares
ult,theCatholicCentrePartystaredamassivecampaignagainstBismarck,whiletheCatholicsap
pealedtofellowCatholicsinFrancetoassistthemagainstBismarck.Bismarckthereforedecidedt
oreacttotheoppositionbytheCatholics.
In1872,BismarckpassedtheMayLawsof1872purposelytocheckonthegrowingthreatofthe
Catholics.Bytheselaws,thechurchwasstoppedfromexcommunicatingtheopponentsofthePo
pe’sinfallibility.Itwasalsothestatetotrainandapprovetheappointmentofthecatholicpriests.T
hepriestswerealsoforbiddenfrominspectingtheirschools,collegesanduniversitiesandinstea
ditwasthedutyofthestate.Bismarckalsolegalizedcivilmarriageasanalternativetothechurchm
arriagesoastoreducetheinfluenceofthePopeandtheCatholicChurchinfluenceoverfamilymatt
ers.AnumberofCatholicsandclergiesprotestedtheMayLawsof1872andBismarckrespondedb
yexiling,executingandimprisoningtheprotestingpriests.
However,Bismarck`sattempttoweakenthecatholicchurchfailedandthereforeinspiteoftheiri
mprisonmentandtorture,thecatholicchurchremainedstronginGermany.Bismarckalsorealize
dthatheneededthesupportoftheCatholicstodefeatliberalsandsocialistswhohadalsobecome
aseriousproblemtohim.HethereforeendedthestruggleagainsttheCatholics.In1878,PopePiu
sIXdiedandwassucceededbyPopeLeoIXwhowasmorewillingtoreconcilewithBismarck.After
seriousnegotiations,thefollowingwerereachedat;
 BismarcksuspendedtheMaylawsof1872
 Thechurchrecovereditsformerpowersexceptinspectionofschools
 Civilmarriagewastocontinue.
 ThePopewastoappointBishops.
Thus,by1889,thestrugglebetweentheCatholicChurchandthestatewasoverandtheCentrePar
typromisedtosupportBismarckagainstthesocialists.
BISMARCKANDTHESOCIALISTS
AnotherseriousproblemthatBismarckfacedinhisdomesticpolicywasthatofthesocialists.Thes
ocialistsadvocatedforstatecontrolofthefactorsofproductionlikeland,industriesandbanksam
ongothersinordertocaterfortheinterestsofallthepeopleandavoidtheexploitationofamanbym
an.Theyalsodemandedfortheimprovementintheconditionsoftheworkersandtoadvancetheir
interests,apoliticalpartknownastheSocialDemocraticPolicy(SDP)wasformedin1869byBeb
el,afollowerofKarlMarxaGermansocialistwholivedinexile.
Thesocialiststookadvantageoftheunemployment,poorworkingconditionsandtheexploitatio
noftheworkerstocriticizeBismarckandgainedmoreparliamentaryseats.Forexample,in1871t
hesocialistswonthreeseatsintheGermanparliamentandin1877theywon12seats.Thisscared
Bismarckandthereforein1878hestartedtofightthesocialdemocrats.

WiththesupportoftheCatholicCentrePartyandtheNationalLiberalParty,Bismarckmadethepa
rliamenttopasstheExceptionalLawof1878.Accordingtothislaw,theSocialDemocratParty
anditsnewspaperswerebanned,socialistmeetingsandgatheringsweredeclaredillegalinthein
terestofpeaceandsecurity.However,despitealltheabovemeasures,Bismarckfailedtoeradicat
esocialism.TheSocialDemocraticPartycontinuedtooperatefromabroadandsentmoresocialis
tpamphletsintoGermany.Internally,thetwelvesocialistmembersintheReichstagorparliamen
twereverycriticalofBismarckandhisanti-
socialistcampaignswhichwereacleartestimonyofBismarck`sfailuretostampoutthesocialistin
fluenceinGermany.
Bismarckrealizedthatforcewasnotasolutiontotheproblemsfacingtheworkersandthesocialist
influence.Hethereforeintroducedsmalldosesofsocialismor``statesocialism’’inwhichhein
troducedwelfareschemestobenefittheGermanworkers.Forexample,in1883Bismarckintrod
ucedcompulsoryinsuranceagainstsicknesscontributedbyboththeworkersandemployers.In
1889,hepassedtheoldagepensionschemeoffiveshillingsaweektomenover65years.Thiswas
tobepaidbytheemployer,employeeandthestate.Duetotheabovemeasures,Bismarckwonthe
supportofthesocialistsandpartiallyregisteredsuccess.Forsometimetherefore,thesocialistthr
eatwascontrolled.
However,thefactthatthenumberofthesocialistsupportersrosetooveroneandhalfmillionpeop
leby1890indicatesthatsocialismwasagreatthreattoBismarck.WhenKaiserWilliamIIcameto
powerin1888,hedisagreedwithBismarckbecausethenewEmperorwantedBismarcktostopp
ersecutingthesocialistsyetBismarckwantedtocontinuedoingthesame.Thedisagreementbet
weenthetwomadeBismarcktoresignin1890.
BISMARCKANDTHENATIONALLIBERALPARTY
From1871to1879,BismarckpursuedafreetradepolicywhichwonhimthesupportoftheNatio
nalLiberalPartymostofwhoweretraders.Unfortunately,from1880Bismarckrealizedthatthefr
eetradepolicywasdetrimentaltotheindustrializationofGermany.Hence,Bismarckadoptedthe
ProtectionistPolicythroughwhichheimposedcustomdutiesonimportsagainstthewishesof
theNationalLiberalPartybecauseheunderminedthebusinessesoftheGermanLiberaltraders.B
ismarck’saimwastoprotectthelocalmarketsinordertoappeasehisfellowPrussianJunkers(lan
dLords),thegreatcornproducers.However,thisresultedintotroublewiththemembersoftheNa
tionalLiberalpartywhomhehadreliedonforthelasttenyears.TheJewishtradersalliedwiththeN
ationalLiberalPartyandstartedafiercecampaignagainstBismarck.
Bismarckreactedbyinfluencinghissupportersintheparliament,includingtheCatholicstounder
minetheinfluenceoftheliberalsinGermany.HealsousedtheGermanpress(newspapers)todisc
redittheLiberals.Hefurtheremployedanti-
SemiticcampaignstodiscredittheliberalswherehedenouncedtheleadersoftheNationalLiberal
PartyasJewswhocouldnotdeterminetheGermandestinyinanyway,thusmakingthepartyunp
opularinGermany.Here,hesucceededinunderminingitsinfluencethroughoutGermany.

BISMARCKANDTHECONSERVATIVEPARTY
ThispartywascomposedoftheJunkersorconservativesmajorityofwhomwerefarmerswhoopp
osedBismarck’sindustrializationyetoneofBismarck’saimswastobuildastrongGermanecono
my.MembersoftheConservativePartyintheParliamentthereforeputupstrongoppositionagai
nstBismarckwhichcreatedaseriouschallenge.Toovercomethisproblem,Bismarckadoptedac
onstitutionin1871whichgavepowerstotheEmperortodissolvetheReichstagorparliamentifhe
sowished.ThisgavetheEmperorandBismarckfullcontrolofGermanaffairs.Bismarckalsosecur
edallianceorsupportfromthemembersoftheNationalLiberalPartyintheparliamenttofightagai
nsttheConservativePartyandreduceitsinfluenceinGermany.
ECONOMY
After1871,theGermanEmpirealsofacedseriouseconomicchallengesthatBismarckhadtodeal
withasChancellor.Forexample,asaresultofindustrializationinEurope,countriesstartedprotec
tingtheirindustriesandfinishedgoodswithanewprotectivetariffmeasure.Toovercomethischa
llenge,Bismarckdecidedtoenterthecolonialracewhichhehadhatedforaverylongtime.SinceG
ermanywasdevelopingveryfast,hermerchantsneededcoloniesforcheaprawmaterials,marke
tsfortheGermanmadegoods,groundforinvestmentsandlivingspaceforthegrowingpopulatio
n.
In1884,Bismarckendorsedandembarkedontheacquisitionofcolonies.Thus,Germanyacquire
dSouthWestAfrica(Namibia),TogoandCameroonin1885whilein1890,thenavalbaseofHeligol
andwasalsodeclaredaGermancolony.Stillin1890,BritainrecognizedtheGermanclaimstoTan
ganyikaasGermanalsorecognizedtheBritishclaimsoverKenyaandZanzibar.
BismarckfurtherpromotedindustrializationinGermany.Whenheestablishedtheprotectionist
policy,hemanagedtoimposehighcustomdutiesortariffsontheimports.Thishelpedtoprotectth
eGermanmanufacturersfromforeigncompetitionwhichpromotedindustrialization.Hefurther
developedthetransportandcommunicationsystemsinGermanywhichhelpedtoovercomethe
economicchallengesthattheGermanempirefaced.
THEMINORITIES
TherewasalsothechallengeorquestionoftheminoritiesintheGermanempire.ThenewGerm
anempirewasheterogeneouswithmanynon-
Germanswhowereannexedagainsttheirwill.TheseincludedtheFrenchinAlsaceandLorraine,t
heDanesinSchleswigandHolsteinaswellasthePolesinEastGermany.Suchraceswouldbreaka
wayiftheystartedastrugglefortheirindependenceandthereforethiswasathreattoBismarck.T
oovercomethischallenge,BismarckpromotedtheGermanisationpolicybywhichtheminorit
ieswereforcedtoadopttheGermantraditionsandcultureslikelanguage,thusconvertingthemin
to“Germans”.ThisthereforepromotedunityintheGermanempire.

HowdidBismarckovercomethedomesticchallengesfacedbyGermanEmpirebetween1871an
d1890?
STRENGTHSOFBISMARCK’SDOMESTICPOLICY
BismarckdevelopedmanufacturingindustriesinGermany.Duringhisreign,theproductionofcoalin
creasedwhichledtothegenerationofpowerforindustrialdevelopment.Chemicalindustries,steelp
roductionandengineeringwereamongtheindustriesthatweredevelopedtogenerateemployment
opportunitiesandrevenuewhichenabledBismarcktoovercomeGermany’seconomicchallengeaft
er1871.
BismarckasChancelloroftheunitedGermanEmpireestablishedanewconstitutionforGermanyin1
871.Bythisconstitution,Germanywastohaveaparliamentwithtwoassemblies,namelytheBundes
ratandtheReichstag.TheBundestratwasdominatedbytherulersofthedifferentGermanstates(fed
eralstates)andthisbodyhadpowerstomakelawsthatgovernedGermany.TheReichstagontheoth
erhandwasanassemblyelectedbyuniversaladultsuffragetodebateanysuggestionsinthelawsma
debytheBundestrat.TheseweredemocraticassembliesandthroughthemBismarckwasabletointr
oducelawswhichgrantedfreedomtothepeople.Bismarckthereforepromotedconstitutionalrulein
Germanywhichhelpedinpeaceandstabilityinthecountry.
BismarckallowedpoliticalpluralisminGermanyafter1871.IntheGermanparliamentthatwasestabl
ishedin1871,thereweredifferentpoliticalpartieswhichhadmembersrepresentingthem.Forexam
ple,thereweremembersoftheNationalLiberalParty,theCatholicCenterParty,theConservativePar
tyandtheSocialDemocraticParty(SDP).Inaddition,therewasalotoffreedomforthecandidatesoft
hesepoliticalpartiestostandforelectionstogototheparliament.Therefore,parliamentarydemocra
cywashighlypromotedinGermanyduringBismarck’sreignwhichhelpedtopromotestabilityinthec
ountry.
BismarckincreasedthenationalincomeofGermany.Besidesthedevelopmentofminingandotherre
latedindustries,Bismarckestablishedatariffsystembywhichhechargedtaxesonimports.Thisprot
ectedtheGermanmanufacturersfromcompetitionwiththeforeigngoodsaswellasraisingincomefo
rGermany.ThisenabledBismarcktoaddresssomeofthedomesticchallengesthattheGermanEmpi
refacedafter1871.
BismarckbuiltapowerfularmyforGermany.HestrengthenedtheGermanarmybyrecruiting,trainin
gandmotivatingthesoldiers.Healsoputacompulsorymilitaryconscriptionlawbywhichalltheyoun
gGermanswererecruitedintothearmy.Asaresult,theGermanarmybecameoneofthestrongestar
miesintheworld.Usingthisstrongarmy,BismarckensuredrelativepeaceinGermanybetween1871
and1890andthiswasamajorstrengthofBismarck.
BismarckcheckedtheinfluenceoftheCatholicsinGermany.AftertheFranco-PrussianWarof1870–
1871,theCatholicsinGermanystarteddestabilizingtheadministrationofBismarck.Forexample,th
roughtheirpoliticalpartyknownastheCenterParty,theyopposedthepoliciesofBismarck.In1872,B
ismarckpassedtheMayLawsbywhichthestateabolishedthecontrolofeducationbytheCatholicC

hurchaswellasthelegalizationofcivilmarriageamongotherissues.Inaddition,Bismarckimprisone
dthousandsofcatholicpriestswhohadprotestedagainsttheMaylawsof1872.Bydoingso,hemanag
edtocheckontheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchforsometime.
BismarckalsocheckedonthespreadofsocialisminGermany.Thesocialistsweregreatlyopposedto
Bismarck’spoliciesandtheywantedstateownershipofpropertyandimprovedworkingconditions.T
hesocialistsweresostrongintheReichstagthattheyevenwantedtocapturepoliticalpower.Bismarc
kintroducedtheExceptionalLawof1878bywhichhelimitedthespreadofsocialisminGermany.Fo
rexample,theSocialDemocraticPartyanditsactivitieswerebanned,socialistnewspaperswereabol
ishedandthepartyleaderswereimprisonedwhileotherswereexiled.Bytakingthesemeasures,Bis
marckattemptedtoreducetheinfluenceofsocialisminGermany.
BismarckendedtheoppositionoftheliberalsintheGermanparliament.TheliberalsundertheirNatio
nalLiberalPartyopposedBismarck’spolicyofprotectivetariffsbecausetheywantedfreetrade.Bism
arckwasaconservativearistocratwhoneverlikedtheinfluenceoftheliberals.Hethereforelaunched
acampaignagainstthem.WithsupportoftheCatholicsintheparliament,Bismarckpassedalawtore
ducetheliberaloppositionandthereforesuccessfullyimplementedhisprotectionistpolicywhichsaf
eguardedtheGermanmanufacturedgoodsfromcompetition.
BismarckkeptadividedoppositioninGermanybetween1871and1890.Although,therewerediffere
ntpoliticalpartiesthatgreatlyopposedBismarck,hecoulduseoneortwopoliticalpartiestoreduceth
eoppositionfromanotherwhichkeptthemdividedallthetime.Forexample,heusedtheCenterParty
oftheCatholicswhogavehimsupportintheGermanparliamenttodefeattheliberalswhohadoppose
dhispolicyofprotectionism.ThisthereforehelpedBismarcktoreducetheGermanoppositionandma
intainpeaceandstabilityinthecountryupto1890whenheresigned.
BismarckmadefinancialreformsinGermany.HebuiltbanksthroughoutGermanytoassistthecomm
ercialandindustrialsectorsthroughcreditextension.Forexample,heestablishedtheGermanImpe
rialBankin1875.Inaddition,acommonoruniformcurrencywasintroducedinthewholeofGermany.
ThesereformshelpedtoimprovethefinancialsectorwhichledtotheeconomicdevelopmentofGerm
any.
BismarckimprovedonthejudicialsystemofGermany.Heintroducedcourtsoflawalloverthecountry
whichextendedjusticetoalltheGermanswithoutdiscrimination.Inaddition,uniformlawswereintr
oducedforthewholeofGermanyandasaresultalltheGermansgotafairhearinginthecourtsoflawre
gardlessoftheiroriginorpositioninthesociety.ThisfurtherpromotedpeaceandstabilityinGermany
.
BismarckreconciledwiththeoppositioninGermanysoastoreducetheenmityagainsthisgovernme
nt.Forexample,althoughhehatedthesocialistsandusedharshmeasureslikearrestingoftheirleade
rsandbanningoftheirnewspapers,helaterintroducedacompulsoryinsuranceschemeforthework
ersagainstsickness,accidentsandtheoldagepensionscheme.Becauseofthesemeasures,Bismarc
kimprovedontheconditionsoftheworkersinGermanywhichhelpedtoreducetheoppositionfromth
esocialists.Similarly,BismarckwithdrewsomeoftheharshlawsthathehadestablishedagainsttheC

atholicChurchi.e.theMaylawsof1872.Bytheselaws,thestatewastotrain,licenseandrecruitpriests
amongotheraspectsandthisgeneratedoppositionwhichledtotheimprisonmentoftheclergyandot
herordinaryCatholics.Followingtheirsupportinthedefeatoftheliberals,muchoftheoldpowerofthe
CatholicChurchwasrestoredalthoughBismarckmaintainedstateinspectionofthecatholicschools
andcivilmarriageasanalternativetotheCatholicChurchmarriage.ThisreconciliationbyBismarckw
iththeoppositionhelpedtocreatepeaceandstabilityinGermany.
HemaintainedandcontrolledaunitedGermanEmpirewhichwascomposedofdifferentraces.Then
ewGermanempirewascomposedoftheGermans,French,DanesandPoles.Theforeignerswereabi
gthreattoBismarckbuthewasabletoabsorbthemintotheGermanEmpirewhichcreatedpeaceands
tabilityinGermanybetween1871and1890.
WEAKNESSESOFBISMARCK’SDOMESTICPOLICY
Bismarckharboredanti-
Jewishsentimentsorfeelings.HediscriminatedandpersecutedtheJewsthatlivedinGermanybeca
usetheywereforeigners.From1878to1890,hemadesurethattheJewslostalltheirjobs.Bismarckp
assedaformalorofficialpolicynottogiveemploymenttotheJewsinGermanyandthiswasamajorwe
aknessespeciallyasBismarckwastryingtomaintainaunitedGermanEmpire.
Bismarckwastooanti-
CatholicandthisisreflectedinhisrelationshipwiththeCatholicChurchinGermany.In1872,hepasse
dtheMayLawsbywhichthestatetookovertheroleoftheCatholicChurch.Forexample,therewasst
ateinspectionofthecatholicschools,presidingovermarriagesandtrainingaswellasrecruitingofthe
priests.ThiscreatedenemitybetweenBismarckwhowasaprotestantandtheCatholicsinGermany
whichunderminedinternalstabilityinthecountry.
BismarckignorednationalisminGermany.ThenewlycreatedGermanEmpirehadmanynationalitie
sthathadbeenconqueredbyBismarckagainsttheirownwillduringtheprocessofGermanuinfictaio
n.TheseincludedtheFrenchinAlsaceandLorraine,theDanesinSchleswigandHolsteinaswellasthe
PolesthatlivedinPrussia(EastGermany).After1871,Bismarckintroducedthe “Germanisationp
olicy”bywhichtheseminoritieswereforcefullyabsorbedintotheGermanEmpiredespitetheirdesir
eforindependence.Bismarckthereforepersecutedtheminoritieswhichwasamajorweaknesswhic
hunderminedinternalunityandstability.
BismarckestablishedconstitutionaldictatorshipinGermany.In1871,heestablishedanewcon
stitutionforGermanyandaccordingtothisconstitution,BismarckbecametheChancellorwhileKing
WilliamIofPrussiabecametheHeadofstate.AsChancelloroftheGermanEmpirefrom1871to1890,
BismarckmadesurethathehadalotofpowerstoinfluencethemajordecisionsthataffectedGerman
yinthepolitical,socialandeconomicfields.TheoppositionwasthusrestrictedinGermany.
BismarckcurtailedorrestrictedfreedomofthepressinGermany.Forexample,in1878hecameupwit
htheExceptionLawbywhichallsocialistnewspapersandpublicationswerebanned.Healsoestabl
ishedstatecontrolevertheGermanpress(newspapers)whichheusedtodiscredithisopponentsesp

eciallytheliberals.Asaresult,theGermanscouldnotaccessinformationindetailbecauseofBismarck
’spresscensorship.ThisalsounderminedstabilityinGermanybetween1871and1890.
HepromotedthefavouritismofPrussiainGermany.PrussiahadchampionedtheunificationofGerm
anyupto1871.Aftertheunification,BismarckmadesurethatthePrussianinterestsweresuperioran
dabovealltheotherGermanstates.EveninthenewGermanconstitutionof1871,thePrussiansdomi
natedthetwoparliamentaryassembliesthatweresetup.Forexample,outofthefiftyeight(58)mem
bersoftheBundesrat,seventeen(17)werePrussians.Similarly,outofthefourhundred(400)memb
ersoftheReichstagmorethanhalfwerePrussians.Therefore,Prussiaalwaysmadekeydecisionsint
heGermanparliamentattheexpenseoftheotherGermanstate.ThisPrussiandominancegreatlyan
noyedtheGermansfromtheotherGermanstates,thusamajorweakness.
BismarckalsofavoredtheJunkersorlandowners.Theycontrolledlandwhichwasoneofthemajorfac
torsofproduction.BismarckmadesurethattheydominatedtheGermanReichstag.TheseJunkersw
ereconservativeandopposedthesocialistswhoadvocatedforthestatecontroloflandandfairdistrib
utionofwealthamongalltheGermans.Becauseofthisfavouritiismtherefore,therewasapoorrelatio
nshipbetweenBismarckandthesocialistsinGermanywhichunderminedinternalstability.
BismarckmilitarizedthestateorGermanempire.Hewasextra-
ordinarilymilitantandthereforeheadvocatedforthecreationofamightyGermanEmpireonmainlan
dEurope.Asaresult,BismarckcratedaverypowerfularmyforGermany.ThiscostedGermanyfinanci
allyasalotofmoneywasspentonmodernizingtheGermanarmy.Thiswasamajorweaknessbecause
itmadeBismarckunabletofinanceotherdevelopmentprogramsinGermanybetween1871and189
0.
BismarckdisagreedwithKaiserWilliamIIwhowastheappointingauthority(HeadofState).In1888,
KaiserWilliamIIbecamethenewEmperoroftheGermanEmpire.UnlikeKaiserWilliamIwhohadbee
nagreatfriendofOttoVonBismarcksince1862,thenewemperorwasjealousofBismarck’sframean
dthereforethetwodisagreedonpolicyissues.Forexample,thenewEmperorwantedBismarcktodro
phispolicyofpersecutingthesocialistsbutBismarckdeclined.Consequently,Bismarckresignedin1
890andheleftabigvacuuminthepoliticalspaceofGermanythatnobodycouldfill.
 ExaminethestrengthsandweaknessesofBismarck’sdomesticpolicybetween1871and189
0.
 HowsuccessfulwasBismarck’sdomesticpolicybetween1871and1890?
 HowsuccessfulwasBismarckintacklinghisdomesticproblemsbetween1871and1890?
THEFOREIGNPOLICYOFOTTOVONBISMARCK,1871-1890
Intheforeignpolicy,Bismarckwantedtoachievethefollowingobjectives:
 ThemajorobjectiveofBismarck’sforeignpolicyaftertheGermanunificationwastoisolateFr
ance.HewantedFrancetoremainisolatedinEuropesuchthatshecouldnotbeabletorevenge

onGermanysoastorecoverherlostprovincesofAlsaceandLorrainewhichGermanyhadoccu
piedafterthedefeatofFranceintheFranco-Prussianwarof1870-1871.
 BismarckalsowantedtomaintainpeaceinthewholeofEuropesoastoenablehisnewempiret
oconsolidateitspositioninEurope.HedidnotwantEuropeanpowerstogotowarbecausethis
coulddestabilizepeaceinEuropeandthiswouldleadtothedestructionoftheGermanEmpiret
hathadbeencreatedin1871.
 BismarckalsowantedtomaintainthebalanceofpowerinEuropewhereGermanywasthemo
stinfluentialorpowerfulcountryonland.
TheforeignpolicyofBismarckwascharacterizedbyasystemofalliancesorsecretdiplomacyfort
hepurposeofachievingtheaboveobjectives.ThefollowingarethemainfeaturesofBismarck’sfo
reignpolicybetween1871and1890;
 TheFrankfurtTreatyof1871
 TheDreiKaiserbundTreatyof1872or(TheLeagueoftheThreeEmperors).
 TheBerlinCongressof1878.
 TheDualAllianceof1879
 ThesecondDreiKaiserbundTreatyof1881.
 TheTripleAllianceof1882.
 TheBerlinConferenceof1884–1885.
 TheFirstMediterraneanagreementof1887.
 TheRe-insuranceTreatyof1887.
 TheSecondMediterraneanagreementof1887.
THEFRANKFURTTREATYOF1871
ThiswasatreatythatwassignedbetweenGermanyandFranceattheendoftheFranco-
PrussianWarof1870-
1871.Bythistreaty,FrancethathadbeendefeatedbyPrussiaacknowledgedtheestablishmentand
existenceoftheGermanempireinEurope.Bythesametreaty,Bismarckgotthetwomineral-
richterritoriesofAlsaceandLorraineforGermanyontopofimposingaveryheavywarindemnityorfin
eof500millionFrancsonFrancetobepaidinjustthreeyears.ThistreatythereforeweakenedFrancet
erritoriallyandeconomicallywhichtilted(changed)thebalanceofpowerinfavourofGermany,henc
epromotingtheGermansuperiorityinEuropewhichwasoneofthemajorobjectivesinBismarck’sfor
eignpolicy.
THEDREIKAISERBUNDTREATYOF1872(Austria-Hungary,GermanyandRussia)
TheallianceortreatywasarrangedbyBismarck.TheallianceincludedKaiserWilliamIofGermany,Ts
arAlexanderIIofRussiaandEmperorFrancisJosefofAustria.Thethreeleaderscametoanundersta
ndingtogiveeachothercommonassistancenecessarytosuppresssocialistrevolutionsandrepublic
anisminEurope.TheleaguewasusedbyBismarcktoisolateFranceandmaintainpeaceinEuropebec

auseitwasaleagueofmonarchsorkingsyetFrancewasarepublicafter1871andthereforenotamem
beroftheleague.ThesemembersthereforecouldnotsupportFranceinthewaragainstGermany.Th
us,Bismarckhadsucceededinhisforeignpolicybetween1871and1899.
THEBERLINCONGRESSOF1878
In1875,nationalisticrevoltsbrokeoutintheTurkishEmpireandtheSultanofTurkeyreactedbykillin
gtheSerbs,theBulgariansandtheRumanians.Asaresult,Russiaintervenedonthesideoftheabovep
rovincesanddefeatedTurkeyandTurkeywasforcedtosignthetreatyofSanstefanoof1878.Bythistr
eatyamongotherissues,BosniaandHerzegovinaweretoattaintotalindependencefromTurkey.Th
erewasalsothecreationoftheBigBulgariaasastatecontrolledbyRussia.Thesetwoprovisionscause
dconflictsbetweenRussiaandBritainaswellasbetweenRussiaandAustria-Hungary.
AustriahadexpectedtooccupytheprovincesofBosniaandHerzegovinawhileBritainfearedthatifRu
ssiaremainedwithinfluenceinBulgariathiswouldgiveRussiaaccesstotheBlackandMediterranean
SeasandthereforedisrupttheBritishcommercialinterestsintheregionandtheFarEast.BritainandA
ustriathereforethreatenedtodeclarewaronRussiaunlessRussiaacceptedtorevisethetreatyofSan
stefanoof1878ataEuropeancongress.BismarckusedthisopportunityandcalledacongressatBerli
nthecapitalofGermanytoresolvetheissue.Bythis,heachievedtheobjectiveofmakingGermanythe
dominantpowerinEurope.
BismarckalsousedtheBerlincongressof1878toachievehisobjectiveofisolatingFranceandalsoto
maintainpeaceinEuropebystoppingwarbetweenRussiaandBritaintogetherwithAustria.Hesupp
ortedAustriatooccupyBosniaandHerzegovina.HealsosupportedBritainbyreducingthestateofBul
gariaaspartofitwasreturnedtoTurkeytomaintainastrongturkeyagainstRussianimperialism.Goin
gbytheabove,BritainandAustriahadachievedwhattheywantedandthereforetherewasnowaythe
ywouldallywithFranceagainstGermanyandtheotherobjectiveofpeacewasachievedbecausethe
warbetweenRussiaagainstBritainandAustriawasprevented.
NOTE:However,RussiaremainedannoyedbecauseBismarckdidnotsupportherinterestsintheBe
rlincongressof1878andbecausetherewasapossibilitythatRussiacouldallywithFranceagainstGer
many,BismarckarrangedanothertreatywithRussiain1881tosolvetheproblem.
THEDUALALLIANCEOF1879(Austria-HungaryandGermany)
AttheBerlincongressof1878,BismarcksupportedAustriatooccupyBosniaandHerzegovinaandthi
sbroughtGermanyintoclosecontactwithAustriawhichledtotheDualAlliancebetweenAustriaandG
ermany.ThepurposeofthisalliancewastoisolateFrancefromAustriaandmaintainpeaceinEurope.
Bythisalliance,AustriapromisedtoremainneutralifGermanywasattackedbyFrance.However,ifFr
ancecombinedwithRussiaoranyotherpowertoattackGermany,Austriawastogivemilitaryassista
nceorsupporttoGermany.Therefore,thistreatyleftFranceisolatedfromAustria.ItalsoscaredoffR
ussiafromjoiningFrancetodisturbGermany,hencepeacewasmaintainedinEurope.
THESECONDDREIKAISERBUNDTREATYOF1881(Renewed)

BismarckwasawarethatRussiawasannoyedbecauseGermanydidnotsupportherinterestsduringt
heBerlinCongressof1878.ThereforetherewasapossibilityofGermanyjoiningotherpowerstofight
againstGermany.BismarckthereforerenewedtheDreiKaiserbundtreatyof1872withTsarAlexand
erIIofRussia.Bythistreaty,BismarckpromisedGermanneutralityifRussiawasinvolvedinawarwith
otherpowerslikeBritainandFrance.RussiaalsopromisedneutralitytoGermanyandAustriaiftheyg
otinvolvedinawarwithFrance.Therefore,theallianceisolatedFrancefromanypossiblehelp
THETRIPLEALLIANCEOF1882(Germany,Austria-HungaryandItaly)
ThealliancewasformedbyBismarckanditspurposewastoisolateFrance.In1878,Bismarcksecretly
encouragedFrancetooccupyTunisiainAfricawhereItalyalreadyhadcolonialambitionsorinterests
andthisannoyedItaly.BismarcktookadvantageofthishostilitybetweenFranceandItalytopersuad
eorconvinceItalytojointheDualallianceof1879andthereforeFrancewasisolatedfromItaly.Bythis
alliance,ItalywastosupportGermanyandAustriaiftheywereattackedbyFrance.Thealliancetheref
oreleftFrancepowerlessandshecouldnotdeclarewaronGermanyandthereforeBismarcksucceed
edinmaintainingpeaceinEurope.
THEBERLINCONGRESS,1884-1885
ThiscongresswasorganizedbyBismarckpurposelytosettlethecolonialconflictsespeciallyinAfrica.
TherewereconflictsbetweenFranceandItalyoverTunisiaaswellasBritainandFranceoverEgypt.Br
itainalsoconflictedwithRussiaintheOttomanEmpireandBismarckthereforeusedtheseconflictsto
calltheBerlincongressof1884-
1885tosettletheconflictsandbringaboutpeacebetweenEuropeancountries.
BismarckachievedhisobjectiveofmaintainingpeaceinEuropebecauseatthecongress,the“Spher
esofInfluence”ofeachcolonialpowerwerepeacefullyidentifiedandGermanyalsopeacefullygot
coloniesinAfricawhichincludedTanganyika,Cameroon,SouthWestAfrica(Namibia)andTogo.Fra
ncewasalsorecognizedinthosecoloniesithadoccupiedforexampleMoroccoandTunisia.Therefor
ethecongressbroughtaboutpeaceinEurope.
THEFIRSTMEDITERRANEANAGREEMENTOF1887
ThisagreementwasarrangedbyBismarckinMarch1887anditwassignedbetweenBritain,Italy,and
Germanyconcerningco-
operationintheMediterraneanSearegionwhichwasanimportantcommercialarea.Francewasnot
partofthisagreementandthereforeshewasleftisolatedinEurope,henceBismarckbeingsuccessful
inhisforeignpolicy.
THERE-INSURANCETREATYOF1887(GermanyandRussia)
ThiswasanothertreatywhereBismarckmadethelastattempttokeepFranceisolatedfromRussiaan
dBismarckmadethissecrettreatywithTsarAlexanderIIIofRussia.Bythistreaty,Bismarckallow
edRussiatohavethemaininfluenceintheBalkansorOttomanEmpireandthatGermanywastoremai
nneutralincaseRussiawasinvolvedinwarwithanotherpowerovertheOttomanEmpire.Russiaalso

promisedtoremainneutralincaseGermanywasinvolvedinwarwithanotherpower.Therefore,Bis
marckrestoredfriendshipwithRussiahenceremovingthepossibilityofRussiasupportingFranceag
ainstGermany.Thus,BismarcksucceededinisolatingFrancefromRussia.
Inthere-
insurancetreaty,itwasalsoclearlystatedthatGermanywouldnotremainneutralifRussiaattackedA
ustria-
HungaryandRussiawouldalsonotremainneutralifGermanyattackedFrance.Therefore,thistreaty
ledtopeaceinEuropebecausethosepowersthatwerenotsignatories(AustriaandFrance)wereprev
entedfromprovokingwar.FrancewasalsoisolatedfromRussia.
THESECONDMEDITERRANEANAGREEMENTOF1887
ThisagreementwasarrangedwhichwasalsoarrangedbyBismarckwassignedbetweenGermany,A
ustriaandBritain.Itwasalsoaboutco-
operationinMediterraneanSearegionbytheabovethreepowers.BythisagreementBismarcksecur
edtheAustrianandBritishsupportforTurkeyagainstRussia.FrancewasthereforeisolatedfromTur
keybecauseTurkeyhadbeenstrengthenedbythisallianceagainstapossibleRussianadvanceorexp
ansion.
COMPLEMENTARYFACTORSTOBISMARCK’SEFFORTSTOMAINTAINPEACEINEURO
PE
TheRussianthreattoGermanyin1875maintainedpeaceinEurope.WithinthreeyearsaftertheFran
co–
Prussianwar,BismarckwasalarmedbytheFrenchquickrecovery.Francepaidthewarindemnityorfi
neandthearmyofoccupationwasremovedfromFrance.Therefore,BismarckwantedtoattackFran
ceagainbutRussiathreatenedtoattackGermanyifBismarckdidso.Bismarckthereforewithdrewhis
warthreatsandplans,thusmaintainingpeaceinEurope.
TherewasalsoathreattoGermanyfromBritain.FollowingBismarck’swarthreatsQueenVictoriaofB
ritainwarnedBismarckthatBritainwasnottohesitatefromattackingGermanyifBismarckinvadedFr
anceagain.Bismarck,whofearedanalliancebetweenFranceandBritainagainstGermany,withdre
whisintentionsthusmaintainingpeaceinEurope.
TheweaknessofFrancealsocontributedtopeaceinEurope.AfterthefallofEmperorNapoleonIIIin1
871,therewasapowerstruggleinFrance.Forexample,therewerethosesupportingthesonofNapol
eonIIItotakeoverpowerinFranceandotherssupportedtherestorationofmonarchicalrule.Therew
ereotherproblemslikefamineandseriousunemploymentandthereforesuchproblemscouldnotall
owFrancetogetorganizedandfightawaragainstGermany.
AssesstheroleofBismarckinmaintainingpeaceinEuropebetween1871and1890.

THERESIGNATIONOFBISMARCK(1890)
In1888,GermanygotanewEmperorknownasKaiserWilliamII.BismarckdisagreedwithKaiser
WilliamIIbecauseKaiserWilliamIIwantedBismarcktostopthecampaignagainstthesocialists.Kais
erWilliamIIalsowantedGermanytogetmorecoloniesandBismarckrefusedbecausehedidnotwant
GermanytoconflictwithcountrieslikeBritainandRussiaovercolonies.Becauseofthesedisagreeme
nts,Bismarckresignedin1890andthisstartedadangerousperiodinthehistoryofGermanyandEuro
pebecausethe“FrenchSystemofAlliance”wasbornandthereforeFrancewasnolongerisolated
andthesystemincludedthefollowingalliances;
a)THEFRANCO-RUSSIANALLIANCEORENTENTEOF1894
TheDualAllianceofGermanyandAustria-
Hungaryof1879becamepublicinRussiaandRussiagotannoyed.Francethenstartedtogiveloansto
Russiatodevelopherindustryandcommerce.KaiserWilliamIIalsomadeamistakewhenherefusedt
orenewthere-
insurancetreatyof1887withRussiaandthisthereforedroveRussiaintoanalliancewithFrancewitht
hefollowingprovisionsorterms;
 TheallianceortreatywastoremaininforceaslongastheGermanTripleAllianceof1882wasin
place.
 RussiawouldsupportFranceifFrancewasattackedbyGermanyorItalywiththehelpofGerm
any.
 FrancewastosupportRussiaifRussiawasattackedbyGermanyorbyAustria-
HungarywiththehelpofGermany.
 ItwasalsoclearlystatedthatifanymemberoftheTripleAlliancemobilizeditstroops,Francea
ndRussiaweretomobilizeimmediately.Thislastprovisionwasdangerousbecausemobilizin
gwouldhavethesameeffectasdeclaringwar.
b)THEENTENTECORDIALE(BRITAINANDFRANCE)ORTHEANGLO-
FRENCHALLIANCEOF1904
BismarckhadbeencarefulnottoantagonizeBritainandhekeptGermanyalandmasteronly.Howeve
r,KaiserWilliamIIantagonizedBritainbytryingchallengetheBritishpoweronwater.ThisannoyedBr
itainandthereforeBritainsettledherdifferenceswithFranceoverEgyptandasaresultBritainconclu
dedafullmilitaryalliancewithFranceandthereforeFrancewasnolongerisolatedfromBritain.Bythis
alliancethetwocountrieswouldsupporteachotherincaseofwar.
c)THETRIPLEENTENTE(FRANCE,RUSSIAANDBRITAIN)OF1907
BecauseoftheemergingpowerofGermanyunderKaiserWilliamII,BritainandRussiasettledtheirdif
ferenceItheOttomanEmpireandthereforein1907,France,RussiaandBritainconcludedtheTripleE
ntente.ThisalliancemeantthatEuropewasdividedintotwomilitarycamps;onecamphadmembers
oftheGermansystemofalliancewhileothershadmembersoftheFrenchsystemofalliance.Itisimpor

tanttonotethatthissystemofalliancethathadbeenstartedbyBismarckledtotheoutbreakofWorld
WarIin1914asthetwocampsfoughtagainsteachother.
TowhatextentwasBismarck’sforeignpolicysuccessfulbetween1871and1890?
Background:
 BismarckwastheGermanChancellorbetween1871and1890.Hisforeignpolicywasdesigne
dormeanttoachievethefollowingobjectives;
 MaintainpeaceandstabilityinEurope
 IsolationofFrance
 MaintainGermansupremacyinEurope.
Toachievetheaboveobjectives,Bismarckusedhismilitarypolicy,politicalforesightanddiplomatics
kills.HeusedaseriesofallianceswiththeconservativemonarchsofEuropemainlyAustria,Germany,
ItalyandRussia.
SUCCESSES
 HeledtothedefeatofFranceintheFranco–PrussianWarof1870-
1871andthesubsequentsigningoftheFrankfurttreatyof1871.Consequently,Franceackno
wledgedtheestablishmentandexistenceoftheGermanempireinEurope.HealsogotAlsace
andLorraineforGermany.Francewasthereforeweakenedterritoriallyandeconomicallywhi
chtilted(changed)thebalanceofpowerinfavourofGermany,hencepromotinghergloryinE
urope.
 HearrangedtheDreiKaiserbundTreaty(theThreeEmperorsLeague)of1872throughwh
ichheisolatedFrancefromRussiaandAustria.
 HeintervenedintheBalkanCrisisof1878byholdingtheBerlincongressof1878.Thiscongress
promotedGermansupremacyandglory,preventedRussianinfluenceintheBalkans,avoide
dAustro-RussianwaroverBosniaandHerzegovina,preventedAnglo-
RussianclashesorconflictsovertheBalkansbysolvingtheproblemsthathadbeencreatedby
theSanStefanoTreatyofMarch1878.ItalsoFrancewasisolatedfromAustriaandBritain.
 TheDualAllianceof1879strengthenedtiesbetweenGermanyandAustriaagainstapossible
attackfromRussiacombinedwithFrancewhichmaintainedpeaceinEurope.ItalsoisolatedF
rancefromAustria.
 ThesecondDreiKaiserbundTreatyof1881thatBismarckarrangedrenewedRussianfri
endshipwithGermanyespeciallyfollowingBismarck’sfailuretosupportRussiaduringtheBe
rlinCongressof1878whichhadannoyedRussia.ThepositionofAustriaalsoremainedincline
dtoGermany.FrancewasfurtherisolatedfromRussiaandAustriaandGermanysupremacyr
emainedassured.
 ThroughtheTripleAllianceof1882,Bismarcksecuredthealliance(friendship)ofAustria,Ger
manyandItaly.Asaresult,FranceremainedisolatedandpeaceplusGermansupremacyinEu
ropewerealsopromoted.

 HeorganizedtheBerlinCongressof1884–
1885throughwhichGermanysecuredcolonies,peacewaspreservedinEuropebyavoidinga
waroverthecoloniesandFranceremainedisolated.
 Hearrangedthe1stMediterraneanagreementofMarch1887.Thisagreementcreatedfrien
dshipbetweenGermany,Austria,BritainandItalywhichisolatedFrancefromtheabovepow
ers.PeaceandGermansupremacyalsoprevailed.
 BismarcksignedthesecretRe-
insuranceTreatyof1887withRussia.ThistreatyrenewedRussianfriendshipwithGerma
nyandthereforeFranceremainedisolated.BecauseofthesametreatypeaceprevailedinEur
opeandGermanyalsoremainedsupreme.
 Bismarckalsosignedthe2ndMediterraneanagreementofDecember1887.Thisagreementp
romotedfriendshipbetweenGermany,AustriaandBritainovertheMediterraneanSea.Fran
cewasfurtherisolated.
 Bismarckavoidedcolonialconflictsbetween1870and1884.Heonceremarkedthat“colonie
sarenotworthythebonesofasingleGermansoldier”.Thisthereforepromotedpeacebetwee
nGermanyandotherpowersinEurope.
 BismarckmaintainedasuccessfulfreetradepolicywithBritain.Thishelpedtokeeppeacewit
hBritain.
 Hedevelopedacautiousmilitaryandnavalprogramme(policy)inordernottoconflictwithBrit
ain.ThisfurtherpromotedpeacewithBritain.
FAILURESINTHEFOREIGNPOLICY
 TheFrenchWarScareof1875threatenedpeacewhichcontradictedBismarck’saimofmainta
tingpeaceinEurope.HismilitarythreatstoFrancefollowingherquickrecoveryfromtheFranc
o-PrussianWarof1870-
1871attractedtheattentionandhostilityofBritainandRussiatowardsGermanyastheythrea
tenedtoretaliateagainstGermany.
 TheBerlinCongressof1878thatBismarckorganizedhadshortcomings,thusleadingtothesi
gningoftheDualAllianceof1879betweenGermanyandAustria–
Hungary.Bythisalliance,thetwocountriesagreedtogivemilitarysupporttooneanotherinca
seofwarbecauseGermanyhadallowedAustria–
HungarytoannexBosniaandHerzegovina.ThisalliancecontributedtotheoutbreakofWorld
WarIbecauseGermanysupportedandencouragedAustria–
HungarytodeclarewaronSerbiain1914.
 ThecongressalsointensifiedhostilitybetweenSerbiaandAustria–
HungaryoverBosniaandHerzegovinawhicheventuallycontributedtotheoutbreakofWorld
WarIin1914.
 Therewereloopholesinthe1885BalkanCrisisinwhichBismarckencouragedBulgariatofallo
utwithRussia.ThisannoyedRussia,hencegivingbirthtotheFranco-
RussianEntenteof1894andlatertheTrippleEntenteof1907whicheventuallyledtotheoutbr
eakofWorldWarIin1914.

 HepromotedconflictsamongtheEuropeanpowersovercolonies.Forexample,heencourag
edacolonialconflictinTunisiabetweenItalyandFrancewhichunderminedpeace.
 HeinitiatedthealliancesystemthatdividedEuropeintotwohostilecamps.Thishostilityamon
gEuropeanpowerslaidafoundationfortheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914,thusunderminin
gpeacewhichwasoneofthemajorobjectivesofhisforeignpolicy.
ReferenceQuestions:
 HowsuccessfulwasPrinceOttoVonBismarckby1890?
(considerboththedomesticandforeignpolicies)
 AssesstheachievementsofOttoVonBismarckbetween1871and1890.
(considerboththedomesticandforeignpolicies)

THEEASTERNQUESTIONORTHEHISTORYOFTHEOTTOMANORTURKISHEMPIRE
,1815-1913
TheOttomanorTurkishEmpirewasfoundedinthe14thcenturybytheOttomanTurks.TheOttomanT
urkswerelargelyaMuslimpeoplewhohadenteredEasternEuropefromAsiaMinorinthe14 thcenturya
ndhadcapturedtheGreatcityofConstantinople(presentdayIstanbul)ontheshoresoftheBlackSeai
n1453.TheyhadestablishedabigempirewithitscapitalatConstantinoplethatcouldboastofitsbigsiz
ecoveringalmostthewholeofNorthAfricaincludingcountrieslikeEgypt,Tunisia,Algeria,Libya,Asia
nMiddleEastcountriessuchasSyria,Lebanon,andPalestineaswellassomeEasternEuropeancountr
ieslikeRumania,Bulgaria,Bosnia,andHerzegovina,Montenegro,Serbia,GreeceandtheCzechRep
ublicamongothers.ItfurtherstretchedtocoverMoldavia,Wallachia,Transylvaniaandotherterritori
es.Precisely,theempirecontrolledpartsofEurope,AfricaandAsia.
IntheaboveterritoriesliveddifferentnationalitiesliketheSerbs,Bulgarians,Slavsandotherseachwi
thitsownculture,language,religionandcolour.ForexamplewhereassomewerefollowersoftheOrth
odoxChristianChurchandthereforeCatholicsandProtestants,otherswereMuslims.Consequently,
thereemergedreligiousandpoliticalconflictsespeciallyintheBalkanPeninsularwhichwaspartof
theOttomanEmpireasthevariousnationalitiesstartedorganizinguprisingsagainstthesultanindem
andforreligiousfreedomandindependence.ThisunderminedTurkey’sterritorialintegrityandthee
mpiregraduallystartedtodeclineinthe18 thand19thcenturies.ThisattractedtheattentionoftheGreat
EuropeanPowersespeciallyRussiawhoseTsarNicholasIdescribedTurkeyasthe"SICKMANOFEUR
OPE”.Thattheempirewasinaveryweakstatethatitcouldnotbesavedfromcollapsing.Butwhywasth
isso?
REASONSFORTHEDECLINEORWEAKNESSOFTURKEY
ThelossofTurkey'smilitarypowerwasresponsibleforthecollapseoftheOttomanEmpire.Fromthe1

4thtothe17thCenturies,Turkeywasaworldmilitarypowerandhadanextensiveempirethatinclude
dthecontinentsofEurope,AsiaandAfrica.Buttowardstheendofthe18thcenturyandthebeginningo
fthe19thCentury,Turkeylosthermilitaryglory.Shehadacosmopolitanarmythatdiscipliningandint
egratingitunderonecommandbecameimpossible.Consequently,thearmylostitseffectivenessan
dcouldthereforenotholdthedifferentnationalitiestogetherasasignofweakness.Evenherformersu
bjectstateslikeEgypt,Tunisia,AlgeriaandGreecebecamemorepowerfulandstarteddisobeyingthe
sultanlikethewayMohamed(Mehmet)Ali(Egypt)andtheGreeksdid.Infact,Turkeybecamesosick(
weak)thatshehadtobeassistedinsuppressinginternalrevoltslikeintheSyrianquestionof1831-
1841.
Thelargesizeoftheempirecreatedanadministrativeproblemthatcontributedtothecrumblingofthe
OttomanEmpire.Turkeyhadcreatedalargeandheterogeneousempirethatcoveredthecontinents
ofEurope,AsiaandAfrica.Thesewerepeopleofdifferenthistorical,cultural,andlinguisticbackgroun
dthatweredifficulttoholdunderacentralizedadministration.Theempirewasthereforetoolargetob
eruledledbyanysinglepowerorperson.Eventually,thesultanswerelesseffectiveoutsideConstanti
nopleandthislefttheconqueredstatessemi-
independent.ThismadeiteasierfortheconqueredstatestorevoltagainsttheSultan,whichledtothe
disintegrationoftheempire.
CorruptionandembezzlementwerediseasesthatcharacterizedTurkeyasickmanofthe19 thCentury
.TheTurkishMoslemadministratorswere"potbelliedmen"whomadebribery,swindlingandembezz
lementpartoftheirlifestyle.Thesebroughtfinancialcrisis,povertyandfamineuponwhichTurkeywa
sbrandedasickmanofEurope.Corruptionandembezzlementalsomadetheconqueredstatestolose
hopeinthegovernmentandthatispartofthereasonwhytheGreeksandtheMoreansbrokeoff.Italsoa
ffectedthearmywhoalsolostconfidenceinthegovernment,whichdeniedthegovernmentthefullloy
altyofthearmyandthisthereforecontributedtothedeclineoftheempire.
TheriseofnationalismwasaformidablechallengethattoretheTurkishEmpireintopieces.Duetothep
olitical,economicandmilitaryweaknessesoftheOttomanEmpire,theconqueredstatesespeciallyth
osethatwerelocatedontheBalkanPeninsularstartedstrugglingtoregaintheirindependenceand
manysucceeded.Forexample,SerbiaandEgyptbecameindependentin1805,Algeriain1811,Greec
ein1832andsomeBalkanstatesin1878.Thebreakingawayofthesestatesoneafteranotherweaken
edTurkeyandwastheactualdisintegrationoftheempire.
Economically,theOttomanEmpirewasweakenedbylossoftradecontrol.Before1760,Turkeywasth
eleadingcommercialandsea-
faringnation.ShemonopolizedtradewithintheempireandacrosstheMediterraneanandBalticSeas.
However,industrialrevolutionstartedinBritaininthe1860sandBritainstartedmanufacturingbetter
shipsthanTurkey.Eventually,BritaindestroyedtheTurkishdominanceintradeandmonopolizedint
ernationaltrade.ThisleftTurkeyinanawkwardeconomicsituationandmadeheralaughingstockofE
uropetobebrandedthe''sickmanofEurope".
ReligioustensionbetweentheMoslemsandChristianswithintheOttomanEmpirealsobroughtabout
thedisintegrationoftheempire.TheChristianmajoritywithintheempirewerediscriminatedineduca

tion,administrationandheavilytaxedwithinhumanmethodsofcollection.Aboveall,theChristiansw
erepersecutedbytheMoslemrulersoftheempire.ThisbroughtaboutrebellionssuchasinGreece,Mo
rea,ChiosandBulgariawhichleftTurkeyweak.ItshouldbenotedthatTurkey'spersecutionoftheChri
stiansattractedtheinterventionoftheChristianpowerslikeRussia,Britain,AustriaandFrancewhose
interventioncomplicatedtheissueandledtothesuccessofrevoltslikeinGreeceandBulgaria.
Thespreadandinfluenceofthe1789Frenchrevolutionaryideasofequality,libertyandfraternityalso
contributedtothedisintegrationoftheOttomanEmpire.Bythe19thCenturytheserevolutionaryideas
hadspreadtoEuropeincludingtheTurkishEmpire.ThisthereforeinfluencedtheTurkishsubjectstod
emandforlibertyandindependenceagainsttheTurks'oppressiveandexploitativeadministration.T
hisledtorevoltssuchasinGreece,Wallachia,MoldaviaandBulgariawhichshooktheempireandledtoi
tscollapse.
TheriseandroleoftheeducatedelitesandintellectualswasinfluentialinthedeclineoftheOttomanE
mpire.Theywereyoung,revolutionaryanddynamicmenwhocondemnedtheTurkishoppressivean
dexploitativeregime.Theyadvocatedforreformsandindependencetotheconqueredstates.These
createdrevolutionaryemotionsinthemindsoftheoppressedandexploitedTurkishsubjects,whichp
romptedthemtorevoltandbreaktheempire.IntellectualssuchasAlexanderHypslantiandCapodistr
iousledtheGreekstorevoltagainstTurkey,whichmadetheGreeksindependentby1832.Thus,thero
leandinspirationoftheIntellectualswidenedthegapbetweenTurkeyandhersubjectsandmadethe
disintegrationofOttomanEmpireinevitable.
Lastly,theOttomanEmpirewasweakenedbytheselfishandconvergentinterestsofthebigEuropean
powers.ItwasRussiathatdevelopedgreatinterestmorethananyotherpowerinthedecayingempire
andthereforesheintervenedintheaffairsoftheOttomanEmpirebecauseofthreemainreasons;Thef
irstonewasthatmanyoftheBalkanpeoplebelongedtotheSlavraceasdidtheRussiansthemselvesan
dtheythereforelookedtoRussiaasabigSlavbrothertohelpthemintheirstrugglesforindependencef
romtheOttomanEmpire.ThisthereforepromptedRussiatointervene.Secondly,mostoftheBalkan
ChristiansbelongedtotheGreekOrthodoxChurchofwhichRussiawasthegreatchampionandprotec
tor.MoreimportantthanallthesehoweverwasthatRussiahadforlongharbouredambitionsofposse
ssingConstantinoplecityandcontroltheBosphorusandtheDardanelleswhichwouldgiveherasecur
eoutlettotheMediterraneanSeafromtheBlackSea.Shewouldthenbecomeagreatpowerintheregio
nandwoulddominatetradeandcommerce.Duetotheabovereasons,Russia’saimwastoweakena
ndbreakuptheTurkishEmpireandsubstituteitwithherowninfluenceintheregion.ThatiswhyR
ussiaunderTsarNicholasI(1825-
1855)coinedtheideathatTurkeywasa“sickman”thatcouldnotbecuredbyanyquantityofdrugs.She
thereforeincitedandsupportedtheGreeks,Wallachians,Moldavians,Bosnians,Montenegrons,Ser
bians,andBulgarianstorevoltagainstTurkey.TheserevoltsweakenedTurkeyeconomically,militari
lyandthereforeledtothecollapseoftheempire.
TheinterestofBritainwastopreserveoftheTurkishEmpirefromdisintegrationbecauseitwouldact
asabulwarkorbufferstateagainstanypossibleRussianadvanceorexpansiontotheMediterraneanS
ea,hercommercialwaters.AustriawasbentonpreventingtheRussianexpansionintotheBalkanswh
ichwouldthenchangethebalanceofpower.ShewasthereforenotpreparedtoseeastrongRussiane

mpireinherneighbourhood.InFrance,thegovernmentsofLouisPhilippeof1830–
1848andNapoleonIIIof1848-
1870wantedtostrengthentheFrencheconomicandpoliticalpositionwithintheTurkishEmpireandt
oelevatetheFrenchprestigeandthatoftheFrenchleadersbyrevivingtheFrenchguardianshipofthe
HolyPlaces.Inpursuitofsuchobjectives,theyclashedwiththeinterestsofRussia.Theseconflictingin
terestsoftheEuropeanpowers(Russia,Britain,AustriaandFrance)intensifiedandprolongedtheBal
kancrisisandsicknessoftheOttomanEmpirewhicheventuallycontributedtothedeclineoftheempir
e.
NOTE:ThetermEasternQuestionwasusedbytheEuropeandiplomatsandstatesmentorefertothe
diplomaticandpoliticalproblemscreatedbythedeclineoftheOttomanEmpire.AsthecollapseoftheE
mpireseemedtobenearer,theEuropeanPowersgotinvolvedinapowerstruggletosafeguardtheirm
ilitary,strategicandcommercialinterestsintheareasundertheempire.Inshorttherefore,thequesti
onwaswhatwouldtheEuropeanpowersdo?
WouldtheypreventtheOttomanEmpirefromcollapsingorwouldtheysupportthebreakupoftheemp
ireandifitcollapsed,whowouldtakeoverthoseterritoriesthatbelongedtotheOttomanEmpireifthey
brokeawayfromtheempireandbywhatextent?
TheEasternQuestionwasputtorestafterWorldWarIof1914-
1918whentheOttomanEmpirecollapsed.
Thus,theeventswhichconstitutetheGreatEasternQuestionorBalkancrisisorhistoryoftheOttoman
Empireincludedthefollowing;
 TheSerbianuprisingorrebellion,1804-1815
 TheGreekWarofindependence,1821-1832
 TheSyrianQuestion,1831-1841.
 TheCrimeanWar,1854-1856
 TheParisTreaty,1856
 TheBerlinCongress,1878
 Austria'sannexationofBosniaandHerzegovina,1908
 TheBalkanWars,1912-1913.
a) WhywastheOttomanEmpirereferredtoasthe“sickmanofEurope”inthe19thcen
tury?
b) AccountforthedisintegrationoftheTurkishEmpireinthesecondhalfofthe19 thc
entury.
THESERBIANREBELLION,1804-1815
TheSerbswerethefirstpeopleintheBalkanstorebelinthe19 thcenturyagainsttheOttomanrule.Ther
evoltbeganin1804undertheirpeasantleaderknownasKaraGeorge,anancestoroftheKaraGeorg
evicdynastyofSerbia.Therevoltinvolvedcourageousfightsandbloodymassacresonbothsideswhic
hendedwiththeSerbianvictoryandthesubsequentdrivingoftheTurksoutoftheircountry.However,

theirsuccesswasonlyshortlivedfortheSerbsweredefeatedandre-
conqueredin1813andGeorgeKarafledthecountryin1813.
In1815,theyroseupagainunderanotherleader,MiloschObrenovitchwhoevengainedthetitleof
“PrinceoftheSerbians”fromtheSultan.NotethattheSerbianrebelliondidnotarousetheattentionoft
heGreatpowersandthusmaynotbecriticallyconsideredasacontentiousmatterintheBalkancrisis.It
howeverbecameaturningpointinthehistoryoftheOttomanEmpireasitinspiredothernationalitiesw
hosoondeclaredwarsontheSultan.ThefirstofsuchrevolutionswastheGreekrevoltof1821-1832.
THEGREEKWAROFINDEPENDENCEORTHEGREEKREVOLUTION,1821-1832
GreecewasoneofthestatesundertheTurkishadministration.TheGreeksbelongedtotheSLAVracea
ndtheOrthodoxChristianChurchandthereforehadacloselinkwithRussiaintermsofraceandreligion
.TheyweredominantintradeandalsohadsomeotherprivilegesintheTurkishEmpire.Inspiteofthat,
theGreeksrevoltedin1821againsttheTurkishruleundertheirleader,AlexanderHypsilanti.Thisrevo
ltwasthefirstmajorphaseoftheEasternQuestion.
CAUSESOFTHEGREEKWAROFINDEPENDENCE
TheneedforindependencecausedtheGreekrevolution.TheTurkshadconqueredtheGreeksinthe1
4thcenturyandsubjectedthemtomistreatment,oppressionandexploitation.Thisgeneratedaspirit
ofnationalismamongtheGreeksandtheylongedforadaytoliberatetheirnationfromsuchforeigndo
mination.ThoughcomparedtootherOttomansubjects,theywereaccordedsomerecognitioninthef
ieldofeducation,tradeandreligion,theGreekdesiretoendtheTurkishforeigndominationstillloome
dhighintheirminds.Therefore,whattheGreekswantedfromtheSultanofTurkeywastotalfreedoma
ndlibertysothattheycoulddeterminetheirowndestiny,hencetheoutbreakoftheirrevoltin1821.
ThereligiousdifferencesbetweentheGreeksandtheirTurkishmasterscausedtheGreekwarofindep
endencein1821.TheGreekswereOrthodoxChristianswhiletheirmasters,theTurkswereMuslims.T
heGreekChristianswerebitterlydiscriminatedandbrandedasinfidelsornon–
believersbytheirMuslimoverlords(rulers).Thoughtheyweregivensomedegreeofreligiousfreedo
masmanifestedintheSultan`srecognitionoftheGreekOrthodoxChurch,theirheadquartersaswell
asitspatriarchatConstantinople,theGreekfeelingthattheTurksdespisedthemasinfidelsgenerated
arevolutionarymoodamongstthemwhicheventuallysparkedoffarevoltin1821.
ThedesirebytheGreekstorestoretheirpastgloryandcultureinfluencedthemtorevoltin1821.TheGr
eeksatonetimewereadominantpowerinEuropeintermsofeducationandsports(OlympicGames).
However,thisdominancehadbeenlostbytheGreekswhenTurksconqueredGreeceinthe14 thcentur
y.Despitethisconquest,theGreekshadnotforgottentheirformerpride.Asaresultin19 thcentury,the
ydecidedtorevivetheinterestinthepastgloryespeciallyamongtheyouthswhicheventuallyinfluenc
edthemtorevoltagainsttheOttomanEmpirein1821.
Thepoorormal–
administrationoftheTurkishrulerscausedtheGreekWarofIndependence.Bythecloseofthe18 thcen

tury,thecentralgovernmentatConstantinoplewasveryweakandtooinefficient.TheTurkishgovern
ors,agentsandofficialsweretooinefficient,corrupt,cruelandveryexploitative.Forexample,theycol
lectedalotoftaxesfromtheempirebutalmostembezzledthewholelumpsum.Besides,theypersecut
ed(mistreated)theGreeksandinmanyinstancesruledwithalotofcruelty(harshness).Forexample,t
heytorturedtheGreeknationalswhilecollectingtheSultan`staxesandphysicallybeattheminthepro
cessofsupervisingthemontheTurkishfarms.ThiswasbadenoughtoprovoketheGreeksintowarby1
821.
TheinspirationtheFrenchrevolutionof1789alsocontributedtotheoutbreakoftheGreekWarofInde
pendence.TheFrenchrevolutionof1789ushered(brought)inEuropetheidealsofliberty,equalityan
dfraternitywhichhighlyinspiredtheGreekstorevoltagainsttheiroppressiveTurkishmastersby182
1.SuchidealsdidnotonlyrenewtheGreeknationalismbutalsoawakenedorremindedtheGreeksofth
eirobligationtoliberatetheirlandfromtheimperialpowersoftheOttomanTurks.Littlewonder,by18
21theydeclaredwaragainsttheTurks.
TheinfluenceoftheGreekswholivedinexilealsocontributedtotheoutbreakoftheGreekWarofIndep
endence.TheseGreekslivedincountrieslikeFrance,RussiaandBritain.Thesewereespeciallytheelit
esinthemiddleclasswhohadbeenexposedtotherevolutionaryidealsofliberty,equalityandfraternit
ywhichinexile.Withtheirliberalideologies,suchmeninfluencedandmobilizedtheirfellowGreeksat
hometorevoltagainsttheTurkishrulewhichcontributedtotheoutbreakoftheGreekrevoltin1821.F
orexample,therewasCapodistriouswhowasRussia’sForeignMinisterandAlexanderHypsilantiwas
servingasaRussianarmyofficer.
TheweaknessoftheTurkishEmpirealsoinspiredtheGreekstorebelin1821.Turkeyhadconqueredth
eGreeksinthe14thcenturyandhermightdominatednearlythewholeofCentralEurope,NorthAfricaa
ndanypartofAsia.Butfromthecloseofthe18thandthebeginningofthe19thcenturies,theempirestea
dilydeclinedinhermilitaryandeconomicfields,whichpromotedtheEuropeanpowerstorefertoitast
he“SickmanofEurope”.Besides,theGreekshadacquirednavalsupremacyanddominatedtheOtto
mannavy.Itwaspreciselysuchmilitary,politicalandeconomicweaknessoftheTurkishEmpirethate
ncouragedtheGreekstorevoltin1821.
TheGreeksalsorevoltedbecauseoftheunfairtaxation.Upontheirconquest,theGreeksweresubj
ectedtoallformsofexploitativetaxesbytheTurks.Forexample,theypaidannualtributestotheSultan
,forhavingbeenconquered.Theyalsopaidthelandtaxandataxoncommercewhichreducedtheirpro
fits.TheywerealsoforcedtopayaspecialtaxcalledKharajforlivingwithintheTurkishEmpire.Thoug
hthesetaxeswerenotexorbitant(high),theGreekshatedthembecausetheywerelargelyspentonOt
tomanluxuriesinsteadofupliftingtheGreekwelfare.Mostannoyinghoweverwasthefactthat,theta
xdefaulterswereheavilypunishedtotheextentoflosingtheirlives.ThisgeneratedtheGreekdesirefo
rindependencewhichsparkedoffarevoltin1821.
ThediscriminationoftheGreeksbytheTurksalsocausedtheGreekWarofIndependence.TheGreeks
rebelledduetothearroganceanddiscriminativetendenciesoftheirmasters,theTurks.Forinstance,t
heGreeksresentedthetendencyofabusingthemasinfidels(pagans),interior,anenslavedminoritya
ndaconqueredpeoplesupposedtopaytaxestotheirTurkishmasters.Besides,theyweresubjectedt

oarbitraryarrestsandimprisonmentandoftenpersecuted(mistreated)becauseoftheirChristianfai
th.Theycontinuallyreceivednosubstantialjusticeandsecurity.TheTurksremainedaconqueringpe
oplewhostoodapartfromtheGreeksandneverattemptedtoabsorbthemintotheirgovernmentbutr
athersegregatedthemasinferiorsandinfidels.SuchdiscriminationforcedtheGreekstorebelin1821
.
TheinfluenceoftheSerbianrebellionof1804–
1815alsoencouragedtheGreekstorebel.In1804,theSerbiansundertheirpeasantleaderKaraGeor
gerebelledanddrovetheTurksfromtheircountry,althoughtheywerelaterdefeatedin1813.In1815,
theyroseupagainunderMiloschObrenovitchwhogainedthetitleof“PrinceoftheSerbians”formt
heSultanofTurkey.WhentheGreeksgotthenewsofthisrevolt,theywereinspiredtostageasimilarre
volutionintheircountryagainsttheTurkishrulein1821.
TheinfluenceoftheforeignpowersalsocontributedtotheoutbreakoftheGreekrevoltin1821.Forexa
mple,RussiaunderTsarAlexanderIencouragedtheGreekstorebelagainsttheSultanofTurkeyanda
ssuredthemofallthenecessarysupportastheprotectoroftheOrthodoxChristiansintheBalkanRegi
on.Besides,RussiabeingaSlavicstatewasdeterminedtosupportherfellowSlavsinGreece,irrespect
iveoftheconsequencesofthissupportontheterritorialintegrityoftheOttomanEmpire.BritainandFr
ancewhichhadinitiallytriedtorestrainRussia’sinterventioninanefforttopreservetheOttomanEmpi
re;alsoeventuallysupportedtheGreekstruggleforindependenceupto1833whenitsucceeded.
TheroleofasecretsocietyknownasHetariaPhilike(theSocietyofFriends)ledtotheoutbreakoftheGr
eekWarofIndependence.Thiswasanationalistmovementformedin1814byAlexanderHypsilantito
spreadnationalconsciousnessandtodisseminatenationalisticmessagestoalltheGreeksocialclass
esinpreparationforactionagainsttheTurks.By1821,ithadover20,000memberswhoconstitutedth
epioneerforcethatdeclaredwarontheOttomansinGreece.Thesocietythereforehelpedtopinciteor
promoteGreeknationalismwhicheventuallycontributedtotheoutbreakoftheGreekrevoltof1821t
o1833.
TheweaknessoftheCongressSystemalsoencouragedtheGreekstorevoltagainstTurkeyin1821.As
partofitsmandate,theCongressSystemwasestablishedin1818tomaintainEuropeanpeaceagainst
thethreateningforcesofliberalismandnationalism.Howeverby1821,thedisagreementsbetweent
hememberstatesmadeitvirtuallyimpossibletosetacommonpolicyagainstrevolutions.TheTroppa
uProtocolwhichwasajointarmedmilitaryinterventionformedin1820againstrevolutionshadalsone
arlydiedduetosuchdisagreementsby1821.TheGreekswerethusmotivatedbysuchdifferencesam
ongthecongresspowerstolaunchafullscalenationalistwaragainstTurkeyin1821.
TheroleoftheGreekelitesorintellectualsalsocausedtheGreekwarofindependence.Thesewereyou
ng,revolutionaryanddynamicmenwhocondemnedtheTurkishoppressiveandexploitativeregime.
TheydemandedforreformsandindependencefortheGreeks.Theseelitescreatedrevolutionaryem
otionsinthemindsoftheoppressedandexploitedGreeks,whichpromptedthemtorevoltin1821.Am
ongtheseeliteswereprominentGreeknationalistslikeAlexanderHypsilantiandCapodistriouswhol
edtheGreekstorevoltagainstTurkey.ManyotherGreekeliteswrotepoemsandrevolutionarybooks

whicharousedagreatspiritofnationalismamongmanyGreeks.AmongthemwereRhegas,Constant
ineandByron.ThisequallyinspiredtheGreekstoriseupagainsttheOttomanrulersin1821.
LiberalismalsoinfluencedtheGreekstorevoltin1821.TheSultan’sgovernmentsuppressedtheGree
klibertiesandrights.Forexample,theGreeknewspaperswerecensoredandthereforefreedomofsp
eechwasstrictlydenied.Oftentimes,theGreeksweredetainedandimprisonedwithouttrial,apractic
ethatwasperceivedassuppressiontheGreekrights.Thesituationwascomplicatedbythefactthatth
eGreeksubjectscomparedtootherOttomansubjectsweregivenasubstantialdegreeoffreedomincl
uding,therighttomonopolisecommerce,completefreedomofeducationandworshipandexemptio
nfrommilitaryservicesamongotherswhichmadethemtodemandformoreprivileges.Theytherefor
edesiredparliamentarydemocracyandaliberalconstitutionthroughwhichtheycouldfreelydetermi
neandregulatethatliberty.Whendemocraticapproachesfailedtoyieldthedesiredreform,theGreek
sresortedtoarebellionin1821.
TheprosperityoftheGreekmerchantsalsocontributedtotheoutbreakoftheGreekWarofIndepende
nce.ManyGreeknationalshadaccumulatedwealthfromthetradewhichtheymonopolisedwithinthe
empire.Asaresult,asubstantialnumberoftheOttomanmiddleclasswereGreekswhousedtheirweal
thtomobilise,financeandorganisetheGreeksforrevoltin1821.
ThemistakesoftheViennaCongressof1814–
1815contributedtotheoutbreakoftheGreekrevolt.ThiswasaninternationalcongressoftheGreatP
owersofEuropethatwasheldinVienna,thecapitalofAustriafrom1814to1815tore-
organiseEuropefollowingthedisturbancecausedby1789FrenchrevolutionandtheNapoleonWars.
However,duringthecongressthedelegatescommittedseveralmistakes.ForexamplewhileatVienn
a,thestatesmendidnotbothertoresolvetheEasternQuestion.Instead,theyre-
affirmedtheSultan’sauthorityoveracrosssectionofthesubjectnationalitiesacrosstheBalkanregio
n.Thisincreasedthesultan’sinjustices,brutalityandmal-
administrationwhicheventuallycausedtheGreekWarofIndependenceby1821.
THECOURSEOFTHEGREEKWAROFINDEPENDENCE
TheGreekwarofindependencelastedforelevenyearsfrom1821to1832.It beguninMarch1821a
ndpartiallyendedin1829whentheGreeksweregrantedsemiindependence,thoughitfinallydrewt
oaclosein1832whentheGreeksweregrantedfullindependencefromtheOttomanrule.Itwasorgani
zedandledbyAlexanderHypsilantiandasecretsocietyknownastheHitariaPhilike(theSociety
ofFriends).
TherebellionstartedintheprovincesofWallachiaandMoldaviathatwereneighboringRussia.InM
arch1821,PrinceAlexanderHypsilantimovedacrossRiverPruthintoMoldaviawithabandofGreek
officerswhohadbeenservingintheRussianarmy.HecalledupontheMoldavianstorevolt.However,h

isrebellionwaspoorlyorganizedanditledtothemassacremanyMuslims.Turkeyquicklydefeatedthe
rebelsandAlexanderHypsilantihimselffledtoAustriawherehewasimprisonedbyMetternichforsev
enyears.
ImmediatelyafterthefailureofAlexanderHypsilanti’smovement,anotheruprisingbrokeoutintheS
outhernpartofGreeceknownasMorea.HeretheagentsoftheHitariaPhilikehadbeenextremelyactiv
eandtherevoltwasmoregenerallyspreadoverthepopulationthaninthecaseofMoldavia.InMorea,
theGreekskilledthousandsofMuslims.Inretaliation,thegovernmentoftheSultannoteditwasareligi
ouswarandthereforeitmurderedtheGreeksincludingthePatriarch(theHeadoftheGreek Orthodox
Church)atConstantinoplewho,ontheEasterDayof1822,washangedoutsidehisCathedralinConst
antinopleandafewdayslaterthrownintotheBosphorusRiver.
ThemassacresalarmedtheGreatpowersespeciallyRussiaand becauseofthebrutalityoftheMuslim
s,RussiaandBritainjoinedthewaronthesideoftheGreeksagainstTurkeyonhumanitariangroundsa
stheyarguedthattheywantedtosavetheGreeksfromthepooradministrationoftheTurks.Atonce,T
sarAlexanderIconcentratedthousandsoftroopsonthebordersof MoldaviareadytoinvadeMoldavi
aanddefeattheTurks.MetternichandtheBritishgovernmentpersuadedTsarAlexanderItoholdbac
kbutthepolicyofnon-interventionwasstronglydenouncedbymanycitizensoftheEuropeanpowers.
In1826,thewarwasatitsclimaxandtheSultanofTurkeyunabletocontainthesituation,calledforassi
stancefromMehemetAliofEgypthisvassalstate.Inthisveryyear,theEgyptianarmygotinvolvedinth
eGreekwarunderthecommandof IbrahimPashathesonofMehemetAli.MehemetiAlisenthissonIb
rahimPashawhocapturedtheislandofCreteandsuccessfullylandedhisforcesinMoreawherehebeg
untowipeouttheGreek population.ThisnewmassacreoftheGreeksbroughtintheinterventionofth
eGreatPowers.Atthattime,TsarAlexanderIwasalreadydeadandhadbeensucceededbyTsarNich
olasI(1825-1855)whowasdeterminedtoassert Russia’spositionastheprotectoroftheChristianp
opulationintheTurkishEmpireandthecontinuousmassacreoftheGreeksjustifiedhisdemandforint
ervention.
InBritain,publicopinionwasinfavourofsupportingtheGreeksandtheBritishForeignSecretaryGeo
rgeCanningrespondingtothispublicdemandandalsofearingthatRussiawouldactalonedecidedt
oreachanagreementwithRussiain1826.TheyconcludedthatGreeceshouldbeindependentfromT
urkeybutcontinuetopayannualtributetoTurkey.However,theSultanrejectedtheproposals.Thein
terventionofRussiaintothewarattractedtheattentionofotherEuropean powersespeciallyBritaina
ndFrance,whichjoinedRussiaandsentajointnavalforcethatdestroyedtheTurkishfleetattheBattle
ofNavarinoBayinOctober1827.ThiswasdoneduetoTurkey’srefusaltoaccepttheindependenc
eoftheGreeksandafterthesigningoftheTreatyofLondonof1827inwhichBritain,FranceandRus
siaagreedtoassisttheGreekssoastogettheirfullindependence.
AttheBattleofNavarinoBayof1827,theEgyptianfleetwassunkandunabletocontainthesituatio
n,EgyptwithdrewherforcesfromMorea.However,RussiasinglehandedlyinvadedMoldaviaandWal
lachiadroveouttheTurks.Afterherdefeat,TurkeywasforcedtosigntheTreatyofAdrianopleof18
29.Bythistreaty,theTurksrecognizedtheGreeksemi-
independence,buttheGreeksweretocontinuepayingannualtributetoTurkey.However,theTreaty

ofAdrianopleof1829wasnotwelcomedbyotherpowersforincaseofanytroublearisingoverthepay
mentof tributetoTurkeybyGreece,Russiawouldhaveanexcuseofinterveningalonewithoutotherp
owers.TheGreatPowersnowexcludingRussiathendemandedfor thecompleteindependenceofGr
eecefromTurkey.ThesultanofTurkeyfinallyacceptedthesedemands.Consequently,in1832them
ajorpowersmetinLondonandsignedtheLondonTreatyof1832thatformallydeclaredGreeceasani
ndependentstateandtheGreeksattainedfullindependenceby1832.
REASONSFORTHESUCCESSOFTHEGREEKWAROFINDEPENDENCE
Thevastness(bigsize)oftheTurkishEmpireledtothesuccessoftheGreekwarofindependenceb
y1832.Fromthe14thuptothecloseofthe18thcenturies,Turkeyhadbuiltaverylargeandpowerful
empirewhichtheSultancouldnoteffectivelycontrol.Atthepeakofitspower,theempirestretche
dfromtheboardersofAustriaandRussiaintheNorththroughAsiaMinor,SyriaandNorthAfricainc
ludingAlgeria,Libya,TunisiaandEgypt.IntheBalkanPeninsular,itcontrolledRumania,Serbia,
Greece,BulgariaandtheAlbanians.Thus,astheSultanattemptedtoconcentrateononegroup,h
egavewayforotherstorevoltsuccessfully.ThisthereforeenabledtheGreekstostageasuccessf
ulrevolt.
ThesupportfromtheforeignpowersledtothesuccessoftheGreekWarofIndependence.Forexa
mple,RussiamobilizedsupportfortheGreekcauseacrossalltheSlavpeopleandthroughthepop
ularforumofPan-
Slavism.RussiaalsoprovidedsanctuaryfortheGreeknationaliststhatescapedthepoliticalpers
ecutionandbrutalityoftheOttomanleaders.BritainandFrancealsodeclaredandofficiallyrecog
nizedtheGreekindependencethroughsigningtheTreatyofAdrianopleof1829andlaterre-
affirmedtheirsupportinanotherTreatyofLondonin1832whichenabledtheGreekstosucceed.
ThestrengthoftheGreeknationalismalsoledtothesuccessofthewar.Thespiritofbeingindepen
denthadbeenstronglydevelopedamongtheGreeknationals.Thishighspiritofnationalisminstil
ledcourageanddeterminationamongtheGreekrevolutionariestofighthardersoastoattainthei
rindependence,henceleadingtotheirsuccessby1832.
TheweaknessesoftheCongressSystemcontributedtothesuccessoftheGreekWarofIndepend
ence.Formedin1818atAix–la–
Chapelle,theCongressSystemwasmarredbymanyweaknesses.Forexample,itwascharacteri
zedbydivisionsordisagreementsespeciallybetweenRussiaandAustriaovertheGreekrevolt.Th
esedisagreementsamongthecongresspowerswereexploitedbytheGreekstostageasuccessf
ulrevoltagainsttheOttomanadministrationby1832.
TheweaknessesoftheTurkeyorOttomanEmpireledtothesuccessoftheGreekWarofIndepend
ence.Fromthecloseofthe18thandthebeginningof19thcenturies,theoncemightyOttomanEmpi
restarteddecliningmilitarilyandeconomically.Forexample,shelackedstrongnavalforcetodeal
withherenemiesliketheGreekswhowerebeingsupportedbythepowerfulEuropeanpowerslike
BritainandRussia.ThisdeclineinstrengthofTurkeythereforeenabledtheGreekstofightanddef
eather,thuscontributingtothesuccessoftheGreekWarofIndependence.

ThepresenceofableleadershipledtothesuccessoftheGreekwarofindependence.TheGreeksw
ereblessedwithanumberofeliteslikeAlexanderHypsilantiandCapodistriouswhobecamechari
smaticleadersinthestruggleagainsttheOttomanTurks.Theseleadersmobilised,sensitizedan
dcommandedtheGreeksintheirwaragainsttheTurksaswellaslayingstrategiestodefeattheirT
urkishmasters.ThisthereforeenabledtheGreekstosucceedintheirwarby1832.
TheconflictinginterestsoftheEuropeanpowersintheOttomanEmpirealsopartlyfacilitatedthe
Greeksuccess.Forexample,althoughBritainandFrancewereinitiallyagainsttheideaoftheGree
kwaragainstTurkey,by1832theyhadendorsedtheGreekcauseforindependence.Russiastron
glysupportedtherevolutionarieswhereasAustriaandPrussiaremainedvehementlyopposedto
therevolt.SuchdisagreementsprovidedtheGreeksanopportunitytomobilize,fightandeventu
allyliberatethemselvesfromtheOttomanruleby1832.
TheroleofPan-
SlavismledtosuccessoftheGreekWarofIndependence.Thiswasapopularcallfortheliberation
oftheSlavpeopleacrossEurope.Itwasfuelled(promoted)byRussiawhichthereforeprovidedth
emorale,courageanddeterminationamongtheGreekstofightagainsttheOttomanrule,hencel
eadingtotheirsuccessby1832.
TheroleofreligioncontributedtothesuccessoftheGreekWarofIndependence.Theoutbreakoft
heGreekWarofIndependencewasinspiredbytheGreekOrthodoxChurch.Asaresult,duringcou
rseoffighting,theChristianreligionactedasaunifyingfactorthatbroughttogetheralltheGreeks
ofdifferentbackgrounds.ThisthereforehelpedthemtodefeattheOttomanTurks,henceleadin
gtothesuccessofthewar.
TheroleofsecretsocietiesalsocontributedtothesuccessoftheGreekWarofIndependence.Sev
eralsecretsocietieshadbeenformedbytheGreekelitestoarousetheGreeknationalismandfight
forindependence.Forexample,therewasthe HetariaPhilike(theSocietyFriends)formedin181
4byAlexanderHypsilanti.ThissecretsocietyofferedableleadershiptotheGreekstruggleforind
ependenceaswellasmobilisingtheGreeksforarebellionwhichledtotheirsuccess.
ThedeathofTsarAlexanderIin1825andthesubsequentriseofTsarNicholasIledtothesuccessof
theGreekWarofIndependence.UnlikehispredecessorTsarAlexanderI,TsarNicholasIwasmor
eaggressiveandcommittedtotheliberationofGreecefromtheOttomanruleaswellassatisfyingt
heselfishinterestsofRussiaintheOttomanEmpire.HethereforecommittedalotofRussianmilita
ryandfinancialsupporttotheGreekrebelswhichenabledtothemtosucceedovertheOttomanTu
rksby1832.
Theweaknessofthe“Metternichsystem”inEuropepartlyledtosuccessoftheGreekwarofindepe
ndence.PrinceMetternichwasthechancelloroftheAustrianempireupto1848.Asaconservative
aristocrat,MetternichwasstronglyopposedtoliberalandnationalisticmovementsinEuropean
dtosuppressthesetwoforces,heputinplacewhatwasknownasthe“Metternichsystem”.Usingt
hissystem,MetternichvowedtosuppressanyrevolutioninEurope.However,hewasunabletogo
totheOttomanEmpireandcrashtheGreekrevolutionwhichenabledtheGreekstosucceed.

Theoutbreakofthe1820sand1830revolutionsinEuropecontributedtosuccessoftheGreekWar
ofIndependence.TheserevolutionsdidnotonlyinspiretheGreekstofightharderagainsttheOtt
omanleadershipbutalsopreoccupiedmanyEuropeanpowersthatoughttohavesuppressedthe
GreekWarofIndependencelikeAustriaunderMetternich.Thisthereforeexplainsthesuccessoft
heGreeksby1832.
THECONSEQUENCESOFTHEGREEKWAROFINDEPENDENCE
TheGreekswereabletosecuretheirindependence.Thisindependencestartedin1827withthesi
gningoftheLondonTreatybywhichtheGreatPowersofBritain,FranceandRussiaagreedthatGr
eeceshouldbeself-governingthoughundertheTurkishoverlordship.Thiswasre-
affirmedbytheTreatyofAdrianopleof1829bywhichtheTurksrecognisedtheGreekindependen
cebutwithsometributestillpaidtotheSultanofTurkeybytheGreeks.In1832,Britain,Franceand
RussiasignedanothertreatyinwhichtheGreekboundarywasextendedfurtherNorthandGreec
ewastobecomeanindependentmonarchyundertheyouthfulPrinceOttoofBavariawhobeganh
isreigninearly1833.
Itresultedintoheavylossesoflivesandpropertyonbothsides.Thewarwascharacterisedbyhosti
litytotheextentthattheGreekskilledeveryMuslimtheycouldlayhandson.Forexample,withonly
sixweeksintothewar,about25,000MuslimshadperishedatthehandsoftheGreekfighters.The
TurksalsorevengedthroughtheAegeanMassacreswheretheymurderedover27,000Ortho
doxGreekChristians,women,menandchildrenalike.OntheEasterDayof1822,thePatriarch(H
ead)oftheGreekOrthodoxChurchwasalsohangedoutsidehisCathedralinConstantinople.Simi
larly,alotofpropertieslikearmsweredestroyedduringthewar.
ThepoliticalindependenceoftheGreeksalteredorchangedtheworkoftheViennasettlementof
1815.TheViennaSettlementof1815hadpreservedthestatusquoinEasternEuropebecauseTur
kishcontrolinGreecewasnotaffected.Therefore,thepoliticalmapoftheOttomanEmpireremai
nedcoveringGreeceasoneofitsvassalstates.However,thepoliticalmapwasalteredorchanged
bytheemergenceofanindependentGreece.
ThewarledtothecollapseoftheCongressSystem.Thesystemwhichhadremainedoperationalsi
ncetheCongressofAix–la–
Chapelleof1818startedweakeningwhentheGreekWarofIndependencebrokeout.Infact,the
GreekWarofIndependencebecameoneofthemajorissuesattheVeronaCongressof1822,leadi
ngtodisagreementsbetweentheGreatPowerssuchthatBritain,RussiaandFrancechosetosup
porttheGreekswhileotherslikeAustriaandPrussiaopposedtheGreekrevolt.TheLondonTreaty
of1827alsoconfirmedthecollapseoftheCongressSystemasitwassignedbyBritain,Franceand
RussiabutAustriaandPrussiarefusedtosignit.ThiswastheendoftheCongressSystem.
ThewarhoweverattemptedtoreviveEuropeandiplomacy.RealizingthattheGreekWarofIndep
endencewasboundtoresumehostilitiesinEuropeespeciallyamongtherivalcontinentalpowers
,theEuropeanstatesmenheldaseriesofconferenceswithanaimofre-
establishingpeaceintheBalkans.Forexamplein1827and1832,thepowersofBritain,Francean

dRussiaheldconferencesinLondonthataccorded(gave)theGreeksindependence.Suchamec
hanismhelpedtoavertapotentialwarinEuropewhichwouldhavedisturbedEuropeanpeace.
Italsoacceleratedthedisintegration(breakup)oftheOttomanEmpire.Becauseofthiswar,theG
reekswereabletobreakawayfromtheOttomanEmpireandbecomeindependentunderPrinceO
ttoofBavariaby1833.Besides,MehmetAligainedhereditarypossessionofEgyptafterbreakinga
wayfromtheOttomanEmpirefollowingtheGreekWarofIndependence.
ItresultedintotheSyriaquestionorconflictof1831-
1841.DuringtheGreekWarofIndependence,theSultanappealedformilitaryhelpfromMehmet
AliofEgyptwhichheofferedafterbeingpromisedtheterritoriesofCrete,MoreaandDamascusfor
hisservices.However,theSultanonlyrewardedMehmetAlibygivinghimCretebutrefusedtohan
dinovertheotherterritories.In1831,MehmetAlisenthissonIbrahimPashawithanEgyptianarm
ywhichincludedandtookoverSyriaandIbrahimPashaevenattemptedtomovetowardsConsta
ntinoplewithinayear.Theconflictwaspartlyresolvedin1833whenBritainandFranceadvisedth
eSultantohandoverSyria,DamascusandPalestine.
TheGreekwarofindependenceforcedBritaintodropherpolicyofnon-
interventionorisolationsoastosafeguardhercommercialinterestsintheTurkishEmpire.AttheV
eronaCongressof1822,Britainhadopposedtheinterventionintheaffairsofanycountry.Howev
er,whenRussiadecidedtointerveneinGreece,Britainwasalsoforcedtointervene.Thiswasbeca
useshefearedthatifRussiagainedinfluenceinGreece,shewastodestabilizeherMediterranean
SearoutetotheFarEastwhereshehadacommercialempire.
ItalsoresultedintotheTreatyofUnkiarSkelessiof1833signedbetweenRussiaandTurkey.Thist
reatyworsenedtherelationsbetweenBritainandRussiabecauseitincreasedRussianinfluencei
ntheaffairsoftheTurkishEmpire.Inthistreatythetwopowerspledgedmilitaryassistancewhere
theirpeaceandsecuritywerethreatened.Byitsterms,theSultanagreedtoclosetheentrancetot
heBlackSea(DardanellesandBosphorous)tothewarshipsofallnationsexceptthoseofRussia.T
hetreatywasasecretonebutBritaineventuallygottoknowaboutitwhichgreatlyannoyedher.Fo
rlong,itwasaBritishpolicytokeepRussiaasfaraspossibleawayfromtheMediterraneanregionb
ecausetheRussianinfluencethreatenedtheBritishcommercialinterestsintheregion.Britainth
ereforebecamedeterminedtocancelthetreatyassoonaspossible.
ThewaralsounderminedLouisPhilippe’spopularitybothinandoutsideFranceandpartlycontrib
utedtohisdownfallin1848.ThewayKingLouisPhilippehandledtheMehmetAliaffairbyyieldingt
otheBritishpressure(towithdrawhissupportfromMehmetAli)annoyedtheFrenchgloryseeker
sliketheBonapartists.TheChiefMinisterofFranceAdolphThierswantedwaragainstBritainbutL
ouisPhilippewasopposedtothewar.Consequently,AdolphThierswasdismissed.Thiswasagre
atdisappointmenttomanyFrenchmenwhoapparentlyregardedLouisPhilippeasacowardforha
vingsuccumbedtotheBritishdemands.Thismadehimunpopularinhiseyesofthegloryseekers,t
husleadingtohisdownfallin1848.

TheaftermathofthewarincreasedhostilitybetweenRussiaandBritainovertheBalkans,leading
totheStraitsConventionof1841andlatertheCrimeanWarof1854-
1856.TheStraitsConventionof1841wasatreatybasicallymeanttoreversethetermsoftheUnki
arSkelessiTreatyof1833whichwasathreattotheBritisheconomicandnavalinterestsintheMedi
terraneanarea.ItwassignedbetweenBritainandTurkeycontaininganarticlethatTurkeywasto
closetheStraitsofDardanellesandBosphoroustowarshipsofallnations,intimesofpeaceincludi
ngthoseofRussia.TheconventionthereforewasasuccessforBritainbecausethethreatsofRussi
anexpansionhadbeencheckedbutitgreatlyannoyedRussiawhichhadlostinfluenceintheregio
n.ThissituationofhostilitylaterresultedintotheoutbreakoftheCrimeanWarof1854-1856.
ThewarfurtherexposedthehiddeninterestsoftheGreatpowersofEuropetowardstheOttoman
Empire.Forexample,EuropeandtheworldatlargerealizedthatRussia’saimwastobreakuptheO
ttomanEmpirebysupportingtheBalkannationalistsliketheGreekswhichwouldleadtothedevel
opmentofastrongRussianEmpiretotheEastofEurope.Britainwasbentontheprotectionofhere
conomicinterestbypreventingasfaraspossibleRussianadvanceintotheMediterraneanRegion
.ItalsobecameclearthatFrancewantedtopromoteherpoliticalandeconomicinterestswithinth
eterritoriesoftheOttomanEmpire.
TheGreekWaroftheIndependenceinspiredtheoutbreakofotherliberalandnationalisticuprisin
gsinEuropeandhencestirredupthe19thcenturyEuropeanliberalismandnationalism.Forexam
plewithintheOttomanEmpire,severalnationalisticrevoltsbrokeoutwithanaimofdeclaringind
ependence.Forinstance,in1853therewasarevoltintheOttomanprovincesofMoldaviaandWall
achiawhichpartlyledtotheCrimeanWarof1854-
1856.Between1877and1878,theBulgarians,MontenegrosandBosniansalsorevoltedinanatt
empttoendtheOttomanrule.In1885,anotherrevoltagainsttheSultanalsooccurredinEasternR
umeliawhichresultedintheunionofthisterritorywithBulgaria,theverythingtheBerlincongress
of1878haddismantled(destroyed).In1908,asectionoftheTurksdeclaredarevolutionknowna
stheYoungTurksMovementdemandingforaconstitutionalorliberalgovernmentandabsol
uteequalitybetweentheChristiansandMuslimsintheEmpire.Becausethemovementwasgreat
lysupportedbythearmy,SultanAbdul-
Hamidwasforcedtograntaparliamentarysystem,completefreedomofpoliticalassociationand
discussionandthereturnofmanyexiledpolitician.InotherpartsofEurope,theGreekrevoltinspir
edthe1830liberalandnationalisticrevoltsinBelgium(theBelgianrevolutionof1830),Poland(th
ePolishrevoltof1830),Italy(theItalianrevoltsof1830)andthegeneral1848revolutionsinEurop
e.
ThewarfurtherintensifiedthepersecutionoftheChristiansintheOttomanEmpire.Thetensiona
ndconflictsbetweentheChristiansandMuslimshadbegunasearlyasthe15 thcenturywhentheOt
tomansexpandedintotheChristiandominatedareasofCentralandEasternEurope.TheGreekre
volt,inwhichmanyMuslimswereexecuted,simplyannoyedtheSultanandcompelledhimtoreve
ngebywithdrawingeventheverylittleprivilegeshehadaccordedtosomeOttomanChristiansubj
ects.Theconsequencewasthatbetween1875and1878severalChristiansintheOttomanEmpir
eweremassacredbytheMuslims,manymorepersecutedandtheirprivilegesretracted(withdra
wn).

AssesstheimpactoftheGreekwarofindependenceonEuropeupto1878.
THESYRIANQUESTION,1831-1841
ThiswasaconflictbetweentheSultanofTurkeyandhisvassalorGovernorMehmetAliofEgypto
verthecontrolofSyria.ThisconflictemergedafterMehmetAli’sforcefuloccupationofSyriain183
1.TheconflictwascausedbytheSultan’srefusaltohandovertoMehmetAliallthepromisedterrito
ries.DuringtheGreekwarofindependence,theSultancalledonMehmetAlitosuppresstherevolt
inreturnfortheterritoriesofDamascus,Crete,andMoreaamongothers.However,theSultanref
usedtokeephispromise.HeonlygavehimCreteandrefusedtohandovertheotherprovinces.1n1
831,MehmetAlidecidedtosendhiswarlikesonIbrahimPashawhoinvadedandtookover(conqu
ered)SyriaafterdefeatingtheTurksattheBattleofKoniahin1832.Hiscampaignwassosucces
sfulthatwithinayear,hewasthreateningtooccupyConstantinople.
TheSultanreactedtotheEgyptianinvasionbycallingupontheEuropeanpowersforpossiblehelp
.BritainandFrancewerestillbusyentangledwiththeBelgianRevolutionof1830andthereforeco
uldnotofferanyassistancetotheSultanthoughtheywereconcernedaboutMehemetAli’sthreatt
othesurvivaloftheTurkishEmpire.Thusindesperation,theSultandespitehissuspicionsaboutR
ussia’smotivesinhisempireturnedtoRussiaforhelp.Consequently,theRussianforcesmovedin
totheBalkansreadytodefendTurkeyagainstMehemetAli,whichworriedBritainandFrance.Asa
result,thetwopowerswhichfearedtheRussianinfluenceintheBalkansputpressureontheSulta
ntomakepeacewithMehemetAlibygivinghimSyria,DamascusandPalestinewhichtheSult
anreluctantlydidinApril1833.Throughthis,Palmerstone-
theForeignSecretaryofBritainhadsucceededinmakingthepresenceoftheRussiantroopsinTur
keyuseless.
Ontheotherhand,RussiamadeimportantgainsfromtheSultaninreturnforherassistanceagain
stMehemetAli.ThiswasintheTreatyofUnkiar-
SkelessiofJuly1833signedbetweenRussiaandTurkey.Bythistreaty,theSultanagreedtoclo
setheentrancetotheBlackSea(thestraitsofDardanellesandBosphorus)tothewarshipsofallnat
ionsintimesofwarexceptthoseofRussia.ThistreatywassecretbuttheBritishForeignSecret
ary-
PalmerstonesoongottoknowofitandthereforeitgreatlyannoyedBritainandotherpowerssince
ithadgivenRussiaalotofmilitaryandpoliticalinfluenceintheregion.
Britain’sopportunityforrevisingthetreatyofUnkiar-
SkelessiofJuly1833soonarrived.In1839,theSyrianquestionresumed.Turkey,unabletocont
ainthepainoflosingSyriatotherulerofEgyptmadealastefforttorecoverit.However,theTurkish
armiesagainfailedandthenavysenttoattackMehemetAli’sfleetsin1839surrenderedtotheEgy
ptianforcessupportedbyFrance.BritainquicklyjoinedtocheckontheRussianinterventionaswe
llastopreventFrance’ssupportforMehemetAlisinceitwouldthreatenhernavalandcommerciali
nterestsintheMediterraneanRegion.Consequently,in1840Palmerstonecalledaconferenceof

theGreatPowersinLondontodiscusstheSyrianQuestiondeliberatelyleavingoutFrancewhichh
adsupportedMehemetAliin1839.
TheConferenceofLondonreachedanagreement,knownasthe ConventionorTreatyofLon
donof1840,signedbytherepresentativesofBritain,RussiaandAustria.Bythisagreement,Me
hemetAliwasofferedtitle“PashaorrulerofEgyptonahereditarybasis”andSouthernhalfofSy
riasoastosatisfyhisinterests.HewasalsorequestedtomakepeacewiththeSultanandwasgiven
tendaystoagreetotheterms.WhenMehemetAliandhisallyFrancerefused,theGreatpowersha
dnooptionbutforce.Consequently,acombinedforceoftheGreatPowerswassentagainstMehe
metAli’sforcesinCretewhileapowerfulBritishnavywassentbyPalmerstonetoAlexandria(Egyp
t).ThesetwomovestogetherwiththedismissalofhiscloseallyAdolphThiersbyLouisPhilippeleft
MehemetAliisolatedwhichforcedhimtosubmitandacceptdefeat.Bythe SecondConvention
orTreatyofLondonof1840(thistimesignedbyFrance),hewasforcedtogiveupbothSyriaan
dCretetotheSultan,butwasconfirmedasthehereditaryrulerofEgypt.
THESTRAITSCONVENTIONOF1841
ThiswastheclimaxoftheSyrianquestionandwasyetanothertreatysecuredbytheBritishForeig
nSecretaryPalmerstonethroughwhichhesucceededinendingtheTreatyofUnkiar-
Skelessiof1833.HavingregainedhislostterritoriesfromMehemetAlimainlythroughtheinitiativ
eofPalmerstoneincallingtheLondonConferencesof1840,theSultanhadnooptionbuttoaccept
Palmerstone’sterms.BytheStraitsConventionof1841TurkeywouldclosenotonlytheDardane
lles,butalsotheBosphorustothewarshipsofallnationsintimesofpeace,includingRussia,thus
makingitimpossibleforRussiatosendherwarshipsintotheMediterraneanSeawhenshepleased
.Therefore,theTreatyofUnkiar-Skelessiof1833wasrevised.Generally,thecrisisof1839–
1840wasvictoryforPalmerston(theForeignSecretaryofGreatBritain)becausehehaddefeated
MehemetAli,securedfriendshipwiththeSultanattheexpenseofRussiaandhadalsodefeatedth
epolicyofFrance.
SummaryoftheCausesoftheSyrianquestionorcrisis
 ThefailureofSultanMahmoodIItocompensateMehemetofEgyptwiththeterritoriestha
thehadpromisedhimforhisassistanceduringtheGreekwarofindependence.
 ThecollapseofinternationaldiplomacythroughtheCongressSystemlefttheOttomanE
mpireexposedtoconflictsliketheSyrianquestion.
 ThemilitaryandeconomicweaknessofTurkeycausedthecrisis.By1831,Turkeywasalre
adylabeledasthe“SickmanofEurope”duetoherweakness.ThisinspiredMehemetAlitog
otowarwithTurkey.
 TheEgyptianorMehemetAli’sinvasionofSyriain1831sparkedoffthewar.
 TheBelgianrevolutionof1830–
1839kepttheEuropeanpowersdividedandthereforemadethemunabletoaddresstheS
yrianquestion.
 ThesecretTreatyofUnkiar-
Skelessiof1833alsoledtotheconflict.ThistreatydemandedTurkeytoclosetheentrance

totheBlackSeatootherpowersexceptRussia.ThismadeBritaintoentertheSyrianquesti
onsoastodestroytheTreatyofUnkiar-Skelessiof1833whichacceleratedthecrisis.
 TheRussianimperialismorRussianexpansionistpolicytowardstheOttomanEmpirecau
sedwarastheEuropeanpowersweredeterminedtostopheratallcosts.
 France’smilitarysupporttoEgyptmadeMehemetAlideterminedtoinvadeandoccupySy
ria,henceleadingtotheoutbreakofthewar.ThiswasbecauseFrancewantedtosafeguar
dhereconomicinterestsintheregionandtopromotesolidaritywiththeEgyptians.
 Russia’smilitarysupporttoTurkeymadehertoresistMehemetAli,henceescalatingtheS
yrianquestion.
 ThefearamongtheEuropeanpowersofthemilitarystrengthofMehemetAliofEgyptmad
ethemtointerveneintheSyrianquestionandsaveTurkeyfromcollapsing.Forexample,t
hemilitarydefeatoftheTurksbyMehemetAli’sforcesatthe BattleofKoniahof1832ma
deRussiatointerveneonthesideofTurkeywhichacceleratedthecrisis.
 ThedeterminationofSultanMahmoodIItopreserveorsafeguardtheintegrity(existence
)oftheOttomanEmpireinEuropeledtothecrisis.AfterlosingGreecein1832,theSultanof
Turkeyneverwishedtoloseanyotherterritory.ThismadetheSultantoresistagainstMeh
emetAliwhichacceleratedthecrisis.
 Thefailureofthetwo1840LondonConferencestocompletelysolvetheSyrianquestionle
dtothecontinuationofthecrisis.
 Theroleofthemenonspotordecisionmakersinthevariouscountriesinthevariouscounti
escausedthecrisis.TheseincludedAdolphThiers(PrimeorChiefMinister)ofFrance,Pal
merstone(ForeignSecretaryofBritain)andTsarNicholasIofRussiaamongothers.Their
actionstowardsthatinvolvedsupportingeitherEgyptorTurkey(thepartiesinvolvedinth
ecrisis)greatlyescalatedtheSyrianquestion.
EffectsoftheSyrianQuestion
Thecrisisledtothelossoflivesanddestructionofpropertyonbothsides.ForexampleattheBattle
sofKoniahof1832andNezibof1839theTurksweremassivelykilledbytheEgyptianforces.Simila
rly,townslikeBeirutandAcrewerebombardedanddestroyedbytheEgyptians.Egypt,Russia,Bri
tainandFrancealsoincurredconsiderablelosesintermsoflifeandpropertyastheywereinvolved
intheconflict.
EgyptwhichwasatthecentreoftheconflictwasdecisivelydefeatedandforcedtosurrenderSyria
toTurkeybyacombinedforceofBritain,RussiaandAustria.Therefore,MehmetAli’simperialism
overTurkeywasfinallyended.However,thoughMehemetAli’sambitionswerecheckedafterhis
defeat,hewasalittlebitconsoledbytheGreatpowerswhenhewasmadethehereditaryrulerofEg
yptandwasgivenfullcontrolofEgyptbythesecondLondonConventionortreatyof1840.
ItrestoreddiplomacyamongEuropeanpowersatatimewhentheCongressSystemhadalreadyc
ollapsed.ThiswaswitnessedthroughtheholdingofthetwoLondonConferencesof1840todisc
usstheSyrianquestion.

BritainregistereddiplomaticvictoryoverRussiafromtheSyrianquestion.Palmerstone–
theBritishForeignSecretarywasabletorevisethetreatyof Unkiar-
SkelessiTreatyof1833whichhadpreviouslythreatenedtheBritishinterestsintheregion.Accord
ingly,theBlackSeawasneutralizedandthusRussia’sshort-
livedsupremacywasundermined.BritainthusmanagedtopreservetheintegrityoftheTurkishE
mpire.
ItfurtherexposedtheweaknessoftheOttomanEmpireandthisthereforejustifiedtheviewthats
hewasthe“SickmanofEurope”.Thiswasbecause;first;shehadbeendefeatedbyherownprovin
cialgovernorMehmetAliuntiltheinterventionofotherEuropeanpowers.Secondly,herdesperat
erequestforhelpmoreoverfromRussiaexposedthefactthatshehadbecometooweakandtoode
sperateforhelpagainsttherevoltingGovernorMehmetAli.
ThequestionpromoteddiplomaticrelationshiporfriendshipbetweenBritainandTurkey.Witha
ssistancefromBritain,TurkeysucceededinregainingherlostterritoriesofSyriaandCreteby184
1.TurkeythusbecameextremelygratefultoBritainfortherolesheplayedintheLondonTreatyof
1840.Inreturn,TurkeyallowedBritaintorevisethetermsofthetreatyof Unkiar-
SkelessiTreatyof1833.
TheSyrianquestiondisruptedEuropeanpeacebetween1831and1841becausetheGreatpower
sweredirectlyinvolvedinaconflictandalmostdeclaredwaragainsteachother.Forexample,Brit
ainandRussiaalliedwiththeSultanofTurkeyagainstFranceandEgypt.Haditnotbeenthecautio
usorpeacefulcharacterofLouisPhilippe,therewaseverypossibilitythatFrancewoulddeclarew
aronBritainattheheightoftheSyriancrisis.
TheSyrianquestionledtothedownfallofLouisPhilippein1848ashewasconsideredacowardbyt
heFrenchmen.TheFrenchmenweredisappointedbythelossincurredinthebargainforinternati
onalsupremacy.AttheheightoftheSyriancrisis,Francewasisolatedanddiplomaticallydefeate
d.ShewasnoteveninvitedintheLondonconventionof1840becauseshewasconsideredasthee
nemy.ThisannoyedtheFrenchmenwhodecidedtorevoltin1848sotooverthrowLouisPhilippe.
ItledtothesigningoftheStraitsConventionof1841whichconcludedtheSyriancrisis.Thistreaty
wasinitiatedbyBritainandsignedbyotherpowerslikeRussia,Austria,TurkeyandFrance.Throu
ghthistreaty,Britainwasabletorevisethe Unkiar-
SkelessiTreatyof1833andpreventRussianexpansiontowardstheOttomanEmpire.Thiswasbe
causethetreatyresolvedthatTurkeywastoclosethetwoentrancestotheBlackSea(theDardane
llesandtheBosphorus)tothewarshipsofallnationsincludingRussiasothatnostatethreatensCo
nstantinoplewhichwasthemoststrategicallylocatedcityintheworld.
ItledtotheoutbreakoftheCrimeanWarof1854–
1856becauseitstrainedrelationsbetweenBritainandRussia.RussiafeltcheatedbytheStraitsC
onventionof1841whichgreatlyannoyedher.Thisconsequentlycontributedtotheoutbreakoft
heCrimeaWarin1854whichwasfoughtbetweenRussiaononesideagainstTurkey,BritainandFr
anceandlateronjoinedbyPiedmont(Italy).

Questions
1. ExaminethecausesandeffectsoftheSyrianCrisis1831-1841.
2. Explainthesignificanceofthe1831–
1841SyrianconflictintheHistoryofEurope.
THECRIMEANWAR,1854-1856
TheCrimeanWarwasthethirdandmostimportanteventoftheEasternQuestion.ItbrokeoutinS
eptember1854andendedinSeptember1856.ItwasfoughtontheCrimeanPeninsulaneartheBl
ackSeabetweenRussiaononesideagainstTurkey,BritainandFranceandlateronjoinedbyPied
mont(Italy).ItwasthefirstmajorwarthatinvolvedtheGreatpowerssincethedaysofNapoleonIa
ndtheconclusionoftheViennaSettlementof1815.FollowingtheRussianoccupationoftheTurki
shprovincesofMoldaviaandWallachiainJuly1853anddestructionofTurkishfleetatSinopein
November1853,FranceandBritaindeclaredwaronRussia.Thewarwentonupto1856whenR
ussiawasdefeatedbythealliedpowers.
Thewarhasbeendescribedasacrimeandinsomecirclesasthemostuselessandwastefulwareve
rfoughtinhumanhistory.Ithasalsobeendefinedasaquarrelbetweenmonksorthemostunnece
ssarywar.Thiswasbecauseitwasfoughtlargelyonunclearobjectives.Thewarthusoriginatedfr
omtrivial,insignificantandunjustifiedcauses.Therewerehoweversomejustifiableissueswhic
hcompelledpowerstogotowarby1854.
THECAUSESOFTHECRIMEANWAR
ThequarrelorconflictbetweenFranceandRussiaovertheprotectionorguardianshipoftheHoly
PlacesledtotheoutbreakoftheCrimeanwar.TheOttomanEmpirecontrolledPalestinewhichha
dBethlehemandJerusalemthatcontainedtheHolyPlacesbelievedtobetheplaceofbirthandcru
cifixionaswellasthetombofJesusChristrespectively.Thesetwoplaceswerethereforeofgreatre
ligiousimportancetotheChristiansofvariousdenominationsespeciallytheCatholicandOrthod
oxChristians.FrancehadbeengiventherighttoprotecttheseHolyPlacesduringthe16 thcenturyb
utsheneglectedthisdutyinthe18thcentury.Asaresult,afterthesigningoftheTreatyofKuchuk
Kainarjiin1774betweenRussiaandtheOttomanEmpire,Russiawasallowedtakeovertheguar
dianshipoftheseHolyPlacesandtobetheofficialprotectoroftheOrthodoxChristianslivinginthe
OttomanEmpire.In1850,NapoleonIIIwhowantedtowinthesupportoftheCatholicsinFrancere
vivedtheFrenchclaimsandwhichin1853theSultanacceptedandthereforerecognizedtheFrenc
hmonksastheguardiansoftheholyplaces.RussiaprotestedthemoveandsenttoConstantinopl
eanaggressiveambassadorPrinceMenchikoffwhodemandedRussiatoberecognizedasthepro
tectoroftheholyplaces.SuchconflictingclaimsbyFranceandRussiafinallycausedtheCrimeanw
arof1854–1856.

TheRussianclaimsofprotectionovertheOrthodoxChristiansoftheTurkishEmpireledtotheoutb
reakoftheCrimeanwar.In1853,TsarNicholasIdemandedthatRussiashouldbegiventherightto
protectalltheOrthodoxChristianslivingintheOttomanEmpiresinceRussiawasalsoOrthodoxin
faith.ThedangerofthisdemandwasthatRussiawouldusesuchaprivilegetointerfereineverypar
toftheOttomanEmpireforherownbenefit.Asaresult,theSultanrejectedthisdemandwhichann
oyedRussiaandthisincreasedconflictsthatledtothewarby1854.
TheRussiansupporttothePan-
SlavmovementledtotheoutbreakoftheCrimeanWar.TheOttomanEmpirewasahometotheSla
vracewhichwasbeingoppressedbytheTurks.Asaresult,amovementknownasthePan-
SlavMovementwasformedtouniteandliberatetheSlavstatesontheBalkanPeninsularfromthe
Ottomanrule.ThiscausednationalisticrebellionsliketheSerbianrevoltof1815andtheGreekWa
rofIndependenceof1821–
1832.TheseSlavicterritoriesintheBalkanscalledforassistancefromRussiawhichclaimedrespo
nsibilityoftheirprotectiongiventhatmajorityoftheRussiansalsobelongedtotheSlavrace.Whe
nthesultanrefusedtograntRussiathemandatetoprotecttheSlavsinthearea,Russiadecidedtoo
ccupyWallachiaandMoldavia.TurkeydemandedthatRussiawithdrawsfromthetwoprovinces
andwhensherefused,TurkeydecidedtodeclarewaronRussiain1854whichsparkedofftheCrim
eanWar.
TheCrimeanWaralsopartlyarosefromTsarNicholasI’srefusaltorecognizetheemperorshipofN
apoleonIII.NapoleonIIIwantedtopunishTsarNicholasIIIforconstantlyaddressinghimas“ my
goodfriendandnotasmydearbrother”whichwasamannercommonamongtheEuropeansover
eignsorrulersthen.NicholasIhadrudelyrefusedtorecognizetheequalstatusofNapoleonIIIwit
hotherrulersofEuropeandwouldnotaddresshimasbrother.NicholasIIIalwayslookeddownup
onNapoleonIIIasarulermerelyelectedbypeopleandthereforewhosesovereigntylayinthewill
ofpeople.HewasthusnotequaltothelegendarystatusoftheemperorsofEurope.Thisattitudeof
NicholasIwassoannoyingtoNapoleonIIIthatheoptedtolaunchwaragainstRussiainordertote
achtheformeralesson.
TheCrimeanWarwasalsoduetoNapoleonIII’sdesiretoavengethedisastrousMoscowcampaig
nof1812.In1812,hisuncleNapoleonIhadbeenbadlyhumiliatedbytheRussians.Ofthe600,000
menhewentwithonlyabout20,000returnedhome.Thiscampaignwassodisastrousthatitcomp
letelyruinedhiscareerasanemperor.Thus,ifRussiawastoengageinaninternationalwar,Napol
eonIIIwasreadytoengageinFrancesoastoavengethe1812Moscowdisaster.Thus,theCrimea
nWarof1854providedhimwiththelongawaitedopportunitytoavenge.
TheactionsoftheBritishambassadorinTurkeyStratfordRedicliffeworsenedtherelationsbe
tweenBritain,TurkeyandRussiaatallcosts.Forexample,supportedbytheBritishgovernmentu

nderLordAberdeen,heencouragedthesultantostandfirmagainstRussia’sdemands.Stratford
urgedthesultantorecognizetheFrenchclaimsofthesolerighttoprotecttheholyplacesandChris
tiansintheempiresomethingheknewwouldannoyRussia.AsaresultinJuly1853,Russiarespon
dedbymovinghertroopsintotheprovincesofMoldaviaandWallachia.Thiswasasteptowardswa
r.WhenTurkeydemandedthatRussiawithdrawsherforcesfromthetwoprovincesandRussiaref
used,Turkeydeclaredwar,hencetheoutbreakoftheCrimeanWarof1854–1856.
Theanti-
Russianhysteria(phobia)orfeelingsinBritaincausedtheCrimeanWar.Britainwantedtochec
kandstopRussia’sdictatorshipoverEuropeespeciallyintheBalkan.Britainwasademocraticcou
ntryandconsequentlyregardedRussia’sdespoticruleasrepressiveandoutdated.WhenRussia
occupiedWallachiaandMoldaviainJuly1853,Britainfeareditwasboundtoimposeherdictators
hipovertheBalkanstates.ThisbroughtBritainintoconflictwithRussia,theclimaxofwhichwasth
eoutbreakoftheCrimeanWarin1854.
TheactivitiesoftheRussianambassadortoConstantinople(Turkey)increasedthechancesofth
ewar.PrinceMenchikoffwasaveryaggressiveandwar-
likeman.Forexamplein1853,hedemandedthesultantorecognizeRussiaasthelegitimateprote
ctoroftheHolyPlaces.HimastheRussianambassadorurgedRussiatooccupyWallachiaandMol
davia,somethingthatTurkey,BritainandFrancecouldnotwelcome.ThispromptedtheBritisha
mbassadortoConstantinopletoadamantlyadvisethesultantorejectMenchikoff’sdemands.Th
eendresultwasthewaronthePeninsularofCrimeain1854.
NOTE:BecauseofsuchtrivialcausesoftheCrimeanwar,ithasbeenreferredtoasthemostuseles
sandwastefulwareverfoughtbyaman.
Russia’soccupationoftheTurkishprovincesofMoldaviaandWallachia,inJuly1853causedth
eCrimeanWarof1854.Followingthesultan’srefusaltograntMenchikoff’sgovernment(Russia)
themandatetoprotecttheholyplacesintheearlymonthsof1853,Russiathensenthertroopsinto
thetwoprovinceswhichindicatedagreatsteptowardswar.ButtheGreatPowersofBritain,Austri
a,PrussiaandFrancetriedtoavertwarbycallingaconferenceinVienna.Proposalswerethenmad
edemandingRussiatowithdrawfromMoldaviaandWallachiawhichsherefused.Subsequen
tly,TurkeydeclaredwaronRussiainOctober1853,BritainandFrancejoinedTurkeyby27 thMarch
1854asthewarshiftedfromWallachia-MoldaviatotheCrimeanPeninsula,thustheCrimeanwar.
TheweaknessesoftheTurkishEmpirebecameoneofthestrongreasonsthatledtotheCrimeanw
ar.TheTurkishEmpirewasverysick(weak)throughoutthe19 thcenturywhichmadehervulnerab
letoforeignintervention.TheGreekWarofIndependenceof1821–
1832andtheSyrianQuestionof1831–

1841exposedtheempire’spoliticalandmilitaryweaknessesbecauseithadtocallinforeignsupp
ortinordertofightagainstherenemies.Shealsohadmanyadministrativeproblemslikecorruptio
nandinefficiencywhichcontinuedunchecked.Theempirewasalsoextremelylargewithterritori
eslocatedonthreecontinents(Europe,AsiaandAfrica)whichtheOttomansultanscouldnoteffe
ctivelygovern.ThisincreasedthecolonialappetiteorambitionsoftheImperialPowerslikeRussia
whoseimperialismwasopposedbyBritainandFrancewhichledtotheoutbreakoftheCrimeanW
arin1854.
ThecommercialoreconomicinterestsoftheEuropeanPowersintheBalkanregionalsocausedth
eCrimeanwar.Forexample,BritainwantedtoprotecthercommercialinterestsintheMediterran
eanandBlackSeasasmuchastheFrenchdesiredtopromotetheFrenchtradeinthesameareas(E
asternMediterranean).TheywerealarmedbyRussia’streatyofUnkiar-
Skelessiof1833withthesultanwhichhadvirtuallygivenhermonopolyovertheentrancetotheBl
ackSeaknownasBosphorus.Consequently,RussiawoulduseConstantinopleasabasetocrossa
ndaccesstheMediterraneanSea.Thus,tocontainapossibleRussiandominanceovertheMedite
rraneantrade,theyjoinedwarwithTurkeyagainstRussia,hencecausingtheCrimeanwarof185
4-1856.
Russia’spolicyandattitudetotheOttomanEmpirealsoledtowar.After1841,thepolicyofTsarNic
holasIbecameoutspokenlyopposedtothecontinuedexistenceoftheTurkishEmpire.Variousst
atementsmadebytheTsarseemedtoindicatetootherpowersthathewasdeterminedtobreakth
eempireapart.Forexample,heoftenreferredtoitasthesickmanofEuropeandgaveitashisopinio
nthatnoamountofdoctoringwouldsaveher.OnavisittoBritainin1844,NicholasIsuggestedtov
ariousBritishstatesmenthatBritainandRussiashouldsettlethefateofTurkeybetweenthemselv
es–
BritaintotakeEgyptandCreteandRussiatooccupyConstantinopletemporarily,theindependen
ceoftheBalkanstatesbeguaranteedbythepowerswhiletheimmediateprotectorofthesestates
wastobeRussia.In1853,heagainmadesimilarproposals.BritainandFrancecouldn’tstandRuss
ia’spoliciesandhencetheydeclaredwaronherin1854.
TheCrimeanWaralsooriginatedfromtheRussianimperialismintheBalkanregion.Herimperiali
sticdesignsintheBalkanswereaseriousthreattotheBritish,FrenchandTurksthemselves.Herin
terestinTurkeyhadbegunlongbeforetheGreekWarofIndependencebuthadbeencheckedbyB
ritain.Russiatookadvantageoftheweaknessofthesultantogaincommercial,strategicaswellas
economicopportunitieswithintheempireandthesewereguaranteedthroughthetreatyofUnki
arSkelessiof1833whichBritainlatercancelledthroughtheStraitsConventionof1841.WhenRus
siaoccupiedWallachiaandMoldaviainJuly1853,Turkey,BritainandFranceprovedtheirsuspicio

nthatRussiawasdeterminedtodisintegratetheOttomanEmpire.Therefore,theydeclaredwaro
nherin1854soastoprotectTurkeyfromtheRussianimperialism.
TheBritishdesiretomaintainthebalanceofpowerinEuropeledtotheoutbreakoftheCrimeanWa
r.BritainunderPrimeMinisterLORDABERDEENwasinterestedinthepreservationoftheTurki
shEmpiresoastomaintainthebalanceofpower.HestatedthatTsarNicholasIwasjustexaggerati
ngtheweaknessoftheTurkishEmpireforhisownselfishimperialisticinterests.Britaintherefore
wantedtopreservetheTurkishEmpiresuchthatitwouldbeusedasabulwarkorbufferstatetoche
ckontheRussianambitionsandinfluenceintheEasternEurope.Becauseofthistherefore,Britain
hadtofighttheRussiawhichcausedtheCrimeanwarof1854–1856.
TheviolationoftheStraitsConventionof1841byFranceandBritainledtotheoutbreakoftheCrim
eanWar.ThisconventionortreatyhadclosedthetwoentrancestotheBlackSea(Dardanellesand
Bosphorus)tothewarshipsofallnationsintimesofpeace.However,followingtheRussianoccup
ationofMoldaviaandWallachiainJuly1853,FranceandBritainformedanalliedforceandinMarc
h1854theysentitacrossthestraitofBosphorusdemandingRussiatowithdrawfromthetwopro
vincesbacktohernavalbaseatSebastopol.TotheRussians,thetwohadviolatedtheinternationa
lStraitsConventionwhichhadrestrictedaccesstowarshipsofallnationsduringtimesofpeace.Th
isforcedtheRussianstorejectthedemand,hencepromptingthealliestodeclarewaronRussiaon
27thMarch1854,henceleadingtotheCrimeanWar.
ThecollapseoftheCongressSystemandinternationaldiplomacycausedtheCrimeanWar.By18
54,therewasnosingleinternationalorganizationtosettleEuropeandisputesamicably(peacefu
lly).TheCongressSystemwhichwasestablishedin1818tomaintainEuropeanpeaceandstabilit
yhadcollapsedby1830.Besides,someEuropeandiplomatswhohadattemptedtokeepEuropea
tpeacelikeMetternichhadbeenoverthrownbythe1848revolutionsinEurope.Thus,thekindofst
atesmenEuropehadbetween1848and1853werethelikesofStratforddeRedicliffe,Menchikoff
andNicholasIIamongotherswhohadlittleregardfordiplomacyinresolvingEuropeanproblems.
Thisiswhyevenifallcircumstancesdidn’twarrantwar,suchpersonshuntedforitin1854.Forexa
mple,StratforddeRedicliffeincreasedthesultan’sadamancybyencouraginghimtorejectanyR
ussianproposals.
Russia’sactofsinkingtheTurkishfleetorwarshipsatSinopeonBlackSeawastheimmediatecau
seoftheCrimeanwar.InNovember1853,theRussianwarshipssanktheTurkishbattleshipsasth
eyweresetablaze(setonfire)inwhatiscommonlyknownasthe“ SinopeMassacre”of1853.Turk
eyregardedthisasanunjustifiablemassacreasmanyTurkishsoldiersdied.ThisthenmadeBrit
ainandFrancewhowerealliesofTurkeytodeclarewaronRussiain1854,hencesparkingofftheCri
meanwar.Inthiscasetherefore,RussiawastoblamefortheoutbreakoftheCrimeanwarof1854–
1856.

THEDISTRIBUTIONOFTHEBLAMEFORTHEOUTBREAKOFTHECRIMEANWAROF1
854-1856
ThedistributionoftheresponsibilityfortheoutbreakoftheCrimeanwarcanbe:
 AccordingtocountrieslikeTurkey,Britain,FranceandRussia.
 AccordingtopersonalitiessuchasNapoleonIII,SultanMahmoodII,TsarNicholasI,Palm
erstonandRedcliff.
TowhatextentwasFranceresponsiblefortheoutbreakoftheCrimeanwarof1854-
1856?
FRANCE
 France’sdesiretorevengeagainstthe1812MoscowcampaigndefeatbyRussiacausedth
ewar.
 France’spolicytowardstheHolyPlacescausedthewar.
 France’sdesiretocheckRussia’sexpansionpolicyandinfluenceintheBalkansorOttoman
Empire.
 France’sdesiretopromoteforeigngloryorprestigeabroad.
 FranceviolatedtheStraitsConventionorTreatyof1841andshesenthertroopsaroundCo
nstantinoplein1853.ThisencouragedRussiatosinktheTurkishfleetatSinopewhichspar
kedofftheCrimeanwar.
RUSSIA
 Russia’sexpansionpolicyorimperialismintheBalkanregionconflictedwiththeBritishec
onomicinterestsinthesameregionleadingtotheoutbreakoftheCrimean.
 Russia’sdesiretocontroltheHolyPlacesresultedintoconflictswiththeFrenchwhohadbe
engivenresponsibilityofprotectingtheholyplaces.
 Russia’sdesiretoprotectOrthodoxChristiansintheTurkishEmpireincreasedherconflict
swithTurkishEmpireleadingtowar.
 Russia’soccupationoftheTurkishprovincesofMoldaviaandWallachiainJuly1853andhe
rrefusaltowithdrawfromtheareaevenafterbeinggivenanordertowithdrawbyTurkeyc
ausedwar.
 Russia’ssinkingoftheTurkishfleetorbattleshipsatSinopeinNovember1853.
 Russia’seconomicinterestsorambitionsintheTurkishEmpireespeciallyintheMediterra
neanandBlackseasannoyedBritainwhichalsohadsimilarinterestsinthearealeadingtot
heoutbreakoftheCrimeanwar.

 Russia’spolicyofsupportingPAN-
SLAVISMintheBalkansorOttomanempirei.e.sheencouragedtheSlavraceinTurkeyto
rebelagainsttheOttomanadministrationforexampletheGreekswhichincreasedthe“sic
kness”ofTurkeyandthiscontributedtotheoutbreakoftheCrimeanwarby1854.
 Russia’smiscalculationofthereactionoftheEuropeanpowersaftertheSinopeofNovem
ber1853massacrecausedtheCrimeanwar.RussiathoughtthattheotherEuropeanpow
erscouldnotallywithTurkey,aMuslimstate.ThesubsequentmilitaryresponsefromBrita
inandFranceiswhatencouragedTurkeytodeclarewaronRussiain1854.
BRITAIN
 Britain’sdesiretoprotecthereconomicinterestsinOttomanEmpireandotherplacesliket
heFarEast[India]conflictedwithRussianexpansionistpolicyintheBalkanswhichledtow
ar.
 HerdesiretomaintaintheEuropeanbalanceofpowerwhichRussianhadthreatenedbyex
tendingherinfluenceinEasternEuropeortheOttomanEmpirecausedtheCrimeanwar.
 Britain’spolicytowardsthetreatyofUncialSkinlessof1833throughthesigningoftheStrai
tsConventionof1841annoyedRussialeadingtotheCrimeanwar.
 Britain’sdesiretomaintaintheexistenceoftheTurkishEmpirecausedthewar.Britainwas
againsttheRussiandesiretobreakupfromtheTurkishEmpirebecausethiswouldpromot
etheinfluenceofRussiaintheBalkans.ThisannoyedRussialeadingtothewar.
 Britain’spresenceintheCrimeanwaralsoattractedotherpowerslikeFrancetojointhewa
r.
 BritainincreasedthequarrelsorconflictsbetweenFranceandRussiaovertheissueofthe
holyplaces.
 BritainsupportedFrance’sclaimstocontrolorprotecttheHolyPlacesyetFrancehadnegle
ctedherdutyforalongtimeandthisannoyedRussialeadingtotheCrimeanwar.
 Thewar-
likeandaggressivepoliciesoftheBritishambassadortoTurkeyLordStratfordRedcliffcau
sedthewar.
 Britain,likeFrancesenthertroopstosurroundConstantinoplein1853.Itwasthisactthate
ncouragedRussiatosinktheTurkishfleetorwarshipsatSinopeinNovember1853whichs
parkedofftheCrimeanwar.
 BritainjoinedFranceandsupportedTurkeyagainstRussiawhichencouragedTurkeytod
eclarewarin1854againstRussia.

TURKEY
 Hereconomic,politicalandmilitaryweaknessattractedforeigninterventioni.e.Russiaused
thisweaknessasanexcusetobreakuptheempirewhichledtoconflictswithotherpowersesp
eciallyBritainandFrancethatwantedtoprotecttheempireandthiseventuallycausedtheCri
meanwar.
 Turkey’smistreatmentoftheOrthodoxChristiansattractedRussiaintotheinternalaffairsof
Turkeywhichledtoconflictswithotherpowers.
 Herlacktowardsaconstantpolicytowardstherightfulguardianorprotectoroftheholyplace
scausedthewar.TurkeyacceptedtheFrenchtorevivetheirclaimsofprotectingtheholyplac
esyetshehadallowedRussiatocontroltheholyplaces.ThisdoublestandardsofTurkeybrou
ghtFranceandRussiaintoconflictwhichcausedtheCrimeanwar.
 HeralliancewithBritainandFranceagainstRussia.
 TurkeyopenlydeclaredawaragainstRussiafollowingtherefusalbyRussiatowithdrawfrom
MoldaviaandWallachiaandthissparkedofftheCrimeanwar.
Question:
“ThepolicyofTsarNicholasItowardsTurkeywasprimarilyresponsiblefortheoutbr
eakoftheCrimeanwar”.Discuss.
TSARNICHOLASI
 HewastherulerofRussiabetween1825and1855.
 HepromotedRussianexpansionpolicytowardstheBalkanswhichangeredBritainandFranc
ei.e.heworkedtowardsthedisintegrationofTurkeyreferringtoherasthe“sickmanofEurop
e”contrarytothepoliciesofBritainandFrance.
 HeencouragedPan–Slavism.
 HisdesiretoprotecttheOrthodoxChristiansfromtheTurkishpersecutionledtowar
 HisfailuretorecognizetheFrenchcontrolovertheHolyPlacesasgrantedtoherbyTurkeyinth
e16thcentury.
 HisinvasionofMoldaviaandWallachiainJuly1853
 HissinkingoftheTurkishfleetatSinopeinNovember1853.
 HiseconomicinterestsintheBalkansandtheMediterraneanSeaangeredBritain
 HisundemocraticattackontheBritishambassadoratConstantinople
 HisdiplomaticmiscalculationthatotherEuropeanpowerswillnotallywithTurkeyaMuslimst
ate.

 HisdesiretoviolatetheStraitsConventionangeredBritain.NicholasIstillwantedtosendRus
sianwarshipsinDardanellesandBosphoruswhichwascontrarytotheStraitsConventionof
1841whichhadrejectedallEuropeanwarshipstoenterthetworegions
NAPOLEONIIIOFFRANCE
 HisrevivaloftheFrenchclaimsovertheholyplaces
 HisaggressivepolicytowardsTurkeytowincatholicsupportathome
 HisdesiretowinmilitarygloryinalliancewithBritainagainstRussiainTurkey
 HisdesiretomaintaintheexistenceofTurkeyagainstRussianimperialism
 HeexploitedtheTurkishconflictwithRussiatofulfillhishiddenmotiveslikethedesiretoaven
getheMoscowcampaignof1812,thedesireforrecognitionasabrotheretc.
THESULTANOFTURKEY(MAHMOODII)
 HispolicytowardstheChristiansubjectse.g.OrthodoxChristianswhowerediscriminate
d.
 Hispolicytowardsothernationalitiese.g.Serbs,Slavs,Bulgariansetc.
 Hisinconsistencyovertherightstowardstheprotectionoftheholyplaces
 TheSultan’sfailuretomaintainastronggovernmentieweaknessofTurkey.
 HisfailuretomakereformsonthetreatmentofhisChristiansubjects
 Hisweakandinconsistentforeignpolicye.g.thetreatyofUnkiarSkelessiof1833andonth
eissueoftheholyplacesbetweenFranceandRussia.
PALMERSTONE–THEBRITISHFOREIGNSECRETARY
 HeworkedhardtocancelthetreatyofUnkiar-
Skelessiof1833throughtheStraitsConventionof1841whichangeredRussiawhichhad
hiddeninterestsintheOttomanEmpire.
 HispolicyofmaintainingtheexistenceofTurkeyagainstRussianexpansion
 HeopposedthedivisionofTurkeyamongpowersassuggestedbyRussia
 Hewasawarmongerandaggressive
 HisfailuretoutilizeearlierdiplomatictreatiestosolvetheproblemsintheOttomanEmpir
e.
STRATIFORDREDICLIFFE–THEBRITISHAMBASSADORTOTURKEY
 HeadvisedTurkeytoopenwaraftertheSinopemassacre
 HerejectedanynegotiationswithRussia

MENCHIKOFF
 HewastheRussianambassadortoTurkeyandawarmonger
LORDABERDEEN–THEPRIMEMINISTEROFBRITAIN
 HeencouragedPalmerstoneandRedclifftobeadamantinrelationtotheRussianinterestsi
ntheOttomanempire.
THECOURSEOFTHECRIMEANWAR
FollowingtheBritishadvice,thesultanofturkeydemandedRussiatowithdrawhertroopsfromth
eprovincesofWallachiaandMoldavia(occupiedinJuly1853)butwhichthelatterrefused.Turkey
declaredwaronRussiaon4thOctober1853.Russiarespondedruthlessly.Sheattackedanddes
troyedtheTurkishfleetatSinopeinadisastrousencounterthatcametobeknownastheGreatSin
opeMassacre.InMarch1854,BritainandFrancesenttheirwarshipsuptoBosphorusintheblacks
eaandorderedRussiatoretreatfromtheBlackSeatotheirbaseatSebastopolbutRussiarefused.
ThisforcedthetwopowerstodeclareafullscalewaronRussiaon27thMarch1854whichbegant
hearmedtheconflict.InAugust1854,Russiawasforcedtowithdrawfromthetwoprovincesand
wenttotheirnavalbaseatSebastopol.Buteventhen,thealliedforceswenton,attackedanddestr
oyedRussia’snavalbaseatSebastopol.
InSeptember1854,thealliedforceslandedatEupatoriaintheCrimeaandsoonafterwardswonth
eBattleoftheAlmaRiver.TheconductoftheCrimeanwarlackedseriousnessonbothsidesasthey
werepoorlyorganizedandpoorlycommanded.Forexample,thesoldiersonthefrontlineresorte
dtomerrymakingwiththeirwivesbyorganizingpicnics,partiesandweddingsinsteadofattendin
gtothedifficulttaskofdrivingRussiaofftheBlackSea.Therewerealso,disagreementsbetweent
heFrenchandBritisharmycommandersandthismadethemunabletocaptureSebastopolandin
steadRussiawasabletosurroundandholdtheBritishandFrenchforcesforthewholeyearuntilSe
ptember1855.Thesoldiersofthealliedpowers(BritainandFrance)alsohadnocoldweatherequi
pments.Asaresult,manyofthemdiedduetotheextremeRussianwinterconditionsthatattacked
themduringthecourseofthewar.Snowblockedtheroadsandthemovementofarmsandfoodsu
ppliesbecameverydifficult.Horsesalsodiedofstarvation,henceworseningthetransportproble
m.Inaddition,duringthecourseofthewarelementaryhospitalnecessitiesforthewarcausalities
likebeds,blanketsanddrugswerealsolacking.Asaresult,65,000soldierslosttheirlivesduetom
istakescommittedbytheircommanders.Thishighnumberofthewarcausalitiesattractedtheatt

entionofaBritishnursebythenameofFlorenceNightingalewhoorganizedthenursingandsa
nitationfacilitiesforthewoundedsoldiersatScutarihospitalinCrimea.Thiswasthefirsttimetoha
vereformsinmilitarynursingandherworklatercontributedtotheformationoftheInternation
alRedCrossSociety.
Asthewarprogressed,CAVOURwhowasthePrimeMinisterofPiedmontwhichwasanItaliankin
gdomsentthePiedmontesearmytoCrimeatosupportthealliedpowersagainstRussia.Thearmy
wasabletorescuethesurvivingforcesofthealliedpowers.Austriaalsothreatenedtoenterthewa
ronsideofthealliedpowers.AtlastinSeptember1855,theFrenchcapturedtheFortofSebastopol
,theMalakoffandthiswasfollowedbythesurrenderofSebastopolitself.In1855,TsarNicholasIw
hohadledRussiaintotheCrimeanwardiedandwasreplacedbyhissonTsarAlexanderIIwhowas
anxioustobringaboutvitalreformsinRussiaandafterthefallofSebastopol,hewaspreparedtoac
ceptwhatevertermshecouldgetfromtheFrenchandBritish.AlexanderIIthereforeoptedforpea
cewhichresultedintothesigningoftheParisTreatyof1856thatendedtheCrimeanWar.
EFFECTSOFTHECRIMEANWAR
ThewarledtothedefeatofRussiabythealliedpowersofBritain,FranceandTurkeyin1856withth
esupportofPiedmont.ThisdefeatthereforehumiliatedRussiaasagreatpowerinEurope.
TheCrimeanWarledtothereductionofRussianinfluenceintheBalkanregion.Russiasuffereda
militarysetbackasshewasdefeatedbyBritain,FranceandtheirallieslikePiedmontandevenhern
avalbasesontheBlackSealikeSebastopolweredestroyed.ConsequentlyRussiaacceptedthete
rmsdictateduponherinthetreatyof1856.Forexample,theprovincesofMoldavia,Wallachiaand
BessarabiaweregivenbacktoTurkeyalthoughwithsemi-
independence.ThegreatfortressofKarswhichRussiahadannexedwasalsoreturnedtoTurkey,
hencecheckingtheRussianambitionsintheBalkans.Indeed,aftertheCrimeanwarRussiapursu
edanon-
aggressiveforeignpolicyandherinfluenceintheBalkanswascheckedupto1870.Byreducingthe
Russianinfluenceintheregionthishelpedtocreatesomestabilityintheregion.
Thewaralsoenabledsomestatestoattainindependence.TheseincludedWallachia,Moldaviaa
ndSerbia.Afterthewar,thesestatesweretobecomeself-
governingalthoughtheyweretorecognizethesovereigntyofTurkey.Theirindependencewast
obesupervisedbythegreatpowers.AlthoughthismeantadeliberatebreakingupoftheTurkishE
mpire,itwasapositivegainforthepeopleswhoseindependencewasgranted.
ItlaidafoundationforthecreationofthekingdomofRumaniain1861.Thiswasachievedbymergi
ngtheprosperingprovincesofWallachiaandMoldaviaasaresultoftheself-

governmentsgrantedtothemattheParisTreatyof1856whichconcludedtheCrimeanwar.Thou
ghtheyweregivenseparateassembliesandforbiddentounite,thetwoovercamethisbyeachass
emblychoosingthesamePrinceAlexanderI,adevelopmenteventuallyagreedtobyTurkeyandt
heGreatPowers.
TheindependenceandintegrityofTurkeywasguaranteedorpreservedandthereforeTurkeywa
srecognizedasapowerinEasternEurope.ThisthenelevatedthestatusofTurkeyinEuropesince
nopowerwastointerferewithhersovereignty.Subsequently,Turkeygotabreathingspaceafter
theRussianclaimsoverpartsofherterritoryweredismissesbytheParisTreatyof1856.Peacewas
alsorestoredintheBalkanterritoryforsometime.Althoughthiswasshort-
lived,therewasnomajorwarfoughtinTurkeyuntil1877whichhelpedtopreservetheTurkishEm
pireforsometime.
AftertheCrimeanWar,Russia’sclaimstoprotecttheOrthodoxChristiansandtheHolyplacesinth
eOttomanEmpireweredismissed.Instead,theFrenchwontheprotectionoftheseHolyPlacesint
heOttomanEmpire.ThisfurtherpromotedtheFrenchgloryamongtheEuropeanpowersthough
ontheotherhanditdisappointedRussiasomuch.
Itledtotheinvolvementofthepressinmodernwarfare.TheCrimeanWarwasthefirstwarwhere
modernmeansofcommunicationwereusedandthereforeitmarkedthebeginningoflivecovera
geofwareventsinthewarhistory.WilliamRusselloftheTimesnewspaperinBritainwasthefirst
evertoreportwarnewsdirectlyfromthebattlefield.ThemassesinBritainwerethereforeinforme
doftheeventsthatweretakingplaceatthebattleground.
TheCrimeanWarledtothelossoflivesonbothsides.ItisestimatedthatFrancealonelost100,000
men,Britainlost20,000,Russiaover110,000andTurkeylostabout30,000soldiers.Inaddition,s
everalItaliansalsoperishedduringthewar.Thisdeathtollwasgreatbecauseoftheinadequatepr
eparationforthewar,inadequatefoodsupplyandsanitation.ThedeathrateatScutariHospitalw
asonlyreducedby40%byFlorenceNightingaleastherewerenobasins,towels,soapneitherwer
etherebrooms,forks,spoons,cups,platesandtraysamongothers.
Besides,alotofpropertywasdestroyedduringthewar.Forexample,warshipsweresunk,horses
werekilled,homesteadsandtownsweredestroyedinthewarzones.Thus,tiswarwasthemostw
astefulandhopelesswareverfoughtinEurope.
TheCrimeanWarledtotheformationoftheRedCrossSocietybyFlorenceNightingale.Nightingal
eandhergroupofnursesstartedtheirvoluntaryworkatScutarihospitalhavingbeenappealedto
dosobecauseofthealarmingdeathratesduringthecourseofthewar.Sheundertookreformswhi
chimprovedtheconditionsatthehospitalandworkedhardtoreducethedeathratesby40%.Suc

hvoluntaryactivitiesofFlorenceNightingalearewhateventuallydevelopedintothepresentday
RedCrossSocietywithitsheadquartersinGeneva,Switzerland.
Relatedly,theCrimeanwarendedwiththeformationoftheNursingProfession.Thiswasintroduc
edbyarenownedBritishhumanitariannurse,FlorenceNightingaleattheScutarihospital.Shetre
atedthewoundedandthesickduringthecourseoftheCrimeanwar.
TheCrimeanwarterminatedthefourtyyearsofrelativepeaceinEuropesince1815whentheBattl
eofWaterloowasfoughtagainstNapoleonI.TheCrimeanwarwasthefirstmajorwarfoughtonal
argescaleinvolvingthemajorpowersofEuropesince1815.ThoughtheParistreatyof1856attem
ptedtorestorepeaceafterthewar,thiswashowevershort-lived.
ThedefeatofRussiamadetheTsaristregimeunpopularandthemassesinRussiathreatenedtoo
verthrowthegovernment.Therefore,torestorepublicconfidenceTsarAlexanderIIwhosuccee
dedTsarNicholasIin1855carriedoutdomesticreformstoimprovetheconditionsofthepeasants
forexampleinlandownership.OtherreformswereintheindustrialsectorafterrealizingthatRuss
ia’sdefeatintheCrimeanWarwaspartlyduetotheuseofdatedoldweapons.
TheCrimeanWarearnedgloryandprestigeforFranceandNapoleonIIIinEurope.FollowingRuss
ia’sdefeatbyFrance’sallies,NapoleonIIIsucceededinpleasingtheBonapartistswhohadallalon
gdemandedforanaggressiveforeignpolicy.Hethenbecamepopularandearnedloyaltyandsup
portfromhissubjects.ThevictoryatCrimeaearnedFrancediplomatictriumphovertheRussiandi
ctatorship.Similarly,theParisPeaceTreatyof1856whichendedtheCrimeanWarwassignedinFr
ance’scapitalwhichevenbroughtQueenVictoriaofEngland.NapoleonIII’sprestigeinEuropew
asthereforeenhanced,hencemakinghimaprominentfigureinthecontinentforsometime.
TheCrimeanWarcontributedtotherevivalofinternationaldiplomacyinEurope.Thedisastrouse
ffectsoftheCrimeanwarremindedtheGreatPowersoftheneedtositonaroundtablesoastoresol
vetheirdifferences.ThisthereforeresultedintotheholdingoftheParisConferencewhichended
withthesigningofthe1856ParisTreatyinFrance.Thetermsofthistreatyattemptedtosolvea
micablytheproblemsintheOttomanEmpirewhichhadcontributedtotheoutbreakoftheCrimea
nWarin1854.
TheCrimeanWarcreatedconditionsfortheoutbreakofotherwarsinEurope.Followingthemilita
ryinefficiency(weakness)ofthealliedpowersintheCrimeanWar,countriesre-
organizedtheirarmies,recruited,trainedandalsoequippedtheminpreparationforfuturewars.
Consequently,anumberofwarsbrokeaftertheCrimeanWarlikeDanishWarof1864,theAustro–
Prussianwarof1866aswellastheFranco-PrussianWarof1870-
1871.AllthesewarsthatweresetbytheexampleoftheCrimeanWardisturbedEuropeanpeace.

TheCrimeanWarcreatedenemitybetweenAustriaandotherEuropeanpowersbecauseofthene
utralrolesheplayedduringthewar.Inanattempttomaintainneutralityanddiplomaticfavours,A
ustriaannoyedbothRussiaandthealliedpowersofBritainandFrance.BritainexpectedAustriato
jointhemagainstRussianactivitieswhichthreatenedriverDanube,Austria’scommercialwaters
butshekeptneutralinthewar.ShefailedtosupportRussiaduringthewaryetRussiahadassistedA
ustriatosuppresstheHungarianRevolutionin1848whichthreatenedthesurvivaloftheAustrian
empire.ThisthisthereforeearnedAustriaenemityandisolationfromtheEuropeanpowers.Itwa
sthisdiplomaticdilemmathatItalyandPrussia(Germany)exploitedtowintheirunificationbattle
sfromAustria.
TheCrimeanWarandthesubsequentParistreatyof1856stimulatedBalkannationalismfurther.
ThistreatygaveindependencetosomeoftheBalkanstateslikeSerbia,MoldaviaandWallachia.T
hisencouragedothersubjectstatesundertheOttomanEmpirelikeBulgariaandMontenegrotori
seupanddemandfortheirindependencesincetheywerenotdifferentfromtheabovestates.
ThewarpromotedtheunificationofItalythroughsecuringforeignsupportfortheItalians.Count
CamilloCavourwhowasthePrimeMinisterofPiedmontgainedrecognitionbytheGreatPowersat
theTreatyofParisof1856.Asaresult,PiedmontsecuredsympathyofBritainandFranceinherunif
icationstruggle.BritainlaterfulfilledherpromisebysupportingaplebisciteinwhichthecentralDu
chiesofParma,TuscanyandRomagnavotedtojoinPiedmont-
Sardiniain1860.FrancealsoformedanalliancewithItalycalledtheFranco-
Sardinianmilitaryalliancein1859,followingthepactofPlombieresof1858whichledtothesubse
quentliberationofLombardyafterdefeatingAustriaattheBattlesofMagentaandSolferinoof185
9.ThiswasanimportantstepintheunificationofItaly.
ItledtoachangeofleadershipinBritain.AsthenewspapersinBritainlikethe Timeskeptoninform
ingtheBritishpublicabouttheunfortunateeventsatthebattlefrontespeciallythemismanagem
entofthewar,thisgenerateddiscontentamongthemiddleclassmembersofBritain.Thiseventu
allybroughtdownthegovernmentofLordAberdeenandbroughtLordPalmerstoneintooffi
ceasthenewPrimeMinisterin1855.Palmerstonereorganizedthealliedarmywhicheventuallyle
dtothedefeatofRussia.
TheCrimeanWarsetaprecedentoranexampleforfurtherconflictsintheBalkanregionwhichlaid
afoundationforthecallingoftheBerlinCongressof1878.ThiswasbecausetheSultanofTurkeyre
fusedtohonourhispromisesofgoodconductthathehadmadeinthe1856ParisTreaty.Forexam
ple,governmentfundsweremisusedandtaxationcontinuedtobegrosslyunfairbetweentheChr
istiansandMuslims.ThesultanalsoopenlypersecutedtheOrthodoxChristiansfrom1875to187
8yethehadpromisedfairorhumanetreatmentoftheOrthodoxChristiansintheOttomanEmpire.
ThiscausedfurtherconflictsthatraisedconcerntotheGreatPowerslikeBritainandRussia.Thisth

ereforecompelledOttoVonBismarcktoorganizeaconferenceinBerlinin1878soastosolvetheB
alkancrisis.
AftertheCrimeanwar,RussiaturnedherimperialambitionsorattentionfromtheBalkanstoEaste
rnAsia.The1856ParistreatywhichconcludedtheCrimeanwarcompelledRussiatoturnherambi
tionstothefarEasternAsia.ThiswasespeciallyafterthefailuretotaketheguardianshipoftheHol
yplacesinPalestine.
Inconclusion,theCrimeanwarwasoneofthemostwastefulanduselesswarseverfoughtduringt
he19thcentury.Thiswasbecauseitscausesweretrivialandinsignificantthoughtherewerethose
thatseemedjustifiedandthereforesignificant.TheGreatPowersweredrivenbyselfishinterests
.Theirobjectiveswereeithershort-
livedorwereneverrealizedatall.Theconductofthewaritselflackedseriousnessonbothsidesast
heywereill-
organized,poorlycommanded,warnecessitiesinshortsupplyandmedicalconditionsatScutari
hospitalwereappalling.Atthefrontlinethesoldiersorganizedpicnics,partiesandweddingsand
asaresult,therewasseverelossoflivessufferingcoupledwithenormouslossinpropertyandweal
th.
Question:
 AssesstheimpactoftheCrimeanWarofEuropeupto1878.
 “TheCrimeanWarwasthemostuselessandwastefulwar”.Discuss.
 TowhatextentweretheinterestsoftheGreatPowersresponsiblefortheoutb
reakinCrimeanWarin1854?
 Examinethecausesandconsequencesofthe1854–1856Crimeanwar.
 AccountfortheoutbreakofthearmedconflictintheBalkansby1854.
THEPARISPEACETREATYORSETTLEMENTOF1856
TheParisPeaceTreatyof1856wasapeacesettlementthatendedtheCrimeanWarof1854–
1856.Itwassignedon30thMarchintheFrenchcapitalofParisbythebigEuropeanPowerswhichin
cludedFrance,Britain,Turkey,PiedmontandRussiaataconferencepresidedoverbyEmperorN
apoleonIII.Thistreaty,amongothers,hadthefollowingprovisions(terms);
 TheBlackSeawasmadeneutral.NowarshipsofanynationevenforTurkeyandRussiaweret
obeallowedtooperateontheBlackSea.
 TheBlackSeawastobefreetothemerchantvesselsofallnationsandriverDanubewasalsoi
nternationalizedorneutralized.

 TheRussiandemandtoprotecttheChristiansintheOttomanEmpirewasdismissed.Russia
wasalsoforcedtoabandonherclaimofprotectingtheholyplacesandtheChristiansintheOt
tomanEmpireundertheSultanofTurkey.
 TheprovincesofMoldaviaandWallachiaweretobeself-
governingbuttorecognizethesuzeraintyorpowerofTurkey.TheywerethenjoinedwithSo
uthernBessarabia(takenfromRussia)asameansofcheckingRussiainfluencetotheEast.
 TheSultanofTurkey(MahmoodII)promisedthathewouldgiveequaltreatmenttotheChris
tiansandMuslimsinhisempire.HewasthereforetostopthepersecutionofChristians.
 TheindependenceofTurkeywasrecognizedorguaranteedanditwasclearlyspeltoutthatn
opowerhadtherighttointerfereintheinternalaffairsoftheOttomanEmpire.Therefore,Tu
rkeywastocheckonRussianimperialismintheEasternEuropesuchthatitcouldnotupsetth
ebalanceofpower.
 Serbia’sindependencewasalsorecognizedbythetreatybutitwasalsorequiredtocontinue
acknowledgingtheTurkishoverlordship.
 Fortheirsupportinthewar,NapoleonIIIpledgedtoassisttheItalians(Piedmont–
Sardinia)intheirstruggleagainstAustria.
THEIMPACTOFTHEPARISPEACETREATYOF1856
TheParisPeaceTreatyof1856hadbothapositiveandnegativeimpactonEuropeasshownbelow
;
POSITIVEIMPACTOFTHETREATY
ItendedtheCrimeanwarandthereforepeacewasrestoredintheOttomanEmpire.Thewarthath
adbrokenoutin1854betweenBritain,FranceandTurkeyagainstRussiahadragedonfortwoyea
rs,henceterminatingthefourtyyearsofrelativepeaceinEuropesince1815whentheBattleofWa
terloowasfoughtagainstNapoleonI.ThesigningoftheParistreatyof1856thereforemarkedthe
endoftheCrimeanwarandthushelpedtorestorepeaceintheregion.
ItsavedtheOttomanEmpirefromdisintegration.ThiswasbecausetheGreatPowersespeciallyR
ussiawereforbiddenfrominterferinginherinternalaffairs.
ThetreatyenabledTurkeytobeadmittedtotheranksoftheGreatEuropeanPowers.WhenTurke
ywasinvitedtotheParisPeaceConferenceof1856inwhichthistreatywassigned,thismeantthat
TurkeywasnowpartofthebigpowersofEuropedespiteitssickness.
ItcheckedRussia’simperialismandambitionsintheBalkans.Thiswasbecausethetreatydismiss
edtheRussiandemandtoprotecttheChristiansintheOttomanEmpire.Russiawasalsoforcedtoa

bandonherclaimofprotectingtheholyplacesandtheChristiansintheOttomanEmpireunderthe
SultanofTurkey.TheRussianswerealsostoppedfrombuildinganynavalofmilitarybasesorforts
ontheBlackSea.ThishelpedtoreducetheconflictsthathadbeengoingonintheOttomanEmpire
asaresultofthisRussianimperialism.
ThesultanofTurkeypromisedfairtreatmentoftheChristiansubjects.Duringthesigningofthe18
56ParisTreaty,asimplepromisewasmadebythesultanthathewouldtreathisChristiansubjects
onequaltermswiththeMohammedans(Muslims).Thiswasimportantgiventhesomanyyearsth
attheOrthodoxChristianswhowerelivingintheEmpirehadbeenpersecutedbytheMuslimswith
thesupportofthesultan.
ThetreatymadetheBlackSeaneutralsoastoavoidfurtherwarsamongthebigEuropeanpowers.
Bythistreaty,nowarshipsofanynationevenforTurkeyandRussiawereallowedtooperateonthe
BlackSea.
AsaresultoftheParisTreatyof1856,internationaltradeflourished.Thiswasbecausethetreatyn
eutralizedriverDanubewhichwasanimportantinternationalwaterwaytothebenefitofFrance,
BritainandtheOttomanEmpire.Thesecountriesthereforereapedfromtheenormoustradeben
efitsthatwereregisteredintheyearsafter1856.
ThetreatycarriedoutterritorialadjustmentsinEasternEurope.Thiswastotheadvantageofsom
estatesthatgotadditionalterritories.Forexample,BessarabiawasgiventoMoldavia,theprovin
ceofMoldaviawastakenawayfromRussiawhileWallachiaandMoldaviaweremadesemi-
autonomousorindependentfromTurkey.
ThetreatyearnedgloryforFrancesinceshehostedtheconferencewhichgavebirthtothesigning
oftheParisTreaty.Thisconferenceattendedbymanyimportantdignitaries,includingQueenVic
toriaofEngland.Similarly,itpromotedtheprestigeandpopularityofemperorNapoleonIII.
ItturnedParis,thecapitalofFranceintothecentreofEuropeandiplomacy.WhentheParisPeaceT
reatyof1856wassignedinFrance’scapitalbythebigEuropeanPowersanditsuccessfullyendedt
hedisastrousCrimeanwarthathadragedonsince1854,thisturnedFranceintothecentreofEuro
peanpolitics.ThisthereforefurtherpromotedtheFrenchgloryinEurope.
AsaresultoftheParisTreatyof1856,thebigEuropeanpowersrecognizedtheindependenceofSe
rbiawhenshewasgivensemi-
independence.Serbialaterusedthisstatustodemandandacquirefullindependencein1878fro
mtheTurkishEmpire.

ItledtothebirthoftheRedCrossSocietyinEurope.Thetreatyappreciatedandrecognizedthevol
untaryworkthathadbeendonebyaBritishNurseknownasFlorenceNightingaleinsavingmanys
oldierswhohadbeenwoundedduringthecourseofthewar.Thisthereforelatercontributedtoth
eformationoftheRedCrossSocietywithitsheadquartersGeneva.
ThetreatypromotedtheItalianunification.DuringtheParisPeaceConferenceof1856whichgav
ebirthtotheParisPeacetreaty,CavourmanagedtotabletheItaliancauseforunificationwhichwa
sactuallyobservedbythebigEuropeanPowers.ThishelpedtowintheBritishandFrenchsupportt
owardstheItaliansintheirstruggleagainstAustria.
ThetreatyrevivedEuropeandiplomacy.Thesigningofthe1856ParisTreatyinFrancebythebi
gEuropeanPowersreflectedtheircommitmenttosolveamicablyordiplomaticallytheproblemsi
ntheOttomanEmpirewhichhadcontributedtotheoutbreakoftheCrimeanWarin1854thisthere
forerestoredEuropeandiplomacythathadcollapsedby1854.
NEGATIVEIMPACTOFTHETREATY
ThetreatyconfirmedtheisolationofAustriaandPrussiainEuropeanaffairs.Becausethesetwop
owershaddecidedtoremainneutralduringtheCrimeanWar,theywerenotinvitedtoattendtheP
arisConferenceof1856inwhichthe1856ParisPeacetreatywassigned.Thiswasaclearmanifest
ationthatthesetwopowershadlostthecooperationandbackingofthebigEuropeanpowersinca
s3eofanyconflictinfuture.
ItencouragedthedisintegrationoftheOttomanEmpire.Thiswasbecausethetreatygrantedse
mi-
independenceorautonomytosomeBalkanprovinceslikeWallachiaandMoldaviaweregivense
mi-independence.
ThetreatysouredorworsenedtherelationsbetweenEuropeanpowerslikeBritain,FranceandT
urkeyagainstRussia.TheParisTreatyof1856dismissedorcancelledtheRussianclaimsandgain
sintheBalkans.ForexampleRussiawasrestrainedfromprotectingtheChristiansandtheholypla
cesintheOttomanEmpire.ThisthereforeannoyedRussia,thuslaterleadingtoconflictsbetween
RussiaandcountrieslikeBritainFranceandTurkeyasRussiawantedtore-
establishherinfluenceintheOttomanEmpire.
RussianambitionsorinterestsinOttomanEmpirewerenotcompletelydestroyed.In1875Russia
forexampleintervenedandtriedtoforceTurkeytograntindependencetotheSlavstatesofBulga
ria,BosniaandHerzegovinawhichwereontheBalkanPeninsula.BritainhadfearsforRussianinfl

uenceontheBlackandMediterraneanSeasandthereforeifRussiadefeatedTurkeyin1875,then
RussiawouldthreatentheBritishcommercialinterestsintheregion.Shethereforebecameanno
yedwiththisintervention.Therefore,theParisTreatyof1856onlytemporarilycheckedRussiani
mperialismintheBalkanswhichleadingtotensionsintheregion
Itcontributedtoterritoriallossesbysomepowerswhichgreatlyaffectedtheirterritorialintegrity.
Forexample,RussialosttheterritoryBessarabiatotheprovinceofMoldavia.
Thesultanneverliveduptohispromises.Afterthesigningofthe1856Paristreaty,thesultan’spro
miseofequaltreatmenttoboththeMuslimsandChristianslivingintheOttomanEmpirewasnever
fulfilled.InsteadthereweremorepersecutionsoftheChristiansbytheMuslimsinthe1870swhic
hgeneratedmoreconflictsintheOttomanEmpire.
Inconclusion,thetermsofthe1856ParisPeaceTreatyhelpedtodefeatRussiaandreduceherinfl
uenceintheBalkanPeninsular.Therefore,hernavalpowercouldnotthreatenFranceandBritain.
Itsachievementswerehowevertemporaryinnaturebecausein1870,theRussiansencouraged
byBismarckrepudiatedorviolatedtheBlackSeaclausesofthetreatywhilethesultan’spromiseto
treatboththeMuslimsandchristensintheempirealikedidnotcometrue.Infactthingsbecamewo
rseinthisregard.PerhapsthemostoutstandingachievementwasthatWallachiaandMoldaviapr
osperedandsoonbecametheKingdomofRumania.
Question:Assesstheimpactofthe1856ParisPeaceTreatyonEurope.
THEAFTERMATHOFTHEPARISTREATYOF1856(MOREPROBLEMSINTURKISHEM
PIRE)
AlthoughtheParisTreatyof1856wassigned,itsaftermathwasterriblebecausesomeoftheprovi
sionsremainedonpaper.Forexample,theSultans’promisesofbetterconductandreformweren
everfulfilled.TheTurkishadministrationcontinuedmovingfrombadtoworse.Theadministratio
nwasbadandchaoticasembezzlementorcorruptionaswellasmistreatmentoftheChristiansubj
ectsintensified.Meanwhile,RussiahadbeenhumiliatedfirstbyherdefeatbythealliesatCrimeaa
ndalsobecauseofwhatsheconsideredtheunfairclausesofthetreatyofParisof1856.Ittherefore
becameTsarAlexanderII’sdesiretorepudiateorviolatetheParisTreatyof1856andtoreviveRus
sianinterestsintheBalkanscomeoneday.
Russia’slongawaitedopportunityemergedintheBalkansin1875.In1875,therewereanumbero
fnationalisticrevoltsthatoccurredacrosstheOttomanEmpire.Forexample,anationalisticrevol
tbrokeoutintwoTurkishBalkanprovincesofBosniaandHerzegovinalargelyinhabitedbySerbsb
utnotyetunitedwithSerbia.ThiswasfollowedbyanotherrevoltinSerbiaandMontenegroin1876

insupportoftheirbrothersinBosniaandHerzegovinabutalsodemandingfortotalindependence
fromTurkey.
TheDreikaiserbundpowersofRussia,AustriaandGermanypresentedtotheSultanacertainpro
posalofreforminacommunicationknownastheAndrasyNote(namedafteritsarchitect,theAu
strianForeignMinister)towhichthesultankeptadeafear.TheBulgarianswhoby1870weretheo
nlysubjectsintheBalkanswhohadnotyettastedself-
rulewerealsoencouragedbythe1875Bosnia-
HerzegovinauprisingtoorganizeasimultaneousrevoltagainstTurkey.ThenewSultanAbdulHa
midIIlatertobecomethe‘RedSultan”retaliatedbywagingabrutalwarofexterminationwherehe
killed(massacred)thousandsofBulgariansinwhatcametobeknownasthe“BulgarianMassa
cres”of1876.Thismurdershockedtheworld,henceraisinginternationalattention.
TheBritishPrimeMinisterDisraelidecidedtocallaconferenceoftheGreatPowersatConstantino
ple.ThisconferencedemandedequalityfortheMoslemsandChristiansintheTurkishEmpireand
aguaranteebytheSultanofself-
government(independence)forBosniaandHerzegovina.However,afterafewmonthstheSulta
nrefusedtoimplementthereformsdemandedbytheGreatPowers.ThispromptedRussiajoined
bytheBalkanstatesofSerbia,Rumania,MontenegroandBulgariatodeclarewaronTurkeyin187
7andthisiscommonlyreferredtoastheRusso-Turkishwarof1877-
1878.Despitethehardshipsfacedinthecampaign,theRussiantroopswereabletodefeattheTu
rksandrapidlyoccupiedAdrianopleandbyJanuary1878,itwasveryclearthatConstantinopleit
selfwouldbecaptured.
TheRussianinterventiongeneratedantagonismorenemityfromBritainandAustria–
HungarywhichwerealsoforcedtointervenesoastostopRussianinfluenceintheregion.Austria-
HungarywasalsointerestedinannexingBosniaandHerzegovinahavinglostGermanyandItalyf
ollowingtheirunificationin1871.ShethereforefearedthatifRussiasupportedthemtogetindepe
ndence,thenAustria-
Hungarywouldnotbeabletoannextheseterritories.Moreoverin1876,Russiawhowantedtobr
eakuptheTurkishEmpirehadconcludedasecretagreementwithAustria–
HungarybywhichshewouldoccupyBosniaandHerzegovinaifsheremainedneutralintheexpect
edRusso-
TurkishwarandalsoifRussiaregainedherBessarabiaterritorytakenawaybythe1856ParisPeac
etreaty.ButifRussianowoccupiedConstantinopleAustria-
Hungaryfearedthatshemightbecometoopowerfulandviolatethissecretagreement.Britainsi
mplyfearedforhercommercialinterestsintheregionifRussiagaineddominanceovertheEaster
nMediterraneanregion.Thus,bothAustriaandBritaindemandedthattheRussiashouldstopthei

radvanceatAdrianopleandsignanarmistice(peacetreaty)withTurkey.Russianwhichhadnoty
etfullyrecoveredfromtheeffectsoftheCrimeanWarfearedacombinedforceofBritain,Austria-
HungaryandTurkeyandthereforeshesignedthe TreatyofSanStefanoofMarch1878witht
heSultanofTurkey.
THEPEACETREATYOFSANSTEFANO,MARCH1878
ThistreatywassignedbetweenRussiaandTurkeyinMarch1878.Itwasatreatythatwassimplydi
ctatedbyRussiauntoTurkeyandifiteverstood,Russiahadgreatlytriumphedoverotherpowers
withintheBalkanPeninsularandtheOttomanEmpireasawhole.Byitsterms;
 AnewstateofBulgariaknownas“BigBulgaria”wastobecreatedwhichincludedBulgari
a,thedistrictofMacedonia,andpartsofAlbania,GreeceandSerbia.ThebigBulgariawast
obeself-
governingbuttobeadvisedinitsfirstyearsbyRussia.Therefore,thisstatewastobecontr
olledbyRussia.ThenewBulgariacompletelycutintotwotheTurkishEmpireintheBalkan
s.
 SerbiaandMontenegroweretobeenlargedandgiventheircompleteindependencefrom
Turkey.
 ThetinnystateofMontenegrodoubleditspopulationandgainedtwosmallportsontheAd
riaticSea.
 RussiaherselfwastotaketerritoryfromAsiaandtoregainherlostSouthernpartofBessara
biaatthemouthofRiverDanube.ThiswastobetakenfromRumania,Russia’sunfortunat
eallywhoinreturnwastobecompensatedwithabarrenstripofTurkishterritory.
 BosniaandHerzegovinaweretobegivenself-
rule(administertheirownaffairs)andnottobegiventoAustria-
Hungaryasearlieragreed.
NOTE:
ThetermsoftheSanStefanoTreatyalarmedtheGreatpowersandthereforegeneratedhostilityf
rompowerslikeBritainandAustria–
Hungary.Theywerespecificallyalarmedbythecreationofthe BigBulgariastretchingfromtheBl
ackSeatothemountainsofAlbaniainthewestandfromRiverDanubetotheAegeanSeaintheSou
th.ThisstatewastobeunderRussia’sinfluencebecamethelargestoftheBalkanstates.Thetreat
ywasthereforeabigblowtoBritainbecauseitprovidedRussiaanoutlettotheMediterraneanSea,
whichBritainhadforlongopposed.BritainandAustriathereforeopposedthecreationofthe“Big
Bulgaria”.
Austria-
HungarywasalsoannoyedbecauseshedidnotgetBosniaandHerzegovinaashadbeenpromise
dsincetheyweretoadministertheirownaffairs.TherelationsbetweenRussiaandBritaintogeth

erwithAustria-
HungarythereforeworsenedfollowingthesigningoftheSanStefanoTreatyofMarch1878.Britai
neventhreatenedtodeclaretodeclarewaronRussiaunlesssheacceptedarevisionorchangeoft
hetermsoftheSanStefanoTreatybyaEuropeanCongress.OttoVonBismarckofGermanyrealizi
ngdangerorwarwhichhefearedmost,calledaconferenceinBerlinin1878toresolvetheBalkancr
isis.TheRussianswhowerealreadyexhaustedbytheconflictwithTurkeywereobligedtoaccepto
rfacewaragainstaEuropeancoalition.
THEBERLINCONGRESSOF1878
ItwasadiplomaticmeetingofEuropeanpowersheldintheGermancityofBerlinbetweenJunea
ndJuly1878.ItwascalledandchairedbyOttoVonBismarckwhowastheChancellorofthenewG
ermanEmpirewhichhademergedonthepoliticalmapofEuropein1871afterdefeatingFranceint
heFranco-Prussianwarof1870-1871.ThecongresswasattendedbyBritain,Austria-
Hungary,Germany,Russia,France,TurkeyandItaly.Itfollowedtheworseningdiplomaticrelati
onsbetweenRussiaandtheotherEuropeanpowerslikeBritain,Austria–
HungaryandGermany.ItwasareactionagainstRussia’sdictatedtreatyofSanStefanountoTurk
eythatledtothecreationoftheBigBulgariawhichwaslargelyregardedasapuppetofRussia.
REASONSWHYTHEBERLINCONGRESSOF1878WASHELD
AlthoughthedesiretorevisethetreatyofSanStefanoofMarch1878ledtothecallingoftheBerlinc
ongressof1878,thereweremorereasonsoreventsthatmadethesummoningoftheBerlinCongr
essof1878inevitableandtheseincluded;
TheCrimeanWarof1854-
1856andthesubsequentParisPeaceTreatyof1856ledtothecallingoftheBerlinCongressof187
8.ThesetwoeventsdismissedorcancelledtheRussianclaimsandgainsintheBalkans.Forexamp
le,RussiawasrestrainedfromprotectingtheholyplacesandtheChristianslivingintheOttomanE
mpirewhichgreatlyannoyedher.Therefore,since1856Russiaalwaysremainedonthelookoutf
oranopportunitytore-establishorre-
assertherinfluenceintheOttomanEmpire.Russia’slongawaitedopportunityemergedin1875w
henanumberofnationalisticrevoltsbrokeoutacrosstheBalkanPeninsularwhichshesupportedt
ogetindependencefromTurkey.ThisledtoconflictsbetweenRussiaandcountrieslikeBritain,A
ustria-
HungaryandTurkey,thusleadingtothecallingoftheBerlincongressof1878soastosolvetheabo
veconflictsovertheBalkansotherthangoingtowar.

ThemistreatmentoftheChristiansbytheSultanofTurkeywasanothereventthatledtothecalling
theBerlincongressof1878.ThesultanofturkeyhadpromisedfairorhumanetreatmentoftheChr
istiansubjectsbytheParistreatyof1856.However,inthe1870stheMuslimsofTurkeyunderSult
anAbdulHamidIIkilledmanyChristianswhowerelivingintheOttomanEmpire.Thisprompte
dRussiatointerveneintheBalkanaffairssoastosavetheChristiansfromfurtherpersecutionbyth
eMuslims.ThisRussianinterventionthreatenedthecommercialinterestsofBritainintheMediter
raneanregion.TherewasnowaconflictbetweenBritainandRussiathathadtoberesolvedataEur
opeancongress,thusleadingtothecallingoftheBerlinCongressof1878.
ThecontinuousdeclineorsicknessoftheTurkishEmpireledtothecallingoftheBerlincongressof
1878.TheempirethatlayontheAfrican,AsianandEuropeancontinentswastoolargetobeeffecti
velyadministeredbytheSultanofTurkey.ThisweaknessencouragedRussianimperialismtothe
extentthatRussiasuggestedtotheWesternpowerstheideaofdividinguptheempireamongstth
emselves.TheWesternpowersconflictedwithRussiaoverthisissueasBritainandAustriainparti
cularwantedtopreservetheOttomanEmpirebecauseitservedasabulwarktotheambitiousRus
siandesignsinEasternEurope.Therefore,thisconflicthadtobesolvedatBerlinin1878soasandal
sopreventthedisintegrationoftheOttomanEmpire.
ThenationalisticstruggleswithintheOttomanEmpireledtothecallingoftheBerlincongressof18
78.In1875,nationalisticrevoltsbrokeoutacrosstheBalkanPeninsularintheTurkishprovinceso
fBosniaandHerzegovinaastheywerefightingforindependencefromtheTurkishrule.Thesewer
efollowedbysimilarrevoltsinSerbia,andMontenegroin1876.Russiasupportedtherevolutiona
riesintheseBalkanstatesanddeclaredwaronTurkeyin1877.BritainrejectedthisRussianinfluen
ceintheBalkanstatesbecauseitthreatenedhercommercialinterestsintheregion.Asaresult,the
irconflictneededtobesettledatacongress,thusleadingtothecallingoftheBerlinCongressof187
8.
ThedeclarationofSerbianindependencecontributedtothecallingoftheBerlincongressof1878.
Russiainfluencedotherpowerstograntsemi–
independencetoSerbiain1856aftertheCrimeanWarandlaterfullindependencewasgrantedin
March1878throughtheSanStefanotreatyof1878.However,althoughSerbiawastoenjoyindep
endence,RussiawastotakeadvantageoftheassistancetoSerbiatohavethemaininfluenceinSe
rbiawhichthreatenedtheeconomicandpoliticalinterestsofothercountriesespeciallyAustria-
HungarywhichwantedtoweakenSerbia.Therefore,theconflictbetweenRussiaandAustria–
HungaryoverSerbia’sindependenceledtocallingoftheBerlinCongressof1878.
ThecompletionoftheunificationofGermanyin1871influencedthesummoningoftheBerlincon
gressof1878.PrussiahaddefeatedFranceattheendoftheFranco–
PrussianwarandBismarckwhowastheChancellorofthenewGermanempirehadfearsoftheFre

nchtakingrevengeonGermany.ThiswouldhavehappenedifFrancegotfriendshipwithanyoneo
ftheconflictingcountriesintheOttomanEmpireespeciallyifFrancegavemilitarysupporttothatc
ountryandinturnFrancewouldaskforthesame.BismarckthereforewantedtoisolateFrancesoa
stomaintainpeaceinEuropeusingtheBerlincongressof1878.
ThecollapseoftheAustrianpowerinEuropewasanotherfactorforthecallingoftheBerlincongres
sof1878.AustriahadlostprovincesinItalyandtheGermanConfederationwhenItalyandGerma
nyunifiedin1870and1871respectively.ThisforcedhertoturntotheOttomanEmpireespeciallyt
otheBalkanPeninsulatogetmoreterritories.ThisledtoaconflictbetweenAustria-
HungryandRussiaoverBosniaandHerzegovinabecauseRussiawantedtheseSlavstatestorem
ainindependent.Bismarckwantedthisconflicttoberesolvedsinceheneededbothaspowersalli
esagainstFrancewhichhehaddefeatedin1871,hencethecallingoftheBerlincongressin1878.
TheBulgarianMassacresof1876ledtothecallingoftheBerlinCongressof1878.In1876,theBulg
ariansstagedanationalistrevoltagainsttheTurkishbadrule.WhenthisrevoltbrokeouttheTurki
shMuslimsunderSultanAbdulHamidIIenteredBulgariaandretaliatedbykillingthousandsofBul
gariansinwhatcametobeknownastheBulgarianmassacresof1876.Russiasympathizedwi
ththeBulgariansandthereforesheintervenedtosavefurthermassacresintheempire.Thisinter
ventionattractedotherpowerslikeBritainwhofeltthattheircommercialinterestswerethreaten
ed.Theconflictthereforehadtoberesolvedin1878.
TherefusalbytheSultanofTurkeytoimplementreformsledtothesummoningofBerlincongress
of1878.HeforexamplerefusedtograntindependencetotheBalkanstatesofBosniaandHerzego
vina.HealsofailedtostopthepersecutionoftheChristiansbytheMuslimsintheempire.Thiscreat
edanopportunityforRussiatointerveneundertheexcuseofhelpingfellowSlavstatesandOrtho
doxChristiansyetherinterventionalwayscausedaconflictbetweenherandothercountrieslikeB
ritainandAustria–
Hungary.Therefore,theBerlinCongressof1878wasaimedatcompellingtheSultantomakether
equiredreformsintheadministrationintheadministrationandgrantreligiousfreedomtoallespe
ciallytheChristiansubjects.
TheRusso–
Turkishwarof1877alsopartlyledtothecallingoftheBerlinCongressof1878.RussiaattackedTur
keybecauseofthelatter’smistreatmentoftheChristians.Bytheendof1877,shehadnearlydefea
tedTurkeyandoccupiedAdrianopleandtherewasalmostnoobstaclehinderingheradvancetoC
onstantinople,theheartoftheempire.ThisalarmedBritainandAustriaandtheyurgedRussiatoe
nterintoanarmisticewithTurkey.ThisresultedintotheSanStefanotreatyofMarch1878whichfu
rtherescalatedtheconflictsbetweenRussiaandtheWesternPowersofBritainandAustria-
HungaryespeciallyafterthecreationofthestateofBigBulgariaunderRussianinfluence.Thissub

sequentlyledtothecallingofaninternationalcongressatBerlinin1878soastoresolvetheresolve
theBalkancrisis.
TheTreatyofSanStefanoofMarch1878setgroundsforthecallingoftheBerlincongressof18
78.AttheheightofthetensionbetweentheBalkanstatesofMontenegro,SerbiaandBulgariaand
theirmaster,theOttomansultanin1877,RussiaintervenedbysupportingtheBalkannationalitie
stobreakawayfromtheOttomanEmpire.ByJanuary1878,RussiawasabouttocaptureConstant
inople,thecapitaloftheOttomanEmpire.ThisalarmedbothAustriaandBritainandtheydemand
edthattheRussiashouldstoptheiradvanceandsignapeacetreatywithTurkey.thisresultedintot
heSanStefanoofMarch1878.ThistreatyincreasedtheRussianinfluenceontheBalkanPenin
sulabecauseitgaveRussiathecontrolofthestateof“BigBulgaria”whichangeredBritain.Italsoal
lowedthepeopleinBosniaandHerzegovinatoadministertheirownaffairsyetAustria-
Hungarywantedtoannexthemthusannoyingher.Therefore,theBerlincongresswassummone
dbyBismarcktorevisethetreatyofSanStefanoandresolvethecrisis.
Qn:‘’ThecallingoftheBerlincongressof1878wasinevitable.’’Discuss.
TERMSOFTHEBERLINCONGRESSOF1878
 BigBulgariawastobedividedintothreeparts;thenorthernmostpartwasdeclaredvirtuall
yindependentunderaBulgarianPrince.Thecentraldistrict(EasternRumelia)wasplaced
underaChristianGovernorGeneralbutwasunderthedirectandmilitaryauthorityoftheS
ultan,thesouthernmostpartincludingMacedoniawasreturnedtoTurkeywhichonceaga
inhadacontinuousterritorystretchingacrosstheBalkanPeninsularfromtheAegeantoth
eAdriaticSeas.
 Montenegro,RumaniaandSerbiaweregivencompleteindependencefromTurkey.
 AustriawasgiventheadministrationofthetwoterritoriesofBosniaandHerzegovinaanda
notherstretchofterritorywhichseparatedSerbiafromMontenegro.
 RussiaretainedBessarabiaandtheterritoryofKars,BatoumandArdahaninAsiaMinor.
 BritaingainedthestateofCyprusfromTurkeyasabasetoprotectTurkeyinAsia,towatcho
verTurkey’sChristiansandtooffsetRussiangains.
 TheSultanpromisedbettertreatmenttotheChristiansintheempire.
THEIMPACT(EFFECTS)OFTHEBERLINCONGRESSOF1878
TheBerlincongressof1878hadbothpositiveandnegativeeffectsonthehistoryofEurope.
POSITIVEIMPACT

ThetreatyledtothepreservationoftheTurkishEmpire.ThiswasbecauseitcheckedtheRussiani
mperialismorinfluenceintheBalkans.Russiahadimperialisticinterestswhichaimedatdismantli
ngtheTurkishEmpireasenshrinedinthetreatyofSanStefanoofMarch1878buttheBerlincongre
ssof1878revisedthistreatyofSanStefanoforthesakeofpreservingtheOttomanterritorialinteg
rity.Forexample,thestateof“BigBulgaria”whichwassupposedtobeunderthecareofRussiawas
dissolvedandtheSouthernpartofthisstatewasrestoredtotheOttomanEmpire.Theotherareas
thoughbecamesemi-autonomouswererequiredtorecognizethesovereigntyofthesultan.
BritainandAustria-
HungaryalsobenefitedfromtheBerlincongressof1878.Thiswasbecausetheygotadditionalter
ritories.Forexample,Austria-
HungaryacquiredBosniaandHerzegovina,adesireshehadwantedtobefulfilledforalongtime.B
ritaingotCyprusIslandintheMediterraneanSeaandthisbecamethebasisofmaintainingandpro
motinghereconomicinterestsintheMediterraneanSea.ThiswasalsotoactasabasetomonitorR
ussianimperialismintheBalkans.
Similarly,RussiamadeterritorialgainsfromtheBerlincongressof1878.Forexample,itwasallow
edtoannexthestateofBessarabiafromtheOttomanEmpire.ThisthereforeenabledRussiatoex
pandasanempireinEasternEuropebutthisalsocontributedtothebreakuptheOttomanEmpire.
TheBerlinCongressof1878maintainedpeaceintheBalkanregionforsometime.Theterritorialar
rangementsthatwerepeacefullymadeatBerlinin1878savedtheBalkansfromrevolutionsandw
arsamongtheGreatPowersuntiltheoutbreakoftheBalkanWarsof1912-
1913whichwasaperiodofaboutthirtyyears.Forexample,TurkeyregainedthestateofMacedoni
awhichithadlosttoRussiaandonceagainshehadacontinuousterritorystretchingacrosstheAeg
eantotheAdriaticSea.BritainhadalsoacquiredavaluableislandofCyprusintheMediterraneanS
eawithoutwar.RussiahadontheotherhandregainedBessarabiaandaterritoryonRiverDanube
.Similarly,therewasnodangeroffurthermassacresbecausethesultanhadpromisedbettertrea
tmenttohisChristiansubjects.Thus,theBerlinCongressof1878wasaninstrumentofpeaceinEu
rope.
OutoftheBerlincongressof1878,theGermaninfluencereplacedRussianinfluenceintheOttom
anEmpire.ThiswasbecauseGermanyunderOttoVonBismarckstartedinfluencingtheeventsint
heOttomanEmpire.TheGermaninfluenceintheBalkanswaspositivebecauseOttoVonBismarc
kalwayswantedtoavoidconflictsinOttomanEmpireresultingfromtheRussiaimperialismandth
iswouldhaveledtothedestabilizingofpeaceintheregion.Therefore,whenRussianinfluenceint
heaffairsOttomanEmpirewasreplacedbytheGermaninfluence,thiscontributedtostabilityinth
eregion.

ThecongressalsoenabledBismarcktoisolateFrancefromEuropeanaffairs.Duringthecongress
,BismarcksecretlyurgedFrancetotakeoverTunisiainAfricaasacolonyfromTurkeywithamovet
odiverttheFrenchattentionfromEuropeanaffairs.Bismarck’scalculationcametrueasFrancela
teroccupiedTunisiain1882.AlthoughthiscontributedtothebreakinguptheTurkishEmpire,Bis
marckdivertedFrance’sinteresttoAfricaandhesuccessfullyisolatedherfromEuropeanaffairs.
BecauseofthisthereforemanagedtoachievehisaimofmaintainingpeaceinEuropebecausewh
enFranceacquiredTunisia,herattentionwasdivertedfromrevengeonGermanyforthelossofhe
rtwoterritoriesofAlsaceandLorraineinFranco-Prussianwarof1870-1871.
TheBerlincongressof1878elevatedBismarck’snameasamanofpeaceandalsoplacedhimatthe
centreofEuropeandiplomacy.HewastheChancellorofthenewGermanEmpirewhochairedthe
discussionsduringtheBerlinCongressof1878.Attheendofthecongress,Bismarckhadmanage
dtoresolvetheconflictsintheOttomanEmpirebetweenRussia,Turkey,BritainandAustria–
Hungary.Hethereforegainedesteemorfamefrom1878asaninternationalmediatorwhichenab
ledBismarcktodominateEuropeuntil1890whenheresignedfromoffice.
ThesuccessofthecongressturnedBerlinintothecentreofEuropeandiplomacyandthecitywasel
evatedtoacentreofconflictresolutioninthecontinent.Consequently,inthe1880swhenEurope
ancountriesconflictedovercoloniesinAfricaandAsia,BismarckagainsummonedtheBerlinconf
erenceof1884–
1885wheretheEuropeanpowersagreedtoapeacefulsettlementoftheconflictsinthecolonialfie
ldandthepossibilityofwarwasaverted.SuchdevelopmentshelpedtoincreasetheprestigeofBis
marckandGermanyasawhole.
NEGATIVEIMPACT(EFFECTS)OFTHEBERLINCONGRESSOF1878
TheBerlincongressof1878revivedorreawakenedBalkannationalismwhichwastoupsetEurop
eanpeace.Duringthecongress,theSlavsinBosniaandHerzegovinaforexamplewereannexedt
oAustria-
Hungaryyettheyhadwantedtogetindependence.Fromthattimetheredevelopedenemitybet
weenthetwostatesandAustria–
Hungaryastheydemandedfortheirindependence.ThisenemitylaterledtothemurderoftheAus
trianPrince,FranzFerdinandandhiswifeSophiebyaSerbianstudentornationalistintheBosnian
capitalofSarajevowhichsparkedoffWorldWarIin1914.
TheannexationofBosniaandHerzegovinabyAustria–
HungaryintheBerlincongressof1878createdhostilitybetweenSerbiaandAustria–
Hungary.ThiswassobecauseSerbiaregardedherselfasthechampionofSlavnationalismandth
ereforewantedtoannexthefellowSlavstatesontheBalkanPeninsulasoastocreateonelargeSla

vstatetobecalledasYUGOSLAVIAunderhercontrol.ThatiswhySerbiamastermindedorplann
edthemurderofanAustrianprinceFranzFerdinandandhiswifeSophiebyaSerbianstudentornat
ionalistinBosniain1914whichledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarI.
TheBerlinCongressof1878ledtothecollapseoftheThreeEmperorsLeague(theDreikaiserbu
ndTreatyof1872).Waybackin1872Russia,GermanyandAustria-
HungaryhadformedaLeaguewhichwasknownastheDreikaiserbundTreatyof1872withana
imofpromotingtheinterestsofoneanother.However,thistreatycollapsedbecauseRussiawhic
hwasoneofthememberswithdrew.ThiswasbecauseintheBerlinCongressof1878Germanycat
eredfortheinterestsofAustria–
HungarymorethanthoseofRussia.Forexample,AustriagotBosniaandHerzegovinaandyetRus
siawasnotallowedtohavethemaininfluenceintheSlavstatesoftheOttomanEmpire.Russiawas
thereforeannoyedbecausethecongressdeprivedRussiaofhergains.
RussianimperialismwithintheBalkanswasnotcompletelydestroyedbytheBerlinCongressof1
878.Afterthecongress,RussiacontinuedtoharbourimperialistictendenciesorinterestsintheOt
tomanEmpireandthiswaspartlybecauseRussiahadremainedunhappywiththecongress.Fore
xample,RussiacontinuedtosupporttheSlavstatesontheBalkanPeninsulartogetindependenc
eandalsocontinuedtoattempttoannextheterritoriesoftheOttomanEmpirewhichcausedfurth
erconflicts.
TheOttomanEmpirewashumiliatedbytheBerlinCongressof1878.Thiswasbecauseherterritor
iesweregrabbedbythedifferentEuropeanpowers.Forexample,BritaingrabbedCyprusandthis
explainswhyTurkeybecamehesitanttojointhealliancesbecausenearlyallthepowershadfeast
edonherterritoriesin1878.Butevenwhenshefinallydecidedtojoin,shewenttoGermanyrathert
hantheBritish.
TheBerlincongressof1878acceleratedtheformationofalliancesinEuropewhichlaterledtotheo
utbreakofWorldWarIin1914.BecauseoftheBerlincongressof1878,RussiawithdrewfromtheD
reikaiserbundtreatyof1872.Asaresult,GermanyandAustria-
HungarydecidedtostrengthentheircooperationwhichgavebirthtotheDualAllianceof1879.Thi
salliancewaspartlyaimedatpreparingforapossiblewarorrevengebyRussiaorFrance.Thatisw
hythetwocountriesagreedtogivemilitarysupporttooneanotherincaseofwar.By1882,Italyjoi
nedtheDualAlliance,hencemakingittheTripleAlliance.Inresponse,Russia,FranceandBritainc
onsolidatedtheirunderstandingsandlaterformedtheTripleEntentein1907.Itwasbecauseofs
uchalliancesthatWorldWarIin1914.
ItalywasangeredbythearrangementsattheBerlincongressof1878.Italywasalsoanewstateju
stlikeGermanywhichhadjustemergedonthepoliticalmapofEuropein1871.However,Italywas

humiliatedbythecongressbynotbeinggivenanyterritoryinEasternEuropeoutoftheBerlinCong
ressof1878yetevenherhopesinTunisiawerefrustratedbyFrancewhichoccupiedtheterritoryo
nBismarck’ssecretencouragement.ThislaterforcedItalytojointheDualAllianceof1879toform
theTripleAllianceof1882.Theformationofthisallianceeventuallycontributedtotheoutbreakof
WorldWarIin1914.
TheBerlincongressof1878ledtothelossofterritoriesbytheBalkanstates.Thiswasthroughthet
erritorialadjustmentsthatwerecarriedoutbythecongressofBerlinin1878.Forinstance,thestat
eofRumanialostBessarabiatoRussia,SerbialostBosniaandHerzegovinatoAustria-
HungaryandMacedonialostanoutlettotheseawhileBulgariaalsolostterritorywhenhersizewas
reduced.
TheBerlincongressof1878contributedtooutbreakoftheBalkanWarsof1912-
1913.ThesewarswerefoughtbetweenTurkeyandtheBalkanstatesofSerbia,Greece,Bulgariaa
ndMontenegrooverthecontrolofterritorieslikeMacedoniawhichtheBerlincongressof1878ha
dputunderTurkey.
TheBerlincongressof1878failedtoputtheEasternquestiontoanend.TheSultanofTurkeyforex
amplecontinuedtopersecutetheChristiansasseenintheArmenianMassacresof1896amo
ngothers.ItalsogeneratedaconflictbetweenSerbiaandAustria–
HungaryoverthecontrolofBosniaandHerzegovinawhicheventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorld
WarIin1914andattheendofthewartherewastheTreatyofSevresofAugust1920thatcaused
furtherbreakingupoftheOttomanEmpire.
Questions:
1. ExaminethesignificanceoftheBerlincongressof1878intheHistoryofEurope.
2. AssesstheimpactoftheBerlincongressof1878onEuropeupto1914.
3. AccountfortheoutbreakofarmedconflictsintheBalkansby1878.
4. HowdidtheeventsintheBalkansthreatenpeaceinEuropebetween1815and18
78?
Preamble:
CandidatesareexpectedtoidentifytheeventsintheBalkansbetween1815and1878andexplain
howtheythreatenedEuropeanpeace.
Pointstoconsider:
 TheBalkansregionwaspartoftheOttomanEmpire.

 ItwascharacterizedbyvariouseventsthatthreatenedEuropeanpeaceandtheyincluded
;
 The1815Serbianrevolt
 1821–
1830Greekwarofindependence(BritainandRussiaintervenedtosupportGreeceagains
tTurkey),AustriaandPrussiawerealienatedorisolatedinEurope.
 The1827BattleofNavarinoBaywhichledtothedefeatofTurkey.
 The1829TreatyofAdrianoplewhichgrantedsemi-
independencetoGREECE(Russianinfluenceincreased,BritainandFrenchinterestsinth
eregionthreatened).
 The1840quadrupleallianceorthefirstLondonConferenceof1840whichledto1841Strai
tsConvention(Britain,Turkey,RussiaattendedbutFrancewasnotinvited).
 TheRussianoccupationofMoldaviaandWallachiainJuly1853.
 TheNovember1853SinopeMassacreaffectedrelationsbetweenRussiaandTurkey.
 1854–
1856CrimeanWaraffectedrelationsbetweenRussiaandotherpowerslikeBritain,Franc
eandTurkey.
 The1856ParisPeaceTreaty(Austria,PrussiaandRussiaalienatedorisolated)
 The1860MassacreofChristiansinSyria(theChristianwestisangeredi.eBritain,Hungary
againstOttomanEmpire).
 The1875Bosnia-
HerzegovinarevoltsarousedresentmentinBritain,Russia,France,GermanyandAustria
.
 The1876BulgarianMassacres-religiouspersecutions
 The1877–1878Russo-TurkishWargeneratedPanSlavism.
 TreatyofSanStefano1878(promotedRussianimperialismthroughthecreationofthe“Bi
g”Bulgaria,hencearousingtheinterestsofotherEuropeanpowers.
 The1878congressofBerlinannoyedRussia.
THEANNEXATIONOFBOSNIAANDHERZEGOVINA,1908
InOctober1908,Austria-
HungaryannexedBosniaandHerzegovinawhichwasaviolationoftheCongressofBerlin1878w
hichhadonlyallowedAustriatooccupythem.Serbiabitterlyopposedtheannexationandsought
Russianassistance.Russia,however,couldnotcomply;adefeatintheRusso-
JapaneseWarof1904–1905haddevastatedherandGermanythreatenedtosupportAustria-
Hungaryduringawar.TheBritainandFrance,whowerenotdirectlyconcernedbytheannexation
,didnotgetinvolved.Thus,withoutRussiansupportSerbiawasforcedtogiveupheroppositionto
theannexationofBosniaandHerzegovina.Theannexationhowever,worsenedtherelationsbet
weenAustria–
HungaryandSerbiawhicheventuallyledtothemurderoftheAustrianPrince,FranzFerdinandan

dhiswifeSophiebyaSerbianstudentintheBosniancapitalofSarajevoin1914whichsparkedoff
WorldWarI.
THEBALKANWARSOF1912-1913
TheBalkanWars1912and1913weretheclimaxoftheBalkancrisis.ThefirstBalkanWarof1912w
asbetweentheBalkanstatesofSerbia,Greece,MontenegroandBulgariawhichhadformedthe‘B
alkanLeague’in1911ononesideandTurkeyontheother.TheyaimedatdrivingTurkeyoutofhert
erritoriesinEurope.TurkeywasdefeatedbytheabovestatesledbySerbiaandshelostalmostallh
erterritoriesinEuropeincludingAdrianopleandMacedoniatotheaboveBalkanstates.
ThesecondBalkanWarbrokeoutin1913whentheBalkanstatesfoughtamongthemselves.The
warstartedwhenBulgariadeclaredwaronSerbiaoverpartofMacedoniawhichtheBulgarianscla
imedbutSerbiahadrefusedtogiveup.BulgariawasoverwhelmedbyacombinationofSerbia,Gre
ece,RumaniaandTurkeywhichhadseeninthisconflictbetweenherformerenemiesanopportun
ityofregainingsomeofherlostEuropeanterritories.Attheendofthewar,TurkeynowregainedA
drianople,SerbiaandGreecewereconfirmedinthosepartsofMacedoniawhichtheyhadgaineda
ttheendoftheFirstBalkanWarof1912.
TheBalkanwarshadseveralresults.Forexample,theyincreasedtensionintheregionasalltheBa
lkanstateswerereadyforanotherandinparticularBulgariawhichharbouredgrievancesagainst
SerbiaandGreece.Secondly,thegreatterritorialgainsmadebySerbiagaveherconfidenceandin
spiredherambitiontounitealltheremainingSerbsintheBalkansunderherrule.ThisbroughtSer
biaintocollisionwithAustria-
HungarywhichcontrolledBosniaandHerzegovinawhichhadmillionsofSerbs.ThemurderofArc
hDukeFranzFerdinandin1914wastheclimaxofthisrivalrybetweenSerbiaandAustria-
HungaryandtheBalkancrisisingeneralwhichsparkedoffWorldWar1in1914.
HowdidtheBalkanCrisis1878–1914leadtotheoutbreakofWorldWar1?

WORLDWARI,1914–1918
WorldWarIbrokeoutin1914anditwasfoughtbetweentwohostilecampsi.e.theTripleEntentep
owersofFrance,Britain,Russia,andSerbiaandlateronjoinedbyItalyandUSAagainsttheTripleA
llianceorCentralpowersofGermany,Austria-
HungaryandlateronjoinedbyBulgariaandTurkey.Thewarwassparkedoffbytheassassination
ofArchDukeFranzFerdinand(theheirtotheAustrianthrone)andhiswifeSophiebyaBosnianstu
dentin1914astheypaidastatevisittoSarajevo,thecapitalofBosnia.Thewarwentonupto1918
whenGermanyandheralliesweredefeatedbytheAlliedorTripleEntentePowers.
CAUSESOFWORLDWARIOF1914-1918
TheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914wasduetobothlongandshorttermcauseswhichincludedthe
following:-
 Imperialism
 TheAlliancesystem
 Nationalism
 Thearmsrace(militarism)
 TheaggressivepoliciesofKaiserWilliamIIofGermany
 ThetraditionalhatredbetweenGermanyandFrance
 Theroleofthepress
 Thecollapseofinternationaldiplomacy
 ThedoublemurderatSarajevo
ImperialismcontributedtheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.Imperialismreferstotheattemptm
adebypowerfulEuropeancountriestocolonizeorcontrolthesmallandweakstatesofAsiaandAfr
icaattheirownexpenseinthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury.Itwasafactorofcultural,politicalan
deconomicdominationofcoloniesbytheEuropeancountriesandthereforeimperialismledtothe
struggleforcoloniesinAfrica,AsiaandthePacificbytheEuropeanpowerswhichcontributedtoco
lonialrivalriesorconflictslikeAnglo-Germanyrivalry,Franco-
Germanyrivalryandothers.SuchconflictswereshiftedfromthecoloniestoEurope,thusleadingt
oWorldWarIby1914.

Economicimperialism,whichwasthemostimportant,waspromptedbytheindustrialrevolutioni
nEurope.TheEuropeancountriesconflictedbecausetheyneededthecoloniestogetnewmarket
s,rawmaterialsandnewareasforinvestmentatanycostandthisledtoWorldWarIin1914.Forexa
mple,FranceandGermanyconflictedoverMoroccoasGermanywantedtooccupyMoroccowhic
hwasFrenchcolony.ThisthereforeledtotheMoroccanCrisisof1905–
1911.TheMoroccancrisiswascharacterizedbytwoheatedincidentsormilitaryconfrontations
–
theTangierincident1905andtheAgadircrisisorincidentof1911inwhichGermanychall
engedtheFrenchpresenceinMorocco.
TheattemptbyGermanytotakeoverMoroccoalsoledtoaconflictbetweenBritainandGermany.
ThiswasbecauseGermanywouldstageherfleetorbattleshipsattheMoroccancoastandthiswou
lddisrupttheBritishsearoutetotheFarEastorIndiabecauseMoroccowasfoundattheentranceo
fMediterraneanSea.
BritainwasalsoantagonizedbyGermanyinSouthAfricawhenGermanysupportedthedefeatoft
heBritishbyPaulKruger,theleaderoftheBoerrepublicofTransvaalin1895.Inthatyear,Britainw
hichhadraidedtheBoerRepublicinthefamousJamesonraidwasdefeatedbytheBoers.TheGer
manKaiser–WilliamIIsentatelegramtotheBoerPresident–
PaulKruger(theKrugerTelegramof1895)congratulatinghimforthejobwelldone.Thiswasi
nterpretedasopenprovocationforwar.
BritainalsoclashedorconflictedwithGermanyovertheproposedconstructionoftheBerlin-
BaghdadrailwaybyGermanywhichthreatenedtheBritishcommercialinterestsintheMiddle
East.
Inordertosafeguardtheireconomicpositions,theEuropeanpowersimposedveryhightariffsoni
mportsthatwouldcompetewiththeirownmanufacturersespeciallyinGermany,Britain,France
andRussia.Tariffpoliciescreatedbitterrivalryandhatredandthisledtowar.Forexample,therew
eretariffwarsbetweenAustria-
HungaryandRumaniafrom1886to1890,GermanyandRussiafrom1893to1894.Whendiploma
ticsettlementsoftheseconflictsfailed,warbecameinevitableby1914.
ImperialismledtothegrowthofnationalisminEuropewhichledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Th
ecolonizedpeopledevelopedadesiretoachievetheirindependencewhichcreatedconflictsthat
resultedintoWorldWarI.Forexample,theSlavpeopleofSerbia,BosniaandHerzegovinahatedA
ustrianimperialismintheBalkans.ThiseventuallyledtothemurderoftheAustrianprinceatSaraj
evoin1914byaSerbianstudentwhichsparkedoffWorldWarI.

ImperialismincreasedthearmsraceandthisledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIby1914.Thisisbec
ausecountrieslikeBritainandGermanydecidedtoconstructheavilyarmedfleetsorbattleshipst
hattheywouldusetoacquireandprotecttheircolonies.ThiswaslateradoptedbyotherEuropean
powerswhichhadcolonialambitionswhichintensifiedthearmsraceormilitarismthatledtofeara
ndtensioninEuropewhicheventuallysparkedoffWorldWarIby1914.
Imperialismalsoledtotheformationofnewalliancesandcounterallianceswhichcontributedtot
heoutbreakofWorldWarIby1914.Theconflictsinthecoloniescreatedfearandsuspicionamong
theEuropeanwhichinfluencedthemtoformalliancesinpreparationforapossiblewarfromtheire
nemies.Forexample,theconflictsbetweenGermanyandBritainoverthecoloniesmadeBritaint
ojointheFrenchsystemofallianceandthereforeFrancewasnolongerisolated.Thealliancesthat
wereformedmeantthattheconflictsbetweentheEuropeanpowerscouldnolongerbelimitedtot
hecoloniesbuttheywereshiftedtotheEuropeancapitalswhichledtoWorldWarIby1914.
ThealliancesystemalsoledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.Thealliancesystemwasinitiate
dbyBismarckofGermanyafterthedefeatofFranceintheFranco-Prussianwarof1870-
1871inanattempttoisolateFranceandmaintainpeaceinEurope.Thesystemincludedalli
ancesliketheLeagueoftheThreeEmperorsi.e.Germany,Austria-
HungaryandRussia,theDualAllianceof1879ofGermanyandAustria-
HungaryandtheTripleAllianceof1882withGermany,ItalyandAustria-
Hungaryasthemembers.Francealsomanagedtoendherisolationbyformingitsownsystemofal
liances.Forexample,therewastheFranco-
RussianAllianceof1894.BritainalsosignedtheAnglo-
JapaneseAllianceof1902tosecureherinterestsintheFarEast.Also,in1904Britainsignedth
eAnglo-
FrenchtreatyorEntenteCordialeandin1907theTripleEntentecomprisingofFrance,Rus
siaandBritainwasformedanditstoodagainsttheTripleAllianceof1882.Thealliancesystemledt
otheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914inthefollowingways;
ItdividedEuropeintotwohostilecampswhicheventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin191
4.TherewastheTripleAllianceortheGermancampofGermany,Austria-
HungaryandItalywhichstoodagainsttheTripleEntenteortheFrenchcampofFrance,Britainan
dRussia.Thepresenceofthesetwohostilecampscreatedsuspicionandtensionorfearamongth
eGreatpowersofEuropewhicheventuallyledtoWorldWarIby1914.
Thealliancesystemgavenoroomforcompromiseincaseofanyconflict.Becauseofthealliancesy
stem,eachpowerwassupposedtoprotecttheinterestsofthecamptowhichitbelongedby1914.
Forexample,bytheDualAllianceof1879,GermanypromisedfullsupporttoAustriaincaseofany
warbetweenAustriaandRussiaovertheBalkans.Therefore,in1914beforeAustriadeclaredwar

onSerbia,sheconsultedGermanyandtheGermanEmperor-
KaiserWilliamIIgaveaBlankChequetoAustriapromisingherunlimitedsupportagainstheren
emies.Similarly,whenRussiamobilizedherforcestosupportSerbiaagainstAustria,Germanyqu
icklydeclaredwaronRussia,thusleadingtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.
Itmadethesmallerpowerstofeelstrongenoughtocarryoutaggressiveorprovocativeactsagain
sttheGreatPowerswhicheventuallysparkedoffWorldWarIby1914.Thiswasbecauseitgavepro
tectiontoevenweakerandsmallernationswhichwouldhavefearedcreatingconflictswiththebig
powers.Forexample,SerbiasupportedbyRussiawasabletoignoretheAustrianultimatumorord
erfollowingtheassassinationofArchDukeFerdinandandhiswifein1914whichsparkedoffWorld
WarI.AlsoAustriasupportedbyGermanydidnotrespectSerbia’sindependenceandthiseventu
allyledtoWorldWarI.
ThesystempromotedthearmsraceormilitarisminEuropewhicheventuallyledtotheoutbreakof
WorldWarIin1914.SincehostilecampshadbeencreatedinEuropebythealliancesystem,eachc
ountrybeganproducingdeadlyarmsorweaponsforprotectionagainstanother.Thisincreased
militarismorarmsraceledtotensionandfearamongtheEuropeanpowerswhicheventuallyledto
theoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.
Thealliancesystemmagnifiedortransformedsmallorlocalconflictsintointernationaldisputeso
rconflictsthatfinallyexplodedintoWorldWarIby1914.Forexample,becauseSerbiaandAustria
wereassuredofsupportfromtheirrespectivecampsby1914,themurderofArchdukeFerdinand
andhiswifein1914,smallasitwasdriftedtheworldintoamajorwarby1914.ThiswasbecauseEur
opeancountrieshadbeenlinkedorconnectedtoeachotherbythissystemofalliancesandtherefo
reannoyingoneofthemmeantannoyingallthemembersofthatparticularcamp.
ThealliancesystemintensifiedcolonialrivalriesorconflictsamongEuropeancountrieswhichlai
dafoundationfortheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.AsOttoVonBismarckofGermanywantedto
securealliesagainstFranceheendingescalatingcolonialconflictsamongtheEuropeanpowers.
Forexample,intheBerlinCongressof1878BismarckencouragedFrancetotakeoverTunisiawhe
reItalyalreadyhadcolonialambitions.ThisthereforeresultedintorivalrybetweenItalyandFran
ceoverTunisia.ThesecolonialrivalriesincreasedtheenemityamongtheEuropeanpowerswhic
hfinallysparkedoffWorldWarIin1914.
ItenabledFrancetojumpoutofisolationinEurope,thusbeingabletofightawarofrevengeonGer
manyforherdefeatintheFranco-Prussianwarof1870-
1871whichsparkedoffWorldWarI.AftertheresignationofBismarckin1890,KaiserWilliamIIof
GermanystartedusingthealliancesystemtothreatenotherpowerslikeBritainandRussia.Thisg
aveFranceachancetogetalliesandwiththeseallies,Francemanagedtoputinplaceherownsyste

mallianceswhichstoodagainsttheGermansystemofalliances.Withthesealliancesinplace,the
outbreakofWorldWarIbecameinevitableby1914.
NationalismalsoledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.Nationalismisthestrongfeelingforon
e’snationandadesireforself-
determinationorindependence.Italsomeantthedesirebytheindependentstatestobecomedo
minantandprotecttheirnationalgoalsorinterests.ThisspiritofnationalismhaddevelopedinEur
opelargelyduetotheindustrialrevolutionandtheriseofnewpowerfulstateslikeGermanyandIta
ly.TheoutbreakofWorldWarIwasdrivenbythehighspiritofnationalisminEuropeinthefollowin
gways;
Nationalismpromptedorgaverisetoeconomicimperialismorthestruggleforcoloniesbythemaj
orpowersinAfricaandAsia.ThisledtocompetitionorrivalryamongtheGreatPowersthateventu
allyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Forexample,RussiaconflictedwithAustria–
HungaryintheBalkansespeciallyoverBosniaandHerzegovina.GermanyalsoconflictedwithFra
nceinNorthAfricaespeciallyoverMorocco.Thisstrugglebetweenthemajorpowersforcolonies
withnodoubtcausedwarin1914.
NationalismalsointensifiedthearmsraceinEurope.AstrongspiritofnationalismencouragedEu
ropeanpowerstomanufacturedangerousweaponsandalsotocreatelargearmiessoastodefen
dthemselvesagainsttheirrivalsaswellastoachieveothernationalinterests.Forexample,under
KaiserWilliamII,GermanywantedtobecomeaworldpowerbycreatingalargeempireinEuropet
oincludeDenmark,PolandandSwitzerland.Shethereforecreatedastrongnavytoachievethiso
bjective.Thisresultedintothearmsrace(militarism)betweenGermanyandotherpowerslikeBri
tain,FranceandRussiawhichmadeWorldWarIinevitableby1914.
NationalismincreasedthepresspropagandainEurope.ThenewspapersinthevariousEuropean
countrieswereusedtopromotenationalfeelingsorsentiments.Forexample,thenewspapersin
FrancewereusedtoadvocateforawarofrevengeagainstGermanysoastorestoreFrance’snatio
nalprestige.Similarly,theGermannewspapersadvocatedforthecreationofastrongGermanyt
hatwoulddominatethewholeofEurope.ThispresspropagandaincreasedenemityamongtheE
uropeanpowerswhicheventuallysparkedoffWorldWarIby1914.
NationalismmadeFrancetodevelopaspiritofrevengeagainstGermany.Becauseofthedesireto
restoreherpastnationalprestigeorglory(nationalism),FrancewaswillingtorevengeonGerma
nywhichhadhumiliatedherin1871andalsotoregainherlostterritoriesofAlsaceandLorraine.Th
isspiritofrevengemadeFrancetoenterthewarin1914againstGermanywhichmadeWorldWarIi
nevitable.Similarly,thefearofFrance’srevengeonGermanymadeBismarcktostartasystemofa
lliancessoastoisolateFranceinEuropewhicheventuallycausedWorldWarIby1914.
NationalismledtothecollapseofinternationaldiplomacyinEuropeby1914whichcausedWorld
WarI.ThehighspiritofnationalismamongEuropeanpowersmadethemtofocusofnationalrathe
rthancontinentalorEuropeaninterestswhichunderminedpeace.Forexample,theDisarmam
entConferencesatHagueof1899and1907aswellasinLondonin1912whichaimedatred

ucingthearmsraceinEuropefailedbecausecountrieslikeBritainandGermanywerenotwillingto
surrendertheirnationalinterestsofmonopolizingthenavalstrengthinEurope.Withthecollapse
ofinternationaldiplomacy,awarbecameinevitableinEuropeby1914.
IntensenationalisminItalyandGermanyaftertheirunificationchangedthebalanceofpowerinE
uropeespeciallyasGermanybecamethenewlandmaster.Thisthreatenedtheinterestsofothert
raditionalpowersinEuropelikeBritain,FranceandRussiawhichinfluencedthemtostartplannin
gforwar.Forexample,thedeterminationbyFrancetoregainherpreviouspositionofbeingthelan
dmasterinEuropemadehertoplanforawarofrevengeagainstGermanywhicheventuallycontri
butedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.
IntenseSlavnationalismorPan-
SlavismcreatedconflictsandadesireforindependenceintheBalkanswhichledtotheoutbreak
ofWorldWarI.By1914,amovementtounitealltheSlavpeoplehademergedinEasternEurope.T
hismovementwantedtounitetheSlavpeopleofAustria-
Hungary,Montenegro,Serbia,Bosnia,HerzegovinaandTurkey.Thismovementwasknownast
hePan-
Slavmovement.SerbiawastheleaderofthismovementanditwantedtocreatealargestateofS
lavsthatwastobeknownasYUGOSLAVIA.ThisannoyedAustria-
HungarybecausethecreationofthisstatewastoleadtothedisintegrationorbreakingupoftheAu
strianempirewhichhadSlavs.Therefore,theaimofAustriawastoattackanddefeatSerbiaandthi
sledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIby1914.
SlavnationalismfurtherworsenedtherelationshipbetweenSerbiaandAustriaduetheAustriana
nnexationofBosniaandHerzegovinain1908.ThisannexationannoyedSerbiaandthereforeit
madehertostartmobilizingherforcesinpreparationforwarwithAustriaincaseSerbiawasattack
ed.ThismobilizationbySerbiabuiltconfidenceforSerbiatogotowarwithAustriain1914.
SlavnationalismalsocausedconflictsbetweenAustriaandRussiaduetotheannexationofBosni
aandHerzegovinabyAustriain1908.RussiawasasympathizerofSlavnationalismbecausesheal
sohadSlavpeopleinherempire.RussiathereforeopposedAustria’sannexationofBosniaandHe
rzegovinain1908andindeedRussiabecamemorefriendlytoSerbiaandsupportedthemovebyS
erbiatotakeovertheabovetwostatesfromAustria-
HungarysoastocreateYugoslavia.ThisledtoWorldWarIbecausewhenAustriadeclaredwaron
Serbiain1914,RussiaalsomobilizedhertroopsandenteredwartosavetheSlavstateofSerbia.
SlavnationalismledtothemurderofArchdukeFranzFerdinandandhiswifein1914whichsparke
doffWorldWarI.BecauseoftheAustrianannexationofBosniaandHerzegovina,Serbiaformeda
secretsocietytoencouragethespreadofanti-
AustrianpropagandainthetwostatesinordertostopAustriancontrolinthesestates.In1914,aSe

rbianstudentwholivedinBosniaandwasamemberofthissecretsocietymurderedtheAustrianpr
inceandhiswifeandtheresponsibilitywasputonSerbiawhichforcedAustriatodeclarewaronSer
bia,hencesparkingoffWorldWarI.
NationalismledtotheformationofdefensiveorcounteralliancesinEuropewhichcausedWorldW
arI.EuropeancountrieswhosenationalinterestswerethreatenedbytheemergingpowerofGer
manydecidedtoformcounteralliancesinordertosafeguardtheirnationalinterests.Forexample
,whenKaiserWilliamIIthreatenedtheBritishpoweronwater,thisannoyedBritainandtherefore
she(Britain)decidedtoformamilitaryalliancewithFranceknownastheENTENTECORDIALE
ortheANGLO-
FRENCHALLIANCEOF1904.Similarly,becauseoftheemergingpowerofGermanyinEurope
,BritainandRussiasettledtheirdifferencesintheOttomanEmpireandthereforein1907France,
RussiaandBritainconcludedanallianceknownastheTRIPLEENTENTE.Thesenewcounteralli
ancesincreasedtensioninEuropewhicheventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIby1914.
ThearmsraceormilitarismalsocontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.Thearmsrace
wasthecompetitionamongEuropeanpowersinthemanufactureofdeadlyweaponsorarms.Thi
sstiffcompetitionbeganbetweenBritainandGermany.Bismarckhadbeenverycarefulnottoant
agonizeorchallengeBritainattheSea.However,in1900GermanyissuedaNavyLawwhichclea
rlystatedthatshewasbuildingabattlefleettochallengeBritainatsea.Thisscaredandannoyedt
heBritishgovernmentandthepublic.
Inreaction,Britainstartedbuildinglarger,fasterandmoreheavilyarmedbattleshipsinordertom
eettheGermanchallengeattheSea.ThesebattleshipswereknownasDREADNOUGHTS.Whe
ntheGermansgotinformation,theyduplicatedtheBritishDreadnoughtsandthisincreasedtensi
onbetweenthetwocountries.BothcountriescontinuedtobuildmoreDreadnoughtsasawayof
militarypreparednessforwarandby1914,thisledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Between1909a
nd1912,BritainproducednineteenDreadnoughtstocounterthenineofGermany.In1913,SirWi
nstonChurchillproposedanavalholidaybutGermanyrefused.Francewhichhadsince1871bee
nlookingforadayofrevengeagainstGermanyembarkedonanextensivearmsprogrammewhic
hdroveherintowarwithGermanyby1914.
Thearmsracecreatedasenseoffear,suspicionandhatredamongthevariousEuropeanstates.A
sthevariousEuropeanpowersstatedthemanufactureofdeadlyweaponssoastocatchupwithBr
itainandGermanytheentireEuropeancontinentwascaughtupinastateoffearandtension.Thist
hereforeincreasedconflictsbetweenthemembersoftheTripleAlliancei.e.Germany,Austriaan
dItalyandthoseoftheTripleEntentei.e.France,RussiaandBritain.Asaresult,theydeclaredwar
oneachotherin1914whichsparkedWorldWarI.

ThearmsraceencouragedthebuildingoflargearmiesandnavieswhichmadeWorldWarIinevita
bleby1914.Forexample,theGermanarmyenlargedandtrainedtothehighestdegreeofefficienc
y.RussiaandFrancealsodidthesame.By1914,GermanyandFranceboastedthateachcouldfield
threeandhalfmillionsoldiersincaseofwarwhileRussiaboastedofhavingfourmillionsoldiers.Th
eselargearmiesandnaviesthereforedrovethemembersofthedifferentalliancesintowarby191
4,thusexplainingtheoutbreakofWorldWarI.
Theaggressivecharacter(policies)ofKaiserWilliamIIofGermanyledtotheoutbreakofWorldW
arI.HewastheEmperoroftheGermanEmpirefrom1888upto1918whenheabdicatedorleftth
ethrone.HehadaggressiveorunfriendlypoliciesthatprovokedotherEuropeancountriesintowa
r,henceleadingtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914inthefollowingways;
HisinvolvementintheBalkanregionledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Forexample,heattempte
dtoconstructarailwaylinefromBerlin(Germany)toBaghdad(Iraq)intheMiddleEastknownasth
eBerlin–
BaghdadRailway.ThiswasathreattotheBritishcommercialinterestsinEasternEuropebeca
usetheGermaninfluenceintheOttomanEmpirewoulddisrupttheBritishmarketsthereandhers
earoutetothemarketsintheFarEast(India).ThisincreasedconflictsbetweenGermanyandBrita
inwhicheventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarI.
KaiserWilliamIIpromotedthearmsraceandnavalracewhichantagonizedBritainandeventually
ledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.In1900KaiserWilliamIIissuedaNavyLawbywhichGe
rmanystartedbuildingabattlefleettochallengeBritainatsea.Thiswasaverybigmistakeofdecl
aringachallengetotheBritishsuperiorityattheSeawhichBismarckandKaiserWilliamIhadforlo
ngavoided.AsKaiserWilliamIIconstructedwarships,thissparkedoffadeadlymilitarycompetiti
onandconflictsbetweenGermanyandBritainandtheseconflictseventuallyledtotheoutbreakof
WorldWarI.
KaiserWilliamIIledtothecollapseofinternationaldiplomacyinEuropewhicheventuallyledtoth
eoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.Hisaggressiveorunfriendlycharactermadeithardforanydiplo
maticmeansofresolvingEuropeanproblemstothriveby1914andthereforewarremainedtheon
lyoptiontosettleEuropeandisputes.Forexample,hewasresponsibleforthefailureoftheDisar
mamentconferencesatHagueinNetherlandsin1899and1907.Theseconferenceshadb
eenheldtoreducethearmsraceinEuropebutKaiserWilliamIIwasnotwillingtoreducetheGerma
nnavalstrengthasdemandedbytheotherpowers.Thiseventuallyincreasedthearmsraceormili
tarisminEuropewhichledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914
HisactivitiesinSouthAfricaworsenedtheAnglo-
GermanrelationswhicheventuallycausedWorldWarIin1914.Forexample,in1895KaiserWillia

mIIsentacongratulatorymessageortelegramtoPaulKrugerwhichgreatlyannoyedBritai
n.In1895,theBritishcommanderknownasJamesonattackedtheBoerrepublicofTransvaalinS
outhAfrica.TherepublicwasledbyPaulKruger.TheraidbyJamesonfailedandtheBritishwerede
featedbytheBoers.Consequently,KaiserWilliamIIsentatelegramcongratulatingPaulKrugerf
orhavingdefeatedtheBritish.ThistelegramannoyedBritainasshefearedthattheGermanswho
werealreadyinNamibiawouldsupporttheBoersinTransvaalandtakeadvantageofthegoldmin
esintherepublicofTransvaal.ThischallengeonBritainthereforeledtotheoutbreakofWorldWar
Iin1914.
KaiserWilliamII’spromisedsupporttoAustriafollowingthemurderofArchdukeFranzFerdinand
in1914causedWorldWarI.HesentaBlankChequetoAustriabywhichhepromisedunlimitedsu
pporttoAustriaagainstherenemieslikeSerbiaandRussia.ThisgaveAustriaconfidencetodeclar
ewaronSerbiain1914,thussparkingoffWorldWarI.
HepromotedGermanimperialisminNorthAfrica(Morocco).Thisresultedintoconflictsbetween
GermanyandFranceaswellasBritainoverMoroccoandtheseconflictsledtoWorldWarIby1914.
KaiserWilliamIImessedupormismanagedBismarck’salliancesystemwhicheventuallyledtoW
orldWarI.OttoVonBismarckwhoinitiatedthealliancesystemhadmanagedtoutilizeittomaintai
npeaceinEuropeupto1890whenheleftoffice.However,duetoKaiserWilliamII’saggressivecha
racter,thesystemwasmismanagedandthereforecouldnotbeusedasaninstrumentofpeace.Fo
rexample,hemadeamistakewhenherefusedtorenewthere-
insurancetreatyof1887withRussia.ThisforcedRussiatojoinFranceandBritain,thusleadingtot
heformationoftheTripleEntenteof1907.Asaresult,Francewasnolongerisolatedwhichinspire
dhertorevengeonGermanyin1914
HeinvadedBelgiuminAugust1914.On3rdofAugust1914GermanyunderKaiserWilliaminvaded
FrancethroughBelgiumwhichwasunderBritainasashortcut.ThiswasaviolationoftheBelgianin
dependenceandneutralitythathadbeenestablishedin1839.Britainsentanultimatumorordert
oGermanydemandingtherespectofBelgium’sneutralityandindependencewhichGermanyref
used.ThisthereforeforcedBritaintodeclarewaronGermanyon4thAugust1914,henceleadingto
theoutbreakofWorldWarI.
ThepresspropagandacontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.Thenewspaperinve
storsmadealotofprofitsfromthestateofinternationaltensionwhichtheycreatedandthisledto
WorldWarIby1914.ThesenewspaperspublishedinformationinEuropeabouthowthemember
sofeachcampwerereadyforwarthroughtheincreasedlevelsofarmamentandthenumberofsol
diersandsometimeswithexaggeration.ThisbuilttensionandfearinEuropethatwhichsparkedo
fftheWorldWarIin1914.

ThetraditionalhatredorenemitybetweenFranceandGermanycausedWorldWarIin19
14.ThisenemityoriginatedfromtheFranco-PrussianWarof1870-
1871inwhichFrancehadbeendecisivelydefeatedbyPrussiaunderOttoVonBismarck.Attheend
ofthiswar,FrancelosthertwomineralrichprovincesofAlsaceandLorrainetoGermanyasperthe
FrankfurtTreatyof1871whichendedthewar.Francethereforealwayswantedtoregainherprovi
nceswhileGermanywantedtokeeptheseprovincesandthisconflictledtotheoutbreakofWorld
WarIin1914.
Similarly,thedefeatofFranceintheFranco-
Prussianwarledtothebirthofaspiritof“revenge”inFrancecharacterizedbyadeepsenseofbitter
ness,hatredanddemandforawarofrevengeagainstGermany.Thiswasparticularlymanifested
inthedesireforanotherwarwithGermanyinordertopaybackonGermanywhichhadhumiliatedF
rancein1871.ThisbecameoneofthefactorsthatcontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin191
4asFrancefoughtagainstGermanyinordertofulfillthatdesireforrevenge.
ThecollapseofinternationaldiplomacyinEuropeledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarI.By1914,ther
ewasnointernationalmechanismthroughwhichtheEuropeanpowerswoulddiplomaticallyorp
eacefullyresolvetheirconflictsamicably.TheCongresssystemwhichwasestablishedin1818as
ameanstomaintainEuropeanpeaceandstabilityhadcollapsedwaybackby1830.Besides,some
oftheEuropeandiplomatswhohadattemptedtokeepEuropeatpeacelikeOttoVonBismarckofG
ermanyhadalsoleftoffice.ThusthekindsofstatesmenthatEuropehadby1914werethelikesofK
aiserWilliamIIwhohadlittleregardfordiplomacyinresolvingEuropeanproblems.Thatiswhyev
entheDisarmamentConferencesthatwereheldinHague(Netherlands)in1899and1907tot
ryandreducethearmsraceinEuropefailedtoyieldresultsbecauseGermanyandBritainwerenot
willingtodisarmasdemandedbytheotherpowers.ThiseventuallycausedWorldWarIin1914.
ThedoublemurderofArchdukeorPrinceFranzFerdinandandhiswifeSophiesparkedoffWorldW
arI.On28thJune1914,theAustrianprinceArchDukeFranzFerdinandandhiswifewerekilledin
Sarajevo,thecapitalofBosnia.TheywerekilledbyaSerbianstudentornationalistknownasPri
ncipGavrilwholivedinBosnia.ArchDukeFerdinandwasexpectedtobethesuccessortotheAus
trianthronesinceEmperorFrancisJosefwasveryoldandwasexpectedtodieanytime.Themurde
rwasplottedororganizedintheSerbiancapitalcityofBelgradebytheBlackHand–
aterroristmovementsponsoredbySerbia.
On23rdJuly1914,Austria-
HungarysentanultimatumorordertoSerbiademandingacceptancewithin48hoursandthis
ultimatumwasframedinthehopeofrefusalonthepartofSerbia.Theultimatumstatedthat;
 Serbiawastosuppressallanti-Austrianactivitiesinherterritory.
 SerbiawastodismissallherofficialswhomAustria-Hungarydidnotlike.

 AustriawastoenterSerbiatoinvestigateSerbia’sresponsibilityandguiltinthemurderan
dtosupervisethesuppressionofallanti-AustriansocietiesorgroupsinSerbia.
Serbiawasspecificallyannoyedbythelastprovisionbecauseitmeantthelossofherindependenc
e.Therefore,Serbiarefusedtorespondpositivelytotheultimatum.Perhaps,warwouldhavebee
navoidedbutGermanygaveAustriapermissiontodealwithSerbiaasshepleasedandthatGerma
nywastohaveasecondthoughtofherrelationshipwithAustria-
HungaryifshedidnotdealwithSerbia.Therefore,on28 thofJuly1914,Austria-
HungarydeclaredwaronSerbia.GermanythenwarnedBritain,FranceandRussianottointerven
ebutRussiamobilizedtroopstosaveherallySerbiaandthereforeGermanydeclaredwaronRussi
a.
GermanyalsodemandedthatFranceshouldgiveguaranteeofherneutralityinthiswarandFr
ancerefused.Therefore,on3rdofAugust1914GermanydeclaredwaronFrance.Germanythend
ecidedtoinvadeFrancethroughBelgiumwhichwasunderBritainasashortcut.Britainsentanulti
matumorordertoGermanydemandingtherespectofBelgium’sneutralityandindependencewh
ichGermanyrefused.Therefore,on4thAugust1914BritaindeclaredwaronGermanyandWorld
WarIhadstarted.
Asthewarprogressed,itspreadfromEuropeandinvolvedAmericaandtheAsiancountriessucht
hatitwasnolongeraEuropeanbutaWorldWar.
THECOURSEOFWORLDWARI
By1915,thewarhadspreadtoAsiaandAfrica.Forexample,JapanwasfightingontheAsiancontin
entwhiletheFrenchandBritishcolonieshadalsojoinedthewaronthesideoftheircolonialmaster
s.On23rdMay1915,ItalyenteredWorldWarIsurprisinglyonthesideoftheTripleEntentepowe
rswhenshedeclaredwaronAustria-
Hungary.ShewaspromisedterritoriesbytheTripleEntentepowersforherdefectionfromtheTri
pleAllianceof1882.Therefore,Italybetrayedthetripleallianceof1882.
USAENTERSWORLDWARI
In1917,USAenteredWorldWarI.TworeasonsforcedUSAtoenterWorldWarI.Firstly,in1917th
eBritishintelligencenetworkinterceptedatelegramfromtheGermanForeignMinistercalledZi
mmerman.Inthetelegram,GermanyrequestedMexicotoresisttheentranceofUSAintoWorld
WarIandthatattheendofthewar,GermanywouldrewardMexicowiththestatesofTexasandAriz
onawhichUSAhadannexedin1848fromMexico.Thedetailsorcontentsofthistelegramannoyed
USAandthereforeinfluencedhertojoinWorldWarI.

TheotherreasonwasthatGermanyusedhersubmarinestosinkthewarshipsofBritain,ItalyandF
rance.In1917,Germany’ssubmarinessunktheUSAmerchantshipandboththegoodsandliveso
fpeoplewerelost.ThisactionannoyedUSAandthereforeon2ndApril1917,PresidentWilsonW
oodrowofUSAdeclaredwaronGermany.
TheentranceoftheUSAintoWorldWarIenabledtheAlliedPowerstoresistGermanyespeciallyFr
ance.ByOctober1918,GermanyrealizedthatBerlinwasfallingtotheAlliedPowers.Asaresult,on
9thNovember1918KaiserWilliamIIabdicatedorleftthethroneandescapedtoHollandandthe
Germancommandersaskedforpeace.Hence,on11thNovember1918atreatywassignedbet
weentheGermancommandersandthoseofthealliedpowersandthismarkedtheendofWorldW
arI.
Questions:
 “ThealliancesystemwasprimarilyresponsiblefortheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914”Dis
cuss.
 HowfardidimperialismcontributetotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914?
 “TheAnglo-GermanrivalryledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914”Discuss
THERESPONSIBILITIESOFCOUNTRIESINTHEOUTBREAKOFWORDWARI
GERMANY
ThetreatyofVersaillesof1919thatwassignedattheendofWorldWarIputtheblameonGermany
accordingtoArticle231.Therefore,Germanysharesthebiggestportionoftheblameforcausing
WorldWarIduetothefollowingreasons;
 GermanyimitatedthealliancesysteminordertoisolateFranceandmaintainpeaceinEuro
pe.
 Germany’saggressionthroughKaiserWilliamIIcausedWorldWarI.
 TheGermanimperialismthreatenedotherpowersespeciallyBritainintheOttomanEmpi
re.Forexample,therewastheattempttoconstructtheBerlin-
Baghdadrailway,theattempttotakeoverMoroccoetc.
 German’sannexationofAlsaceandLorrainecreatedlongtermenemitybetweenFrancea
ndGermany.

 Germanyfailedtorenewthere-
insurancetreatyof1887withRussiawhichforcedRussiatojoinFranceandBritaintoformt
hesamesideduringWorldWarI.
 Germany’saggressiveattackonBelgiumforcedBritaintojoinedWorldWarI.
 GermanyfailedthedisarmamentattemptsorconferencesatHaguein1899and1907bec
auseKaiserWilliamIIwasnotwillingtoreducetheGermannavalstrengthasdemandedby
theotherpowers.ThiseventuallyincreasedthearmsracewhichmadeWorldWarIinevita
blein1914.
SERBIA
 SerbiawasamemberoftheTripleEntentewhichstoodagainsttheTripleAlliancehencebe
ingresponsibleforWorldWarI.
 Serbiannationalism(thedesiretocreateYugoslavia)wasathreattoAustria-Hungary.
 SerbiawasresponsibleforthedoublemurderofPrinceFerdinandandhiswifeatSarajevo
whichsparkedoffWorldWarI.
 SerbiarejectedtheultimatumfromAustria-
HungaryyetshewasresponsibleforthedoublemurderwhichgaveAustriaexcusetodecla
rewarin1914.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
 Austria’simperialismintheBalkansandheractionsespeciallyagainstSerbia(controlling
BosniaandHerzegovina)ledtotheriseofPan-Slavism.
 Austria’sactofsettingunfavourabletermsintheultimatumtoSerbialedtotheFirstWorld
War.
 Austria’salliancewithGermanyandothermembersoftheTripleAllianceledtothealliance
systemwhichdividedEuropeintotwohostilecamps.
 Austria’smilitarismincreasedthearmsraceinEuropewhichledtoWorldWarI.
 AustriadeclaredwaronSerbiawhichpromptedotherpowersofthedifferentcampstojoin
thewarinordertosupporteitherSerbiaorAustria.
RUSSIA

 RussiaintervenedintheinternalaffairsorpoliticsofSerbiaunderthedisguiseorcoverofpr
otectingtheSlavs.Therefore,SerbiafeltstrongduetothesupportofRussiaandasaresult
SerbiaprovokedAustriaintowar.
 RussiawasanactivememberoftheTripleEntentewithFranceandBritainwhichstoodthe
TripleAlliance.
 Russia’simperialismintheBalkansorOttomanEmpireandintheFarEast(Asia)conflicted
withAustrianimperialism,theGermanandJapaneseimperialism,henceincreasingtensi
onsonconflictswhichcausedWorldWarIby1914.
 RussiaembarkedonthearmsracetocompetewithGermanywhichmilitarizedEurope.
 RussiaalsorefusedtodemobilizeherforcesasdemandedbyGermanyin1914.Asaresult,
GermanydeclaredwaronRussiaon1stAugust1914.
BRITAIN
 Britain’sdesiretocheckontheGermanthreatstowardshereconomicinterestsintheMiddl
eEast,theFarEast(Asia)andSouthAfricacausedWorldWarI.
 BritainisalsoblamedforfearingBismarck’salliancesystemthusformingcounteralliance
swithFranceandRussiathatledtotheTripleEntentewhichcausedWorldWarI.
 Bismarck’sarmsraceandnavalcompetitionwithGermanyledtoWorldWarI.Forexample
,foreverydreadnoughtbuiltbyGermany,Britainbuilttwotocatch-upwithher.
 Britain’simperialismintheOttomanEmpireandotherpartsofworldconflictedwithother
powerslikeGermany.
 BritaindeclaredwaronGermanyfollowingtheGermaninvasionofBelgium.
FRANCE
 France’sdesiretofightawarofrevengeandrecoverAlsaceandLorrainethreatenedGerm
anyleadingtoWorldWarI.
 FranceisblamedforinitiatingorstartingcounterallianceswithRussiaandBritainthatledt
otensionwhichledtoWorldWarIby1914.
 FranceisblamedforinvolvingherselfinthecolonialconflictsinAfricaespeciallyinMorocco
in1905and1911whichGermanyandwithBritaininEgyptinthe1880’sfinallyledtothewar
.
 France’smilitarybuildupforself-defenseagainstGermanyaftertheFranco–
PrussiaWarincreasedthearmsracewhichledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarI.

 France’squickrecoveryfromtheFranco-Prussianwarof1870-
1871provedtobethreattoGermanyandscaredher.Asaresult,Germanybeganpreparin
gherselfforanypossibleattackwhichincreasedtensioninEurope.
NOTE:
Turkey,Italy,BulgariaandUSAjoinedthewarlaterandthereforetheywerenotresponsibleforth
eoutbreakofWorldWarI.Germanytakesthegreatestportionoftheblameandthereforeshewas
primarilyresponsiblefortheoutbreakofWorldWarI.
REASONSFORTHEDEFEATOFTHECENTRAL(TRIPLEALLIANCE)POWERSINWOR
LDWARI
WorldWarIbrokeoutin1914andendedNovember1918.ThealliedpowersthatincludedBritainF
rance,RussiaUSA,Japan,ItalyandSerbiaamongothersemergedvictoriousastheydefeatedthe
CentralPowersthatincludedGermany,Austria-
HungaryandTurkey.On11November1918,thecommandersofthecentralpowerssignedatrea
tywiththoseofthealliedpowersacceptingdefeat.
Thegoodmilitaryleadershipofthealliedpowersledtotheirvictory.Thearmiesofthealliedpo
werswereandcommandedbywelltrainedanddisciplineofficialswhoplannedgoodstrategiesth
atledtothedefeatofthecentralpowers.GeneralFerdinandFouchewhowasthecommanderinch
iefofthealliedforcesinFranceallowedmanyGermansoldierstoenterFrance.Hisarmythensurro
undedtheGermansoldiersanddefeatedthemandthefewwhosurvivedretreatedtoGermany.
TheentryoftheUSAintothewarin1917ledtothedefeatofthecentralpowers.USAenteredinto
thewarinApril1917whenitappearedthatGermanyandherallieswerewinningthewar.However
,USAbroughtinmanysoldiersusingitsairforceandfundswhichenabledthealliedpowerstodefe
atthecentralpowers.
TheRussianpropagandaledtothedefeatofthecentralpowers.InMarch1918,Russiasignedt
hetreatyofBrest-
Litovsk.Bythistreatyamongotherthings,RussiaagreedwithGermanyandRussiareleasedtheG
erman,AustrianandHungariansoldiersthathadbeencapturedbyRussiaasprisonersofwar.Ho
wever,whileincaptivityRussiahadindoctrinated(brainwashed)thesoldierswithanti-
warandrevolutionarypropaganda.Consequently,theseformerprisonersofwarwerere-
admittedintothearmiesoftheircountries,theyrefusedtofightagainsttheAlliedPowers.
ThemutiniesorriotsthatwerestagedbythesoldiersoftheCentralPowersledtotheirdefeat.T
hearmiesofthecentralpowersweretiredofwarbecauseithadtakenmanyyears.Theyhadalsowi

tnessedmanyoftheircolleaguesdyingduringthefighting.Consequently,theGermanandAustr
o-
Hungariancommandersdivertedtheirattentionandenergytocrashthemutiniesorriotsthanco
ncentratingonfightingthealliedpowers.Thisthereforereducedthemoraleofthesoldiersofthec
entralpowers.
Thenavalblockadebythealliedpowersledtothedefeatofthecentralpowers.Thiswasdemons
tratedbytheBritishnavalsupremacy.Theblockademadeitdifficultforthecentralpowerstoimpo
rtfood.Thiscreatedseriousfoodshortages,thusresultingintostrikesandanti-
wardemonstrationsinGermanyandAustria-
HungaryyettheBritishnavywasusedtotransportAmericansoldiersandsupplieslikefoodandar
mstocentralEurope.Thecentralpowersdivertedtheirarmiestocrashthestrikesandtheshortag
eofsuppliesonthepartofthecentralpowerstrengthenedthepositionofthealliedpowerswhiche
nabledthemtodefeatthecentralpowers.
Thepropagandaofthealliedpowersledtothedefeatofthecentralpowers.Thealliedpowers
statedthattheywerefightinginWorldWarIinordertoestablishdemocracyandalsotogiveindep
endencetothecolonizedpeopleintheAustro-
HungarianEmpire.Consequently,alltheSlavsinAustria-
HungaryrefusedtosupportAustriaduringthewarandtheystagednationalisticuprisingsdeman
dingforindependencefromAustria.Austriathendividedhersoldierstocrashthosenationalisticu
prisingsthanconcentratingonfightingthealliedpowers.BritainalsopromisedtheArabsintheTu
rkishEmpirelikethepeopleofSyriaandPalestinethattheyweretobegrantedindependencefrom
turkeyandtheyalsostageduprisingagainstTurkey.Theseuprisingsweakenedthepositionofce
ntralpowers,thusleadingtotheirdefeat.
Theenormousorhugeresourcesfromthecoloniesempoweredthealliedpowers.Britainrec
eivedmanpowerandmoneyfromthecommonwealthcountriesforexampleCanada,Austria,Ne
wZealandandfromAfricaandAsia.FrancealsobenefitedfromhercoloniesinAfricayetthecentra
lpowersweredisadvantagedbecausetheyhadveryfewcoloniesandthiscontributedtothesucc
essofthealliedpowers.
ThereweredisagreementsbetweenthecentralpowerswhichforcedItalytojointhealliedpower
s.ItalyhadbeenamemberoftheTripleAllianceof1882whichincludedGermany,ItalyandAustria
-
HungaryinwhichItalyhadcommittedherselftofightalongsidetheothertwomembersincaseof
war.However,ItalyrememberedthatAustriahadoccupiedandexploitedherresourcesofLomb
ardyandVenetiasincetheViennasettlementof1815.ThatAustriahadalsofrustratedItaliannati
onalismbyMetternichandhissystemforwhatreasonItalywithdrewfromthetripleallianceandjo

inedthealliedpowers.Thisstrengthenedthepositionofthealliedpowerswhilethatofthecentral
powerswasweakenedandtheyweredefeated.
ThedeathofEmperorFrancisJosefofAustriain1916ledtothedefeatoftheCentralpower
s.EmperorFrancisJosefdiedin1916andwassucceededbyEmperorCharles.UnlikeEmperorFra
ncis,EmperorCharleswaspreparedtoendthewar.Thiswasbecauseofthedomesticproblemsin
Austrialikefoodshortages,demonstrationsandthenationalisticuprisings.Hethereforestarted
privatenegotiationswithBritainandFrancetoendthewar.Germanylearntaboutthismoveanda
ccusedAustria-
Hungaryofbetrayingherandthisresultedintomistrustandsuspicion.Consequently,itwasnolo
ngerpossibletohaveawell-
organizedjointcommandofthecentralpowersagainstthealliedpowers.Thiswasexploitedbyth
ealliedpowerstodefeatthecentralpowers.
TheeffectsofwinteronthearmiesofCentralpowersdisabledthem.Thewinterseasonaffecte
dtheforcesofthecentralpowers.Overlandtransportingeneralbecameverydifficultassnowbloc
kedtheroads.Thiswasmoretothedisadvantageofthearmiesofthecentralpowersbecausethea
lliedpowersdependedonthesuperiorityoftheairstrikesandbombardmentbytheAmericanforc
es.TheroadsandbridgesinGermanywereseriouslydamagedandthisfrustratedthemovement
ofthesoldiersandthealliedpowersexploitedthistothedefeatofthecentralpowers.
THEEFFECTSOFWORLDWARI
ItledtothedefeatoftheCentralPowersledbyGermany.WiththeentryofUSAintoWorldWarIin19
17,theAlliedPowerswerereinforcedandthereforeGermanywasdefeated.Consequently,inNo
vember1918,GermanysurrenderedtotheAlliedPowers.KaiserWilliamIIwasforcedtoabdicate
orleavethethroneandhefledtoHollandon9thNovember1918whichmarkedthedefeatofGerma
nyandherallies.
WorldWarIledtothelossoflives.Over13millionpeoplewerekilledinthebattlefieldandmostofth
emwerefromEuropeancontinentbecausethat’swheremostfightingtookplace.Germanysuffe
redmostbecauseitlostmorethan2millionpeople.Russialostabout1.7millionpeoplewhileover
1.5millionFrenchmenperishedinthiswar.Similarly,over20millionpeoplewereleftwoundedan
dcrippledforlife.
ItledtotherefugeecrisisofprobleminEurope.Duringthewar,abignumberofpeopleinEuropera
nawayfromtheirmothercountriestogoandliveinexileasrefugeeswhileotherswerecapturedas
prisonersofwar.Similarly,WorldWarIcreatedanewclassoforphansaswellaswidowsandwido
wersasmanypeoplehadbeenkilled.

WorldWarIledtothedestructionofpropertyinEurope.DuringWorldWarI,industriesandfactori
esweredestroyedwhileinfrastructureslikeroads,railwaysandbridgeswerebombarded.Toma
kemattersworse,theEuropeancountrieswereverypoorattheendofthewarandthereforetheyc
ouldnotdevelopindustriesandagriculturewhichcausedshortageofmanufacturedgoodsandfo
od.ThisthereforeresultedintoeconomicdeclineinEurope.
WorldWarIchangedthepopulationstructureinEurope.Forexample,therewasseximbalancein
Europebecausemoremenwerekilledthanthewomen.Asaresult,therewasaproblemofsurplus
womeninEuropeattheendofthewar.Also,therewasabigpopulationofoldmenastheyoungmen
diedduringthewar.
WorldWarIinterferedwiththefreedomandrightsofpeopleinEurope.InBritainforexamplemilit
aryservicewasextendedtoallthephysicallyfitmenbetween18and41yearsofage.In1916these
rvicewasextendedtoeveryBritishbetween18-
41yearsofage.InFranceandGermany,therewasalsoacompulsorymilitaryservice.
ItledtotheParisPeaceconferenceof1919.ThisconferencewasheldinthecapitalofFrancetodeci
deonwhattodowiththedefeatednationsandalsotosuggestthebestwaysofmaintainingpeacei
nfuture.ThepeaceconferencestartedinJanuary1919inthedifferentpalacesofParisandwent
onforsixmonthsuntilJune1919.Thirtytwo(32)countriesattendedthisconferencebutdefeat
ednationslikeGermanywerenotinvitedtoparticipateinthediscussions.Instead,themajordecis
ionsweremadebythethreemostimportantleadersofthevictoriouspowerswhoincludedPresid
entWilsonWoodrowofUSA,DavidLloydGeorgewhowasthePrimeMinisterofBritainaswel
lasGeorgeClemenceau,thePrimeMinisterofFrance.Eachofthesemenhaddifferentideasre
gardingwithwhattodowiththedefeatednationsandthebestwaysofmaintainingpeaceinEurop
e.Attheendoftheconference,atreatyknownastheVersaillesPeaceTreatywassignedinJun
e1919.ThistreatyactedasaninstrumentofpeaceinEuropebetween1919and1939.
ThewarledtotheoutbreakoftheRussianrevolutionofMarch1917.Russiahadlostmanysoldiers
duringthewarandshewasalsofacingseriousfoodshortagesbecausethepeasantshadbeentak
entofight.Asaresult,theRussianswantedtheircountrytowithdrawfromthewar.Consequently,
inMarch1917,theBolshevikspartyinRussiastagedarevolutionwhichoverthrewtheTsaristgov
ernment.TheythereforeestablishedasocialistorcommuniststateledbyVladimirLenin.Thisled
totheriseandspreadofcommunisminEuroperightfromRussia.
ItledtotheriseofUSAandJapanasmajoreconomicpowersoftheworld.Thiswasbecausetheywe
renotaffectedbythewarbutinstead,theybecamethenewsuppliersofthemanufacturedgoodss
incetheEuropeanpowershadstoppedproductionduetothewar.ThisconsequentlyledtoEurop
e’soverdependencyonUSAevenforfunding.

ItledtotheformationoftheLeagueofNationsinGeneva–
Switzerlandin1920.TheideaofformingtheLeagueofNationswasinitiatedbyPresidentWilson
WoodrowofUSA.DuringtheParisPeaceconferenceof1919,hesuggestedtheformationofanint
ernationalorganizationtomaintainworldpeaceandsettleinternationalconflictsinsteadofgoin
gtowar.Asaresult,theLeagueofNationsmaintainedpeaceinEuropebetween1920and1939thr
oughresolvinginternationaldisputeswasofficiallylaunchedon18January1940inthecityofGen
evainSwitzerland.
WorldWarIledtothecollapseofdespoticgovernmentsinEurope.BeforeWorldWarI,thereexist
edmanydespoticgovernmentsinEuropewithauthoritarianrule.Withtheoutbreakofthewar,m
ostofthesegovernmetscollapsed.Forexample,inRussia,theTsaristregime(Tsardom)underT
sarNicholasIIwasoverthrowninMarch1917,inGermanytheHohenzollerndynastycollapsedfol
lowingtheresignationofKaiserWilliamIIin1918andtheGermanEmpirethereforedisintegrated
whiletheDualMonarchyofAustria–
HungarycollapsedasAustriaandHungarybecameseparatestates.Therewasalsothecollapseo
ftheOttomarule.Thiswaspositivebecausemostoftheabovegovernmentshadbeenveryoppres
sivetotheirsubjects.
ItresultedintosocialandeconomicproblemsinEurope.Afterthewar,EuropeancountrieslikeIta
ly,Germany,RussiaandAustriawerecharacterizedbyproblemslikeinflation,unemploymentan
dscarcityofconsumergoodsduetothedestructionofindustriesandfactories.Theseproblemsle
dtosocial–
economicunrestinEuropeinformofstrikesanddemonstrationsasthemasseswantedtooverthr
owtheexistinggovernmentswhichtheyblamedfortheirsuffering.
ItledtotheriseofnewstatesinEurope.IntheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919whichconcludedWo
rldWarI,anumberofindependentstateswereformedinEuropeasasteptocountertheriseofnati
onalismwhichhadgreatlycontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.Suchstatesinclude
dRumania,Yugoslavia,Czechoslovakia,Poland,Estonia,LatviaandLithuaniaamongothers.
WorldWarledtofurtherdevelopmentsinscience,technologyandeducationinEurope.Thedem
andsofthewarincreasedscientificandtechnologicalresearchespeciallyinthemilitaryfieldasEu
ropeancountrieswantedtomanufactureadvancedweaponsthattheywouldusetofightagainst
theirrivals.Similarly,therewasimprovementineducationinthepostwarperiodsincemostEurop
eancountriesneedededucatedlabourforcetofillthemanpowergapcreatedasaresultofthewar.
Forexample,in1918,BritainpassedtheEducationActwhichprovidedtoallpeoplesoastoaddres
sthemanpowerproblem.

WorldWarIledtoterritorialadjustmentsinEurope.AfterWorldWarI,somecountriesgainednew
territorieswhileotherslostsometerritories.Forexample,FranceregainedAlsaceandLorrainefr
omGermany.GermanyalsolostSchleswigtoDenmark,EupenandMalmedytoBelgium,UpperSi
lesiaandPosentoPolandaswellasSaarlandtoFrance.Russialostseveralterritoriesintheprocess
ofcreatingthenewstatesofPoland,Finland,Estonia,LatviaandLithuania.AustrialostBosniaan
dHerzegovinatothenewlycreatedSlavstateofYugoslaviaaswellasSloveniatothenewstateofC
zechoslovakia.Therefore,thepoliticalmapofEuropewasredrawnafterWorldWarI.
ItledtotheemancipationofwomeninEurope.Duringthewar,thewomenreplacedthemeninthe
manufacturingandserviceindustriesasthemenhadbeentakentothewarfronts.Forexample,in
BritainthecontributionofwomenduringthewartimeswasrecognizedbytheBritishgovernment
andfrom1919allthewomeninBritainovertheageof35yearswouldbevotedtotheparliament.
WorldWarIledtotheriseofFascismandNazisminItalyandGermanyrespectively.Thewarcre
atedeconomicandsocialproblemsintheabovetwocountrieswhichunderminedtheexistinggov
ernments,thusenablingtheabovetwodictatorialregimestocometopowerastheypromisedtoa
ddresstheexistingproblems.ForexampleinItaly,BenitoMussoliniwithhisFascistPartyrosetop
owerin1922duethedisastrouseffectsofthewaronItaly.InGermany,theNaziPartyledbyAdolfH
itlerproblemslikeunemploymentandinflationtodiscredittheWeimerRepublicandthereforeco
metopowerin1933.
ItledtothechangeinthebalanceofpowerinEuropeinfavourofBritainandFrance.WorldWarIled
tothecollapseoflargeempiresthathaddominatedEuropeforlong.SuchempiresincludedtheAu
stria-
HungarianEmpire,theOttomanEmpireaswellastheGermanEmpirewhichdisintegratedandlo
stoversix(6)millionpeople.ThisgavewayfortheriseBritainandFrancewhichdominatedEurope
inthefirstquarterofthe20thcenturyuntiltheendofWorldWarIIwhenUSAandUSSRemergedast
heworldsuperpowers.
WorldWarIcontributedtotheGreatEconomicDepressionof1929–
1935inEurope.ThewarleftmanyEuropeanpowerswithhugedebtswhichtheyincurredtofinanc
eforthewar.Forexample,countrieslikeBritain,FranceandGermanyhadacquiredhugeloansfro
mUSA.Asaresult,inthepost-
WorldWarIperiod,therewaspressureinthesecountriestocleartheirdebtswithUSAwhichreduc
edtheamountofmoneyincirculationandthereforeresultedintotheGreatEconomicDepression
of1929–1935.

THEVERSAILLESPEACETREATYOF1919
Background
WhenWorldWarIendedin1918,thevictoriousnationscalledapeaceconferenceinthecapitalof
France,ParisknownastheParisConferenceof1919todeterminethefateofthedefeatednati
onsandhavepeaceonceagain.ThepeaceconferencestartedinJanuary1919inthedifferentp
alacesofParisandwentonforsixmonthsuntilJune1919.Thirtytwo(32)countriesattendedthis
conferencebutthedefeatednationslikeGermanywerenotinvitedtoparticipateinthediscussion
s.Instead,themajordecisionsweremadebythethreemostimportantleadersofthevictoriouspo
werswhoincludedPresidentWoodrowWilsonofUSA,DavidLloydGeorge-
thePrimeMinisterofBritainaswellasGeorgeClemenceauwhowasthePrimeMinisterofFranc
e.PrimeMinisterOrlandoofItalywasalsoinattendance.GeorgeClemenceauchairedtheConfer
enceasthehostandgreatlyinfluenceditsoutcomes.Eachofthebigthreemenhaddifferentintere
stsasshownbelow;
GEORGECLEMENCEAU
HewasthePrimeMinisterofFrance.HewasthechairmanoftheParisconference.Hehadwitnesse
dthehumiliationofFranceduringtheFranco-PrussianWarof1870–
1871andtheannexationofAlsaceandLorrainebyGermany.Hewasnowthechairmanofaconfer
enceconductedinthesameHALLOFMIRRORSwheretheGermanscrownedtheirkinghaving
defeatedFrance.Thistime,Germanywasthedefeatednation.Asaresult,GeorgeClemenceauw
antedGermanytobepunishedtoo,FrancetobecompensatedforwardamagesandtoprotectFra
nce.HethereforepushedthealliesforsevereandhumiliatingtermsagainstGermanyinthemood
ofrevenge.
WOODROWWILSON
HewasthePresidentofUSA.HecametoPariswithadocumentthathad14points.Thesewerehisid
easandideasofhispoliticalpartyonwhattodoafterWorldWarI.Hewantedmeasuresthatwereto
preventtheworldfromanotherworldwar.HewantedGermanytobepunishedforheraggression
butnottobehumiliatedi.e.peacewithoutvictory.Healsosuggestedthecreationofaninternation
alorganizationtomaintainpeaceamongotherpointsandgrantingofindependencetothosenati
onalitiesinEuropethathadbeenunderforeigndominationbeforeWorldWarI.

DAVIDLLOYDGEORGE
HewasthePrimeMinisterofBritain.BritainwantedGermanytobepunishedandKaiserWilliamIIt
obetriedforhavingcausedWorldWarI.However,LloydGeorgehadfearsthatharshconditionso
nGermanywerenottobeacceptedbyGermanyyettheBritishwantedapunitivetreatyonGerman
y.HethereforefavouredagenerouspeacetreatythatwouldallowtheBritishtradetothriveorpro
sper.
THEAIMSOFTHEPARISPEACECONFERENCEOF1919
Assoonasthepeaceconferencebegan,thereweredisagreementsastowhattheconferencewas
aimingat.Eachofthevictornationshadtheirownsetofaims.Butoverall,theParisstatesmenaime
datachievingthefollowingobjectives;
 Toestablishlastingpeace,securityandstabilityinEuropeandtheworldatlarge.Thiswas
mainlyheldbyWoodrowWilsonofUSA.
 Toliberate(free)thevariousracesformallydominatedbythevanquishedpowers.
 Todisarmasmuchaspossibleboththevanquished(defeated)andthevictornationsasan
efforttodispelorendtheraceamongpowersfortheproductionofdeadlyweapons,which
hadpartlycausedtheWorldWarIin1914.
 ToredrawthepoliticalmapofEuropeasameanstorestorethecontinentalbalanceofpow
er.BecauseGermanyhadupsetitwaybackin1871whenBismarckcreated,intheplaceofF
rance,theGermanempiretobecomethemasteronland.
 TopunishGermanyandheralliesforcausingthewarandtopermanentlydestroytheircap
abilitiestosustainawarofrevenge.TheFrenchinparticularwantedGermanytobebroken
intoacollectionofsmallerstates.
 TorewardthevictorpowersoftheWorldWarIfromtheterritoriesofthedefeatednations.
 Toinstituteinternationalcooperationamongallthepowersandtheirassociatedpartners
.
 Toupholdtheprincipleofnationalismandself-
determinationbygivingindependencetosmallandoppressednations.Thiswasaresulto
ftherealizationthatagreatdesireforself-
rule(independence)hadgreatlycontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.
ToconcludetheParisConference,theAlliedpowersofBritain,France,USAandItalypushedtheir
differencesaside,andsignedtheTreatyofVersailleswithGermanyon28thJune1919.Thi
streatywassignedintheHallofMirrorsfromwherethenewlycreatedGermanEmpirewasdeclare
din1871followingasuccessfulwaragainstFranceandtheassociatedhumiliationthereof.Itnow
symbolizedanationalcatastropheforGermany.ThefateofGermanyasadefeatednationhadthe
reforebeensealedatVersaillesPalace.
NOTE:TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919wassignedbetweentheAlliesandGermanyandthere
foreitconcernedonlyGermany.However,theAlliessignedothersubsidiarytreatieswithotherde
featednationsbetween1919and1923.Theseincluded;

THETREATYOFST.GERMAINEWITHAUSTRIAOF1919
ThiswassignedbetweenAustriaandthevictoriouspowers.Byitsterms;
 ItseparatedAustriafromHungaryandconfirmedthatAustriawasnolongeraleadingpow
erintheunion.
 Austria’sterritoriesofBosniaandHerzegovinaandCroatiaweredeclaredintoanewstate
calledYugoslaviawhichalsoincludedtheformerkingdomofSerbia)
 BohemiaandMoraviabecamethenewstateofCzechoslovakia.
 AustrialostGaliciatoPolandandAalandtoItaly
 Herarmywasrestrictedtoonly30,000men
 ShewasforbiddentoeverunitewithGermany
 AustriasufferedsevereeconomicproblemsafterthewarasmuchofitsindustrywenttoCz
echoslovakia
THETREATYOFNEUILLYOFNOVEMBER1919WITHBULGARIA
ThistreatydealtwithBulgaria.Bulgariahadplayedarelativelysmallerpartinthewarcomparedto
othernationsandthisiswhyshewastreatedlessharshly.Byitsterms;
 ShelostlandstoGreece,RomaniaandYugoslaviaanditsaccesstotheMediterraneanSea.
 Shewastolimitherarmedforcestoonly20,000soldiers
 Hadtopayawarindemnity(fine)of100millionpounds.
THETREATYOFTRIANONWITHHUNGARYOF1920
ThisdealtwithHungaryandwassignedonJune18,1920.LikethetreatyofSt.Germaine,thetreat
yofTrianoninvolvedthetransferofterritories.Byitsterms;
 TheterritoryofTransylvaniaweretransferredtothestateofRomania
 SlovakiaandRutheniaweretransferredtoCzechoslovakia
 SloveniaandpartofCroatiaunderHungarywasaddedtoYugoslavia.
THETREATYOFSEVRESWITHTURKEYOF1920
Thiswasthelastofthetreatiestobearrangedbythevictoriousnations.ItdealtwithTurkeyandwa
ssignedinAugust1920.Byitsterms;
 TurkeylosttheterritoryofSmyrnatoGreece
 SyriawasdeclaredamandateterritoryundertheFrench.
 ShewasalsotolosethestraitsrunningdirectlyintotheBlacksea.

NOTE:
a) Unliketheothertreaties,Sevreswasnotasuccessfultreaty.TheTurkswereoutragedbyit
andthus,theTurkishnationalistsledbyMustafaKemalchallengedthetermsofthetreaty
byforcewhentheyforcedtheGreeksoutofSmyrna.BythetermsofthetreatyofLausanne
of1923,SmyrnawasreturnedtoTurkey.
b) ItshouldbenotedthatthereisadifferencebetweentheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919an
dtheParisPeaceConferenceof1919.TheParisPeaceConferencewasthemajorconferen
ceheldinParisbytherepresentativesofthevictoriousnationsafterWorldWarI.Itwashel
dprimarilytodecidethefateofthedefeatedpowers.TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919o
ntheotherhandwasoneofthefivetreatiessignedintheParisPeaceConferenceanditwas
preparedbythealliesforGermanytosignalonealthoughitsfinalcontentsincludedsomea
spectsoftheothertreatiessignedwiththerestofthedefeatedpowers(Austria,Hungary,
BulgariaandTurkey).
THEMAJORTERMSOFTHEVERSAILLESPEACETREATYOF1919
TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919hadabout400ArticleswhichweregenerallyunfairtoGerman
yandbelowaresomeofthemajorones;
TherewastheWarGuiltClause(Article231).Bythisclauseorterm,theAlliedpowerssolelyorentir
elyblamedGermanyforcausingWorldWarI.ThiswasunfairtoGermanybecauseshewasaccuse
dofacrimecommittedbyalltheGreatPowersthathadfoughtinWorldWarI.
TheterritorialAdjustmentclausewasanothertermthatwasunfairtoGermany.Bythisclaus
e,GermanywasforcedtoloseherterritoriesinEurope.Forexample,theGermanProvinceofEast
PrussiawascutofffromtherestofGermanythroughthecreationofaPolishCorridor.Thepurpo
seofthiscorridorwastogivethenewlycreatedPolishstateanoutlettotheBalticSeaforsecurityre
asons.PolandwasalsogivenpartofPosen.Therefore,Polandhadbeenstrengthenedattheexpe
nseofGermanywhichannoyedtheGermans.TothePolesalsoweresurrenderedtherichindustri
alareasinSilesiatoboosthereconomy.AlsaceandLorrainewerealsoreturnedtoFrance.Germa
nyalsolostMemeltoLithuania,EupenandMelmedytoBelgiumandSchleswigtoDenmark.Thisw
eakenedherpoliticallyandalsocrippledhereconomy.Similarly,theGermanPortofDazingwas
alsodeclareda“freecity”bytheprincipalalliedpowersandwouldbeplacedundertheLeagueofN
ations.Also,theGermanterritorytothewestoftheRhinewastobeoccupiedbyAlliedTroopsforf
ifteenyears.ThiswasthereforeagreathumiliationtoGermany.
TheReparation(Compensation)Clausewasanothersevereorharshterm.Bythisclause,G
ermanywastocompensatetheAlliedPowersforallthedamages(humanandmaterial)causeddu
ringWorldWarI.Germanythereforehadtopayreparations(warfine)totheAlliedPowers.Theex
actfigurewasnotagreedtill1921whenitwassetat6,600millionpoundsor6.6billiondollars.This
amountwastoobigforacountrythathadjustbeenatwarandthereforeitmadetheGermansbitter
.IfthetermshadnotbeenchangedundertheYoungPlanin1929,Germanywouldnothavefinishe

dthisbilltill1984.Inaddition,ascompensationforthedamageoftheCoalminesintheNorhEastof
France,andaspartpaymentofthetotalreparationsdue,GermanygavetoFrancetheCoalmineso
ftheSaarregion.Afterfifteenyears,theinhabitantsofthisareawouldbeaskedtodecideunderwh
ichgovernmenttheywishedtobeplaced.Theannexationofthisregionfurthercreatedbitterness
amongtheGermans.
TheDisarmamentclausewasanotherunfairtermtoGermanybecauseitreducedhermilitary
power.TheGermanarmyandnavywerereducedtoaminimumandconscriptionwasabolishedi.
e.Germanywasrequiredtoabolishcompulsorymilitaryservicesandthesoldiersthereforehadto
bevolunteers.Shewasalsoforcedtosurrendernearlyallherwarfleet,tohavenoairforceandtoke
epasmallerarmyofonly100,000men.Shewasalsotohavenotank,armoredvehicles,submarine
soraircrafts.TheGermannavywasalsolimitedtoonlysixsmallbattleshipsandthenavalpersonn
elnottoexceed15,000sailors.Inaddition,theRhinelandbecameademilitarizedzonei.e.Germa
nywastodemilitarizeallthatterritoryontheleftbankoftheRhineRiverandalsothatoftherightba
nktoadepthof50kilometers(31miles).TheRhinelandwasaborderareabetweenGermanyandF
rance.ThiswasthereforedoneforthesakeofprotectingFrancefromtheGermanaggression.
TheDecolonizationClausewasalsounfairtoGermany.BythisClause,Germanysurrendered
tothePrincipalAlliedPowersandtheirassociatedpowersallherrightsoverheroverseascolonies.
TheseweredeclaredmandatecoloniestobelateradministeredonbehalfoftheLeagueofNations
.Forexample,Forexample,SouthWestAfrica(Namibia)wenttoSouthAfrica,Tanganyika&part
ofCameroontoBritain,RwandatoBelgiumandTogolandtoFrance.Thus,Germanylosthercolon
ialempirethroughtheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919.
ACHIEVEMENTSOFTHEVERSAILLESPEACETREATYOF1919
TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919wasasettlement/peaceagreement/
elaboratedocumentthatwassignedon28thofJune1919intheHALLOFMIRRORSatVersaill
espalaceinFrance.ItwassignedtowardstheendoftheParisPeaceConferencebetweenthevicto
riousnationsofBritain,France,USA,ItalyandGermanythedefeatednation.Themajorpersonali
tieswerePresidentWoodrowWilsonofUSA,LloydGeorge-
thePrimeMinisterofBritainandGeorgeClemenceau,thePrimeMinsterofFrance.Thetreatywas
arrangedbytheaboverepresentativesofthevictoriouspowerswhocompelledorforcedtheGer
manrepresentativestosign.TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919hadthefollowingachievements
whichcontributedtowardspeaceinEurope;
ItconcludedorendedWorldWarI.ItwaspreciselytheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919thaten
dedWorldWarItherebybringingaboutrelativepeaceinEuropeandtheworldatlarge.AttheVers
aillesPalace,Germanywasforcedtodenouncewarandacceptthewarguiltclause.Thetermsshe
agreedtowereintendedtoweakenherandheralliessomuchthatitbecamealmostimpossiblefor
suchpowerstodeclareanotherwarofsuchmagnitude.Thisusheredinrelativepeaceuntil1939w
henyetanotherwaroftheworldscalebrokeout.

TheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919createdapeacekeepingbodycalledtheLeagueo
fNations.WhileatVersailles,thepeacemakersunanimouslyagreedtoadoptWoodrowWilson’
s14thpointwhichadvocatedfortheformationofaninternationalbodytokeepglobalpeaceandgu
aranteetheindependenceofallstates,bothsmallandgreatandthustheycreatedtheLeagueofN
ations.ThiswasthefirstofitskindinthehistoryofEurope.Thebodyundertookawiderangeofhum
anitarian,politicalandeconomicmissionswhichfosteredpeaceandharmonyaswellaseconomi
crecoveryanddevelopmentintheworld.Forexample,itsetuptheWorldHealthOrganization(W
HO)in1923thatorganizedmedicalassistanceanddistributionofvaccinestocombattheepidemi
csofTyphus,Cholera,Dysentery,Malaria,Smallpox,Leprosy,heartdiseaseandotherswhichha
dsweptEuropebefore,duringandafterthewar.ItalsoestablishedtheInternationalLabourOrga
nization(I.L.O)whichimprovedthelivingandworkingconditionsofworkersinEurope.Italsohel
pedintherepatriationofprisonersofwar.Forexample;itresettledfromRussiaover427,000priso
nersofwar.ItalsoresolveddisputesamongEuropeanstates.Forexample,the1921Aallandislan
ddisputebetweenSwedenandFinlandwasamicablyresolvedbytheLeagueinfavourofFinland.I
talsoresolvedaboundarydisputebetweenPolandandGermanyinthenorthernSilesiain1921.It
washoweverundercapitalized,ill-
equippedwhichledtoitsfailurebythelate1930s.Thoughitslifespanwasshortlivedfrom1929to1
945,theLeagueofNationssucceededinsettlinganumberofsocial,politicalandeconomicproble
msinEurope.
TheVersaillespeacetreatyalsoledtothecreationofnewstatesinEurope.Forexampl
e,HungarywasseparatedfromAustriatobecomeanindependentstate.Bohemiawascombined
withMoraviatocreatethenewstateofCzechoslovakia.YugoslaviawasalsocreatedfromBo
sniaandHerzegovina,CroatiaandtheformerkingdomofSerbia.Polandwhichwasformallydivid
edamongRussia,GermanyandAustriawasdeclaredindependentandgivenaccesstoBalticSeat
hroughtheportofDanzig.AlsoRomaniabecameanindependentstate.ThestatesofLatvia,Lit
huaniaandEstoniaweregrantedindependencefromGermany(whichithadgrabbedfromtheRu
ssianempirein1918duringthecourseofWorldWarI)whileFinlandwasalsograntedcompleteind
ependencefromRussia.AtthesametimeDanzigbecameafreecity.Suchapolicywasrealisticsin
cethesubjectionofthesesmallstatestobigpowershadbeenoneofthemajorcausesofextremen
ationalismwhichsparkedoffworldwarone.
ItalsorestoredthebalanceofpowerinEuropewhichhadformallytiltedorchangedinfavo
urofthemilitantpowerssuchasGermany,AustriaandTurkey.Fromthemid-
19thcentury,thesepowershadgrabbedenormousterritoryfromthesmallnationsofEuropethus
upsettingEuropeandiplomacyandbalanceofpower.ThusatVersailles,thealliedpowersrevive
dthestatusquobygrantingindependencetopartsoftheaggressivepowerswhileelsewhere,hu
geterritoriesoftheirempiresweregivenouttonewstatesorsimplydeclaredasmandatedzones(
undertheLeagueofNations).Thetotaleffectofthiswasthateachofthesepowerswerereducedt
otheiroriginalboundaries.Forexample,GermanylosttoBritainandFranceallherAfricancolonie
sasmandatedterritories.ShealsolostAlsaceLorrainetoFrance,SaarlandtotheLeagueofNation
s,UpperSilesia,WestPrussiaandPosenlosttoPolandandtheportofDanzig.Lithuania,Latviaand
EstoniawhichshehadgrabbedfromRussiain1918werealsodeclaredindependentstates.Austri

alostBohemiaandMoraviatothenewstateofCzechoslovakia,BosniaandHerzegovinaandthefo
rmerkingdomofSerbiaallwenttothenewstateofYugoslavia.HungarylostTransylvaniatoRoma
nia,SlovakiaandRutheniatoCzechoslovakia,SloveniaandCroatiatoYugoslavia.TurkeylostSm
yrnatoGreecewhileSyriawasmandatedunderFrenchcustody,andseveralofherterritorieslike
Kuwait,IraqandIranamongothersbecameindependent.BulgariaalsolostlandstoGreece,Rom
aniaandYugoslavia.Thispolicygreatlyweakenedsuchstatestotheeffectthattheycouldhardlyp
ursueaggression,inthefaceoftherevivingstrengthofthetraditionalallies.Thisusheredinrelativ
ebalanceofpowerinEuropeatleastduringtheearlyyearsoftheinterwarperiod.
NB:HoweverreadjustmentswereperceivedbyGermanyandheralliesasrathertoounrealistica
ndinsteadencouragedthemtoremobilizetheirresources,re-
armedtheirarmiesandeventuallyinvadedthenewlycreatedstatesinordertorecoverthelostter
ritory.TheresultwasWorldWarIIin1939.
ThetreatyalsoguaranteedtheneutralityofinternationalwatersofEurope.TheVers
aillespeacetreatyof1919declaredfreenavigationonallinternationalwaterbodies,exceptthose
thatwereterritorial.Forexample,theDardanelles(mouthofBalticSea)whichwasthesourceofe
conomicconflictamongEuropeanpowersasfarbackas1850swasopenedtotheshipsofallEurop
eannationsatalltimes.ThispromotedfreenavigationaswellasinternationaltradeinEuropewhi
chwasamajorachievementsincethetreatyhadremovedthetradebarriersthathadhitherto(for
mally)hinderedeconomiccooperationinEurope.
Thetreatyupheldtheprincipleofnationalismandself-
determination.ThisisjustifiedbythefactthatsmallnationsandoppressedminoritiesacrossE
uropewereeithergrantedindependence,asdecreedintheVersaillespeaceActorallowedtodeci
detheirdestinythroughreferenda.Forexample,countrieslikePoland,Czechoslovakia,Yugosla
via,KuwaitandIraqamongotherswereliberatedfromtheTurkishandAustriandominanceandt
husbecameindependentstates.Whileelsewhere,theoppressedpeopleswereallowedtodeter
minetheirpoliticaldestinythroughplebiscitearrangements.Forexample,areferendumwashel
dinUpperSilesiawhichhadamixtureofGermansandPoles.Sixtypercent(60%)votedforunionw
ithGermanyandfourtypercent(40%)favouredPoland.TheywereeventuallyunitedwithGerma
ny.Schleswigwasalsore-
unitedwithDenmarkthroughasimilararrangement.Thoughthedefeatedpeoplesweresubject
edtoforeigndomination,afactthatcouldseeminglycontravenethespiritofnationalism,suchd
ominationsweretimeboundandlargelyaimedatensuringpeaceandstabilityoverEurope
.Forexample,theoccupationofGermanybythealliedforceswasintendedtoensureGermany’sc
ompliancetotheVersaillesresolutions.
ThetreatyalsorestoredinternationaldiplomacyincontinentalEuropewhichhadcoll
apsedby1830followingthecollapseoftheCongressSystem.WithNapoleonI’sdownfallin1815,
Europeanpowershadvowedtosettlecontinentalproblemsthroughcollectiveandconcertedeff
orts,thusgivingbirthtothecongresssystem.However,disagreementsthatensuedespeciallybe
tween1820and1830devastatedsuchEuropeandiplomacywhichledtothecollapseofthecongr
esssystemby1830.ThoughBismarckattemptedtoreviveit,hisdiplomaticmaneuverswerelarg

elyintendedtoconsolidateGermany’ssupremacyattheexpenseofEuropeanstability;nowond
er,itcollapsedwithhisdownfallinn1890.ItwasthereforetheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919thatr
evived(broughtback)ameaningfulEuropeandiplomacywherevariouspowersofEuropeagree
dtoasystemofdialogueandcollectiveactionagainstemergingcontinentalandworldproblems.
ItalsomanagedtodisarmGermanytherebymaintainingrelativepeaceinEurope.Thewarh
adoccurredpartlyduetoGermany’sheavyarmsproductionorarmament.Thustocontainthepos
sibilityofanothersuchdisaster,thevictorpowersissuedthedisarmamentclausethroughwhich
Germany’sarmywasreducedto100,000men,conscriptionwasbannedwherebyGermanywasr
equiredtoabolishcompulsorymilitaryserviceandthereforethesoldiershadtobevolunteers.Sh
ewasalsonotallowedarmoredvehicles,submarinesoraircrafts.Thenavycouldonlybuild6small
battleships,withnosubmarines,thenavalpersonnelnottoexceed15,000menandtoabandonal
lmilitaryandnavalaviationby1 stOctober1919.Thusrestrainedorweakenedtosuchanextent,G
ermany’sabilitytowageawarofrevengewascurtailedatleastforasignificantperiodoftimebetw
een1919and1939.
TheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919isalsocreditedforhavinggrantedPoland,alandl
ockedcountry,accesstotheseawhichpromotedhereconomicandpoliticaldevelopment.P
olandwasgivenacorridoroflandthroughGermany,totheportofDanzigandthustotheBalticS
ea.ThisenabledPolandtostrengthenherarmyandalsobecomeinvolvedininternationaltradeh
encegainingeconomicprosperity.
ThetreatyenableddifferentcountriesofEuropetoregaintheirterritoriesformallya
nnexedbyGermany.Forexample,FranceregainedhermineralrichprovincesofAlsaceandLa
rraineandtheSaarcoalfieldswhichGermanyhadannexedin1871.Denmarkalsothroughapl
ebiscite(referendum)arrangement,regainedherSchleswigterritorywhichshehadlosttoGerm
anyin1864.Thestatesmenundertooksucharealisticmovebecausesuchdisputedterritoriesrig
htfullybelongedtosuchnations.Bysodoing,theVersaillespeacetreatyatleastforawhileendedt
helong-agingcontinentalenemityorrevengesentimentsagainstGermanysincethemid-
19thcentury.
FAILURESOFTHEVERSAILLESPEACETREATYOF1919
TheVersaillespeacetreatyfailedtodistributeorapportiontheblameforcausingWorldWarIprop
erly.BytheWarGuiltClause,thesettlementputitonGermanythatshewassolelyorentirelyresp
onsiblefortheoutbreakoftheWorldWarIandallthelossesincurredbytheAlliedPowers.Thisleftt
heGermansverybitterbecauseeventheAlliedPowershadcontributedtotheoutbreakofthewar
andthereforetheGermanswantedtorevenge.Thisunderminedeffortstowardspromotinginter
nationalpeace.
TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919failedtodisarmotherpowers.Asalreadynoted,Germanylost
hernavy,airforceandthenumberofsoldierswasreducedtoonly100,000soldiers.WhileGerman
ywasdisarmed,thevictoriousnationsdidnotdisarmthemselvesandwerenowathreattoGerma
ny.Consequently,inthe1930sGermanyembarkedonre-

armamentprogrammessoastodefendherself,thusresultingintomilitarycompetitionthateven
tuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIby1939.
ThetreatyfailedtocaterforGerman’seconomicinterestsbecauseitoverexploitedherwhichledt
othecollapseoftheGermaneconomy.OntopofthelossofheroverseascolonieslikeSouthWestA
frica(Namibia)toSouthAfrica,TanganyikaandpartofCameroontoBritainaswellasTogoandpar
tofCameroontoFrance,Germanywasaskedtopayaveryhighwarindemnityorfineof6.6billionp
ounds.Thiswastoomuchforacountrywhichhadjustbeenatwarwhenevenherindustrieswered
estroyed.ItthereforelefttheGermansbitterwiththealliedpowers.Thisbitternesseventuallyfor
cedGermanytoprovoketheAlliedPowersintoWorldWarIIby1939.
TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919wasdictatedontotheGermanstosignwhichcauseddisconte
nt,henceunderminingeffortstowardspeace.ItwasBritain,FranceandUSAwhoarrangedthistr
eatyanddominatedthemajorissuesinthesettlement.Thetreatythereforecauseddiscontentbe
causetheGermanswerenotcalledtothediscussionsandtheythereforeregardeditveryunfair.
TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919underminedtheWeimarRepublic.Thiswasthenewlyrepubli
cangovernmentthathadbeenestablishedinGermanyin1919followingtheabdicationandsubs
equentescapeofKaiserWilliamIItoHollandin1918.ItwasthereforethisWeimarRepublicthatac
ceptedtheharshtermsoftheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919onbehalfoftheGermans.Conseque
ntly,itwasblamedtohaveconcludedthefightingtooearlyandacceptingthatGermanywasawea
kanddefeatednation.ItthereforelostpopularityamongtheGermansanditstartedgettingserio
usopposition.Thismadeitveryweakwhicheventuallyledtoitscollapseby1933.
TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919createdseveralindependentstatesthatlaterbecameaprobl
emandthiswasamajorfailure.ItcreatedPoland,CzechoslovakiaandYugoslavia.Thisincreased
onthenumberofstatesinEasternEurope.Thisconsequentlyincreasedontheboardersthuscrea
tingmanytariffpointstocross.Thislatercreatedtradeproblems.
ThetreatyfailedtocheckontheGermanre-
armamentprogrammes.WhiletheVersaillespeacetreatydisarmedGermany,itdidnotputupm
easurestostopGermanyfromre-
armingherselfinthelateryearsyetthiswashighlyexpected.Consequently,inthe1930sGerman
yunderAdolfHitlerstartedre-
armingherselftotheleveloftheAlliedPowers.Whenthiswasdone,Germanybecameveryaggre
ssivewhichthreatenedinternationalpeaceagainandeventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWar
IIin1939.
ThetreatyfailedtocaterforItalyandJapan.ItshouldbenotedthatItalyandJapanhadfoughtwith
theAlliedPowersagainstGermanyupto1919whenshewasdefeatedwithherallies.However,ac
cordingtotheItalianstherewardsgiventotheircountrybytheVersaillespeacetreatywerenotco
mmensuratetotheeffortstheyhadputinduringWorldWarI.Forexample,nosingleGermancolo
nywasgiventoItalyyetBritainandFrancetookoverTanganyikaandTogoamongothersrespecti
vely.ThesamewastruewithJapan.ItalyandJapanthereforebecameverybitterandthereforeth

eylaterdecidedtoformanallianceoftheAxisPowers(Italy,GermanyandJapan).Thisrevivedthe
alliancesysteminEuropewhicheventuallysparkedoffWorldWarIIin1939.
ItledtotheriseofFascistordictatorialregimesinGermanyandItaly.InGermany,AdolfHitlerde-
campaignedtheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919andthereforehereceivedmassivesupportfrom
theGermanswhichenabledhimtotakeoverpowerfromtheWeimarRepublicin1933.InItaly,Be
nitoMussoliniwasgivensupportbecauseofhiscriticismoftheunfairnessoftheVersaillesPeaceT
reatytoItaly.Thisassistedhimtooverthrowtheliberalanddemocraticgovernmentandheestabl
ishedadictatorialregimeinItalyin1922.Thesetwoleadersbecameveryaggressivewhichunde
rminedpeaceinEuropeandeventuallysparkedoffWorldWarIIin1939.
TheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919failedtoensurelastingpeaceinEuropebecauseitledtotheout
breakofWorldWarIIin1939.ThetreatysowedseedsofWorldWarIIbecausecountrieslikeGerm
anyandItalywantedtoundoorchangethesettlementwhichtheyconsideredunfair.Forexample
,GermanylaterinvadedPolandandCzechoslovakiawhichhadGermannationalsthathadbeenin
cludedinthosecountriesbytheVersaillespeacetreaty.Thiswasinterpretedasaggressionandth
eAlliedPowersthereforedecidedtodeclarewaronGermanyin1939.
THESTRENGTHSOFTHEVERSAILLESPEACETREATYOF1919
TheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919hadanumberofstrengthsanditisfromthesestrengthsthatth
etreatyisconsideredtoberealisticorgenuineinitsattemptstobringoutlastingpeaceinEurope.T
hefollowingweresomeofthemajorstrengthsofthetreaty;
TheDisarmamentclauseagainstGermanywasamajorstrengthofthetreatybecauseitrestra
inedGerman’saggressionwhichhadbecomeathreattothesecurityofotherEuropeancountries.
Forexample,GermanyhadpreviouslythreatenedtheBritishinterestsinSouthAfricathroughthe
KrugerTelegramof1895aswellastheinterestsofFranceinMorocco(NorthAfrica)between1905
and1911.ShehadalsoviolatedtheBelgianneutralityandindependencein1914andfinallysheat
tackedRussiaandFrance.It’sthisaggressionthathadledtothecollapseofEuropeanpeacebysp
arkingoffWorldWarIin1914.WhenGermanywasdisarmedtherefore,therewasrelativepeacei
nEuropeafterWorldWarI.
Similarly,thedemilitarizationoftheRhinelandswasanothernecessaryorrealisticmeasureorstr
engthofthetreaty.ItwasstatedinthetreatythattheGermantroopsandothermilitaryinstallation
sorfacilitieswerenottobeputintheRhinelandareawhichwasbetweenFranceandGermany.Inst
ead,anarmyofoccupationwasstationedintheRhinelandswhichpreventedtheGermangove
rnmentfromattackingherneighbourslikeFranceeasilyatleastintheshortrun.
TheharshWarReparationClauseimposedonGermanywasalsoamajorstrengthofthetreaty
sinceitrestrainedherfrombeingaggressiveagain.GermanyhadinvolvedtheAlliedPowersintoa
fouryearswar.Inretaliation,thepowersaskedGermanytopayaveryhighwarindemnityorfinew
orth6,600millionpoundsor6.6billiondollarstocompensatetheAlliedPowersforallthedamages

sufferedduringWorldWarI.ThisweakenedGermanyeconomically,hencerestrainingherfrom
gettinginvolvedinactionsthatwouldleadtoanotherwarimmediatelyafterWorldWarI.
TheDecolonizationClausewasalsorealisticmeasureorstrengthbecauseitweakenedGerm
anyeconomically.Bythisclause,GermanylostheroverseascolonieslikeSouthWestAfrica(Nami
bia),Tanganyika,Rwanda,TogoandCameroonwhichbecamemandatedstatesundertheLeag
ueofNations.Therefore,Germanycouldnotgetrawmaterialsormanpowerfromtheabovecolon
iestoenableherwageanotherwar.
ThetreatyalsocreatedtheLeagueofNationsasapeacekeepingbodywhichwasamajorstre
ngth.Thiswasbecausethisbodyundertookmajorstepstoaddressthevariouspolitical,socialan
deconomicchallengesinEuropeafterWorldWarI.Forexample,itsettledminordisputesliketheo
nebetweenSwedenandFinlandin1921overtheAallandIslandaswellasGreeceandBulgariain1
925amongothers.Itfurtherorganizedmedicalattentionforthewarvictimsandsettledrefugees
.Aboveall,itkeptEuropegenerallyatpeacebetween1920and1939.Itwashoweverunderfunde
dandill-
equippedwhichledtoitsfailure.Thereisnodoubtthatifthisbodyhadbeenwellsupported,itwoul
dhavebeenapermanentandmeaningfulorganization.
ThereturnofAlsaceandLorrainetoFrancewasalsorealisticinthepreservationofworldpeac
eandthereforeamajorstrengthoftheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919.Thesetwoprovincesweret
akenbyGermanyfromFrancewhenthelatterwasdefeatedintheFranco-PrussiaWarof1870-
1871.Thishadgeneratedtraditionalenemitybetweenthetwocountriesandwasoneofthemajor
causesonWorldWar1.TherestorationoftheseprovincestoFrancethereforereducedtheFrench
hostilitytowardsGermanywhichwasagoodmovetowardsrestoringpeaceinEurope.
ThegrantingofindependencetocountrieslikePoland,Serbia,BulgariaandCzechoslovakiabyth
esubsidiarytreatiesoftheVersaillesPeaceSettlementof1919wasamajorstrength.Thiswasbec
ausethesubjectionofthesestatestothebigpowerslikeAustria,TurkeyandGermanyhadbeenth
ecauseofextremenationalisminstateslikeBosniaandHerzegovinawhichsparkedoffWorldWar
Iin1914.
TheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919createddemocraticinstitutionsinsomeofthenewlycreatedst
ateswhichwasanotherareaofstrength.InHungaryforexample,aHungariandemocraticmonar
chywasestablishedasHungarywasseparatedfromthedespoticmonarchyofAustria.Democrat
icinstitutionswerealsoestablishedinCzechoslovakiawhichwasalsodeclaredindependent.
THEWEAKNESSESOFTHEVERSAILLESPEACETREATYOF1919
WastheVersaillesPeacetreatyof1919realistic/fair?
NOTE:
 Theoverallobjectiveofthesettlementwaslargelyovershadowedbyitsunfairne
ssandweaknesses
 Theweaknessesofthetreatyconstituteitsunrealisticorunfairmanifestations

 TheVersaillespeacetreatybecametoounrealistictothedefeatedpowersandactuallysowed
theseedsforthesubsequentWorldWarII.
 ItsunfairnessmadetheGermanstorejectthetreaty,henceleadingtotheWorldWarII.
 ItsunfairnessagainexplainswhyitwasboundtoleadtounrestorinstabilitiesinEurope.
 ItsunfairnessalsoexplainswhyitwasboundtofailtobringaboutlastingpeaceinEuropeandt
heworldatlarge.
 Againitsunfairnessmadetheviabilityofthistreatyquestionablerightfromthestart.
ThealliesatVersaillesattainedvictorywithoutpeacebecauseGermanywassettoundotheterms
oftheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919inthelateryears.TheframersoftheVersaillespeacetreatyw
eretooemotionalandhighlyinsensitivetotheGermany’spositionofdefeatandtheyoverlookedt
hepossibilityofrevenge.ThepopularoutcryatVersaillesbythebigpowerswasthatGermanymu
stpayandKaiserWilliamIIbehanged.Thus,toestablishwhetherornotthetreatywasrealistic,on
eneedstomakeanassessmentofthetermsandallthatwhichtranspiredduringandshortlyaft
ersigningofthetreaty.Tosomescholars,thetreatyhadseveralweaknessesandthereforeunrea
listicwhiletoothers;itwasarealistictreatyasseenfromthestrengthsabove.Let’staketheunreali
sticpartoftheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919;
ThefoundationoftheVersaillespeacetreatylackeduniversallegitimacyoracceptance.Manyoft
heprovisionsofthesettlementwerebasedonWoodrowWilson’s14pointswhicheventheAlliedp
owersdidnotwelcomerightfromthestart.ThepointswerearesultofWoodrowWilson’sownanal
ysisofthecauseofthewaranddidnotbeartheviews(andacceptance)oftheVersaillesstatesmen
,noteventhoseofthevictorpowers.Thus,WoodrowWilson’sstrenuousefforttosecuretheiracc
eptancebytheVersaillespeacemakerscausedoppositionfromtheEuropeannations.Forexamp
le,GeorgeClemenceau,theFrenchPrimeMinisterrebukedthepointssaying“thegoodLordhado
nlytencommandments”asiftosupposeWilsonhaddraftedhisownnumerousopinionsandsimpl
ydumpedthemtothepeacemakers.ThisshowsthattheviabilityoftheVersaillespeacetreatywa
squestionablerightfromthestart.ThisiswhyitwasrejectedbyGermanyandthereforecouldn’tb
ringaboutlastingpeaceinEurope.
TheVersaillespeacetreatywassimplydictatedontotheGermanstosignwhichcauseddisconten
t.TheParispeaceconferencewasdominatedbythemajoralliedpowers(namelyBritain,France,
andUSA)attheexpenseofthedefeatednationsandevensmallerallies.Actuallyfromthestarttoit
send,theconferencewasdominatedbythethreeoutstandingpersonalitiesofPresidentWoodro
wWilsonofU.S.A,LloydGeorge-
PrimeMinisterofBritainandGeorgeClemenceauofFrance.Eventherepresentativesoftheassoc
iatednations(smalleralliestoalliedpowers)attendedlargelyasmerespectators.Nonegotiation
sweremadewiththedefeatedpowersbecausenoneofthemwasinvited.Insteadthemajordecisi
onmakerssimplydraftedhashtermsonthevanquishedandlatersummonedthemforsignature.
Forexample,afterdraftingtheVersaillestreaty,thepowersgaveGermanyonlyfivedayswithinw
hichtoacceptandsignthetreatyorelsesheriskedanotherwar.TheVersaillesstatesmenwereso
determinedtoforceGermanysignthetreatyasGeorgeLloydreiterated“… …….theGermanssayt
heywillnotsign,thenewspaperssaytheywillnotsignandthepoliticianssaythesame.Wesaygen
tlemen,youmustsign.Ifyoudon’tdosoinVersailles,youshalldosoinBerlin ”.Thismanifeststhefa

ctthattheVersaillespeacetreatyof1919wassimplydictatedratherthananegotiatedtreaty,mak
ingitveryunrealistic,rejectedbyGermanyandthusincapableofbringingaboutlastingpeaceinE
urope.
Italsounfairlyconfiscatedthedefeatednation’sterritorialpossessions,hencecreatingbitternes
samongthem.Forexample,GermanywasforcedtorenounceallhercolonialpossessionsinAfric
aandtheywenttoBritainandFranceasmandatedterritories,shewasalsocompelledtosurrende
rAlsaceandLorrainetoFranceandanenormousterritorytothenewstatesofPoland,Czechoslov
akiaandYugoslavia.AustrialostBohemia,Moravia,BosniaandHerzegovinatocreatethenewsta
tesofYugoslaviaandCzechoslovakia.HungarywasstrictlyforbiddenunionwithAustria,butasif
notenough,shelostSloveniaandCroatiatoYugoslavia,TransylvaniatoRomania,SlovakiaandR
utheniatoCzechoslovakia,amongotherterritories.Thiswasseenbythedefeatednationsastoo
maliciousandnotintendedtopromoteharmonyamongthevariousnationalitiesofEurope.Now
onder,aggressivemenlikeAdolfHitlerandBenitoMussolinieventuallydeclaredaggressionstor
egainsuchlostterritories,thusleadingtoWorldWarII.
TheVersaillespeacetreatyalsounfairlydisarmedthedefeatedGermany.Whereasthetreatywa
ssettodisarmallpowersincludingthevictorsandthevanquishedstates,tothelowestpoint(consi
stentwithdomesticsafety),noseriousattemptswereevermadetodisarmtheallieslikeBritain,U
SA,FranceandRussia.Instead,thedisarmamentwasexecutedonlyonthedefeatednationofGe
rmanyasthevictorpowersincreasinglypursuedrearmamentinreadinessforananticipatedwar
ofrevenge.Forexample,theGermanarmywasalmostcompletelydisbanded.Itwasreducedtoo
nly100,000men,nomorewasshetomakemilitarytanks,aircraftsandheavyartillery.Hernavyw
asrestrictedto15,000sailorsandonly6smallbattleships.Austria’sarmedforceswerereducedto
only30,000menandBulgariatoonly20,000.Againthiswasvividlyunfairandveryinconsistentwi
ththeVersaillesActthatrequiredallpowers,victoriousandthedefeatedtodisarmequally.Thiscr
eatedbitternessandthereforepromptedaggressivemenlikeHitlertopursuere-
armament,whichescalatedthearmsracethateventuallydeterioratedintheoutbreakofWorld
WarIIin1939.
TheVersaillespeacetreatyabusedorsuppressedthespiritofGermannationalism.Comparedto
otherEuropeanpeoples,thetreatyunfairlyabusedthespiritofGermannationalism.Forexample
,whileself-
determination,asstressedbythetreatywasgiventocountrieslikeEstonia,LithuaniaandLatvia,t
heGermanspeakingpeoplesacrossthecontinentwerebeingdividedbytheverytermsoftheVers
aillespeacetreaty.Forexample,insteadofincorporatingandconsolidatingthemintooneGerma
nnation,manyGermanspeakingpeopleswereputunderthenewlycreatedcountriesandtherefo
regovernedbynon-
Germans.Asaresult,morethan3mGermanswereputinCzechoslovakia,2.5mtoPolandandove
r2mtoYugoslavia.ThiswasperceivedbymanyGermansasbeingverydiscriminative,insensitive
toGermannationalism,toounrealisticandthereforeinspiredmenlikeHitlertoinvadesuchcount
rieswiththedesiretoliberatefellowGermanswhicheventuallysparkedoffWorldWarIIin1939.

ThevenueofthesettlementalsopartlysymbolizedunfairnessandthuspromptedtheGermansto
rejectit.TheHallofMirrors,(withintheVersaillespalaceinParis)wherethepost-
warpeacemakerschosetomeetandsubsequentlysigntheVersaillespeacetreatywasperceived
bytheGermansasratherunfairbecauseitwasnotneutral.Thiswasbecausethehallwastakenby
manyGermanpatriotsasasymboloftheirmightbecauseitwasinthisveryhallwheretheGermane
mpirewasproclaimedin1871,followingtheGermanydefeatoverFrance.Thisactionhadgreatly
humiliatedorashamedFranceandasaresult,theFrenchmoodrightfrom1871wasthatofreveng
e.Therefore,thegeneralfeelinginGermanywasthatthepeacemakerswouldhavechosenaneut
ralpositionfortheirpeacedeliberationspreferablySwitzerlandandnotintheFrenchpalaceofVer
sailles.
Thewarindemnity(fine)wasunrealisticallyhighandinfactunbearabletoGermany.The66,000
millionpoundswasbyfartoohighforGermany,acountrywhoseeconomyhadalsobeendisastro
uslyshatteredbythewar.Tomakemattersworse,allherresourcesandindustrieswhichshecoul
dhaveexploitedtoraisethereparationsincludingtheSaar-
coalfields,theRuhrindustrialregionandtheportofDanzigwerealmostallgrabbedbythevictorp
owers.ManyEuropeansbothGermansandnon-
Germansperceiveditasbeingtoounfair.ThepeacemakingdelegatesatVersaillesignoredthead
vicebyJohnMaynardKeynes,theeconomicadvisertotheBritishdelegationattheconferencetoa
djusttheindemnityto2,000millionpounds.SuchreparationseventuallypromptedAdolfHitlerto
denouncethetreatyandlaterdeclaredaggressiononcontinentalEuropehenceleadingtotheout
breakofWorldWarII.
Besides,theVersaillespeacetreatywasrathertoounrealistictoholdGermanysolelyresponsible
forcausingWorldWarIwithoutconsideringthecircumstancesthatprevailedinEuropeatthetim
e.ItwasillogicaltoblameGermanysolelyforthewarwhenallpowersofEuropebecameequallyin
volvedinthecircumstanceswhichprecipitatedthewarby1914.Forexample,asmuchasGerman
ywasinvolvedinthearmsrace,soweretheBritish,French,Russians,AustriansandtheAmerica
ns.Otherpowerswerealsoequallyinvolvedintherivalries,hostilities,mistrustandhatredthate
mergedoutoftheantagonisticalliances,whichalsocausedthewar.Britain,FranceaswellasGer
manyandherallieswereallactivelyinvolvedintheimperialism.Thus,toblameGermanyalonean
dforthatmatterimposingveryharshtermsonherwereinterpretedbythedefeatednationofGer
manyasbeingtoounrealistic.NowonderthetreatywasrejectedbyGermanyanditthereforefaile
dtobringaboutlastingpeaceinEurope,andtheworldatlarge.
ThechairmanshipofGeorgeClemenceau,thePrimeministerofFrancealsomadetheVersailless
ettlementanditsviabilityunrealisticorquestionablerightfromthestartbecauseitwasbiased.Ge
orgeClemenceauwhochairedthediscussionsatVersaillesstillheldbittermemoriesoftheGerma
nhumiliationofFranceattheendoftheFranco-
Prussianwarof1871.Thesebittersentimentsmighthaveovershadowedhisacumeninthecours
eofthedeliberationsandthereforeinfluencedhimtoimposeaveryunfriendlytreatyonGermany
.ThisiswhywheneverWoodrowWilsonattemptedtosuggestlenienttermsonGermany,George
wasalwaysquicktodismisssuchproposedsympathiesandcalledforveryharshtermsonthedefe
atedsothattheycouldnoteasilywageawarofrevenge.Hischairmanshiptherefore,rightfromth

everybeginningrenderedtheviabilityoftheconferencequestionableandthusunabletobringab
outlastingpeaceinEurope.
ApartfromGermany,thetreatyalsoleftsomealliedpowersdissatisfiedorunhappy.Forexample,
ItalyandJapanwerepoorlycompensatedfortheirroleinthewarandthereforetheysoondeserte
dtheTripleEntente.PrimeMinisterOrlandoofItalycomplainedofpoorrewardashiscountry(Ital
y)wasgivensmallterritoriescomparedtotheotherallies.Forexample,sheearnedthelittleItalia
nTrentinoandthesmallcitiesofGorizia,TriesteandPola.ShewasalsogivenTyrol(containing250
,000Germans)andtheIstrianPeninsular(containing400,000Yugoslavs).Dissatisfiedwithsuc
hsmallrewards,PrimeMinisterOrlandosoonlefttheconferenceinprotest.Japanalsolostinteres
tandpulledoutbyApril1920duetopoorcompensation.ThismadeItalyandJapantojoinGerman
yandformtheRome-Berlin-
Tokyoaxis(alliance)whichledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.
ThesettlementalsolackedamechanismtoprotecttheactionsandmandateoftheLeagueofNatio
nsthatithadputinplacetoimplementitsterms.Forexample,itneithercreatedanarmynorap
oliceforcetoenabletheLeagueofNationsimplementeffectivelyitsorders.Becauseofthistheref
oretheLeagueremainedformostofitslife,abarkingdogthatcouldnotbite.Itsuseofeconomicsa
nctionsasaweaponalsoproveduselessinthefaceofthegrowingtheeraofdictatorshipinEurope.
Thisiswhyby1939,worlddictatorslikeGermany’sHitler,Japan’sHirohitoandItaly’sMussoliniha
dwithdrawnfromtheleagueandpursuedaggression,whichculminatedintheoccurrenceofWor
ldWarII.Generallytherefore,theabsenceofameansofenforcingthetermsorresolutionsoftheV
ersaillesPeacetreatymadeitunabletobringaboutlastingpeaceinEurope.
TheVersaillestreatywasalsocharacterizedbygreatdisagreementsthatwereexhibitedduringit
ssigning.Theleadingstatesmenwhodominatedtheconferencealmostfailedtoachievecommo
nresolveonthefateofthedefeatedGermanyastheywerealmosttornapartbyconflictingordiver
gentinterestsoverthevanquishedstateofGermany.Forexample,GeorgeClemenceauwanted
permanentlytoweakenGermanysothatitcouldneverriseupinawarofrevengeagainsttheallies
whileLloydGeorgeofBritainwasmotivatedbydesiretoregainalltheGermanycolonialpossessio
nssoastostrengthentheBritishoverseasempire.ItalianPrimeMinisterOrlandowantedtoattain
asmuchterritorialcompensationsashadbeenpromisedbytheallies.WoodrowWilsonofUSAwa
ntedjusticeextendedtothedefeatedGermanysoastopromotereconciliation,peaceandinterna
tionaltrade.Thus,suchselfishnessamongthestatesmendrewsharpargumentsandcounterarg
uments,hencemakingGermanytodoubtthecredibilityoftheconference.Thisthereforeprompt
edGermanytorejectitstermsandthiseventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIby1939.
Besides,theconfessionsandobservationsoftheEuropeanstatesmenatVersaillesalsoreducedt
hetreatytoanunfairsettlement,makingtheGermanstorejectit.Forexample,WoodrowWilson,
thearchitectofthe14pointsuponwhichthetreatywasbuiltsaid; ifhewereaGerman,hewouldnot
havesignedit.HaroldNicolson,aBritishdiplomatandoneoftheleadingBritishofficialsattheconf
erencesaid…”wearriveddeterminedthatapeaceofjusticeandwisdomshouldbenegotiated;w
elefttheconferenceconsciousthatthetreatiesimposeduponourenemieswereneitherjustnorw
ise.LloydGeorge,theBritishrepresentativeattheVersailles,thoughhereceivedahero’swelcom

ewhenhereturnedhome,helaterdescribedthetreatyas‘agreatpity’andindicatedthatanother
warwouldhappenbecauseofit.SuchtestimoniesbearthetruththattheVersaillespeacesettlem
entwasnotarealistictreaty.ItthereforehadtoberejectedbytheGermans,hencemakingitunabl
etobringaboutlastingpeaceinEurope.
ThetimingoftheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919wasalsounrealisticorquestionable.Thisisbec
ausethetreatywassignedin1919whenWorldWarIhadjustended,atatimewhentheemotionso
rtempersoftheEuropeanPowerswerestillveryhigh.Thisthereforeinstilledaspiritofinjusticea
ndrevengeinthestatesmenofthevictoriouspowerstowardsGermanyandthereforeitwasalso
boundtoberejectedbytheGermans.Forexample,whentheyarrived,manyofthesestatesmenh
adpinnedtheircoattailswithposterscarryingthesloganof“ hangtheKaiserandmakethempay”.
ThiswasperceivedasinjusticebyseveralGermansandthereforeforcedthemtorejectthetreaty
afewyearslater.ThiseventuallyledtotheWorldWarIIin1939.
Besides,thesettlementwassignedon28thJune1919whichwasawrongdateandthereforemade
thetreatyquestionablerightfromthestart.TheVersaillespeacetreatywassignedontheverydat
eArchDukeFranzFerdinandandhiswifeSofiawereassassinatedi.e.28 thJune1919whichtheref
orecoincidedwiththe5thanniversaryoftheSarajevodoubleassassinationson28thJune1914.
TheconclusionofthetreatyonthisdayremindedthevictoriouspowersoftheroleofGermanyinsp
arkingoffWorldWarIbyencouragingAustria-
HungarytodeclarewaronSerbiain1914.GermanywasthereforepunishedheavilyatVersailles
whichannoyedhersomuchbecausetheimpressionitfurthergavewasthatshe(Germany)wasb
eingaccusedofthemurders.Consequently,Germanyrejectedthetreatywhichunderminedpea
ceinEurope.
TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919alsocreatedveryweakstatesthatcouldnotdefendthemsel
vesagainsttheEuropeandictators.Forexample,therewasthecreationofCzechoslovakia,Rom
ania,PolandandYugoslavia.Theseweresmallandweakstatesandthereforetheywereunableto
defendthemselvesagainstexternalaggressionyettheauthorsofthesettlementdidnotprovides
ecuritymeasurestothenewstates.ThisiswhatinspiredorencouragedGermanyunderAdolfHitl
ertoinvadePolandin1939,aneventthatsparkedoffWorldWarII.
Italsocontributedtotheriseofdictatorsintheworld.MenlikeHitlerofGermany,Hirohito
TojoofJapanandMussoliniblamedtheinconsistenceandunfairnessofthepeacemakers,hence
makingthemtoprepareforawarofrevengetooverthrowthesettlement.Theyaccusedtheirliber
algovernmentsofhypocrisytoacceptandsigntheunfairtermsofthetreatyandvowedtooverthr
owthemandtheVersaillespeacesettlement.Thismadethemsopopularintheircountries.Asare
sult,theymobilizedandsoonoverthrewtheirliberalleadersandinstituteddictatorshipintheirlan
ds.ThisishowMussoliniandFascismtookoverpowerinItalyin1922,theNazipartyunderAdolfHit
leroverthrewWeimarRepublicin1934andHirohitotookoverinJapanin1926.Theseleadersbec
ameveryaggressiveintheirforeignpolicieswhichunderminedpeaceintheworldandeventually
sparkedoffWorldWarIIin1939.
THEIMPACTOFTHEVERSAILLESPEACETREATYONGERMANY

TheimpactwaslargelydestructiveandthisiswhyGermanysoonrejectedthetermsofthetreatya
ndpursuedrearmamentaswellasmilitaryaggressiononEuropesuchthatby1939,WorldWarIIb
rokeout.BelowweretheeffectsoftheVersaillespeacetreatyonGermany;
Shewasforcedtoacceptthewarguiltclausebywhichshewasheldsolelyresponsibleforcausing
WorldWarI.ThiswasunfairtoGermanybecauseshewasaccusedofacrimecommittedbyallthe
majorEuropeanPowers.ThisthereforemadeGermanytobecomebitter,hencemakingtheWei
marrepublicsounpopularamongtheGermanswhicheventuallyledtoitsfallin1934andthesubs
equentriseofNazismandAdolfHitlerinGermany.
Germanylostmostofhernationalstothenewlycreatedindependentstatesandthisthereforeun
derminedherpoliticalandeconomicprosperity.Forexample,shelost2.5mGermanstoPoland,3
milliontoCzechoslovakiaand2milliontothenewstateofYugoslavia.Thiscreatedbitternessamo
ngtheGermanswholaterroseupunderAdolfHitlertoliberatetheirfellowGermansfromforeignr
ule,somethingthatfinallysparkedoffWorldWarIIin1939.
Shewascompelledtopayaheavywarfineamountingto6,600millionpoundswhichwasunbeara
blytoohighforacountrywhoseeconomyhadbeendevastatedbythewar.Sheattemptedpartialp
aymentin1921(paid50millionpounds)buteventuallyitrepudiated(defaulted)paymentby192
9.ThewarreparationsthereforeshatteredtheGermaneconomysuchthatby1930,shehadthehi
ghestnumberofunemployedpeopleinEurope,thehighestrateofinflation,poverty,andgeneral
breakdownofhereconomy.
GermanywasseverelydisarmedbytheVersaillesPeaceTreaty.Forexample,shewasforcedtore
duceherarmytoonly100,000men,tohaveonly6smallbattleshipsandnottohavearmoredvehicl
esandaircrafts.Hernavywasreducedto15,000sailors.Thiswastoosmallanarmywhichcouldno
tevenprovidesustainabledomesticsecurity.ThisthereforemadeGermanymorevulnerabletoa
nyattackthaneverbefore.
ThetreatyfurtherdemilitarizedtheRhinelandwhichwasaregionontheborderbetweenFrancea
ndGermany.BytheVersaillespeacetreaty,Germanywasforbiddenfrommaintaininganarmyan
dconstructingfortsonthebanksoftheRiverRhine.BydenyingGermanyachancetomilitarizethe
Rhine,Francewasabletohavetheguaranteethattheformercouldnotattackherformthewester
nflankoftheRhinelands.
GermanylostanenormousterritoryinEuropethroughtheTerritorialadjustmentClauseof
theVersaillespeacetreaty.Forexample,shelostthemineralrichlandsofAlsaceandLorraine
,andthecoalfieldsofSaarlandtoFranceforaperiodoftwenty(20)yearstocompensateFrancebe
causeGermanyhadexploitedherprovincessince1871.ShealsolostalongstripoflandtoPolandi
ncludingportofDanzig.ShealsolosttoDenmarktheprovinceofSchleswigwhichshehadgrabbe
din1864.ShefurtherlostLatvia,LithuaniaandEstoniaamongotherterritoriesinEurope.Suchter
ritoriallossescrippledtheGermaneconomymoresobecauseshelostagreatdealofherindustrya
ndcontrolofcustomsonportofDanzig.

WiththereturnofAlsaceandLorrainetoFrance,GermanywasalsoforcedbytheVersaillesPeace
TreatytoreturnothertreasuresliketheArtsofwork,trophiesandflagstoFrance.Thesehadbeen
confiscatedbyGermanyduringtheFranco–PrussianWarof1870–
1871.ThisalsofurtherannoyedtheGermans,hencemakingthemtorejectthetreaty.
TheVersaillespeacetreatyinstigatedarevolutioninGermanybytherightwingopponentsofPres
identEbert.ThiswasaftertheGermanWeimargovernmentacceptedtosignwhatthey(opponen
ts)sawasanunrealisticVersaillespeacetreaty.Therevolutionwashoweversuppressedbutitcre
atedinstabilityinGermanywhichgreatlyunderminedthesurvivaloftheWeimarRepublic.
In1923,GermanylosttoFrance,herindustrialterritoryofRuhrwhentheFrenchandBelgiantroo
psinvadedandoccupiedthedisputedRuhrregionandsimplytookwhatwasowedtotheminthefo
rmofrawmaterialsandgoods.ThiswaslegalunderthetreatyoftheVersailles.Becauseofthetrea
ty,theGermanWeimargovernmentorderedtheworkersintheRuhrregiontogoonstrikesothatt
heywerenotproducinganythingfortheFrenchtotake.TheFrenchreactedharshlybykillingover
100workersandexpelledmorethan100.000protestorsfromtheregion.However,throughthen
egotiationsdonebyStresemann,Germany’sForeignMinister,theFrenchwithdrewfromtheRuh
rregionandGermanythusregaineditin1926.
ItalsoledtohyperinflationinGermany.Inthewakeoftryingtoovercometheeconomiccrisiscr
eatedbytheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919,thegovernmentreactedbyprintingmoremoney(M
arks)butthisinsteadcausedsevereorhyperinflation.Moneywasincreasinglybecomingvirtuall
yworthlesssuchthatworkersneededtocarrysacksofmoniesinordertobuysmalldomesticitems
.PricesshotupinaspellofminutesamongothereconomicdisastersinGermanywhichincreasedt
hesufferingoftheGermans.
TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919madeGermanytolosehercolonialempireinAfrica.AtVer
sailles,GermanywasforcedtorenounceallclaimsoverhercoloniesinAfricaastheywereallputun
derthecustodianshipoftheLeagueofNations.Forexample,Namibia,TanganyikaandTogower
eamongsuchcoloniesthatwenttoBritainandFrancetotakecareofthemonbehalfoftheLeagueo
fNations.Becausethesecoloniesweresourcesofwealth,theGermansfeltbittersincethelossoft
hesecolonieshadgreatlyunderminedtheiroverseascommerceandtrade.
Questions:
1. AssesstheimpactoftheVersaillesSettlementof1919onEurope.
2. HowdidtheVersaillesSettlementof1919influenceEuropeanaffairsbetwee
n1919and1939?
3. “TheVersaillesTreatyof1919wasmeanttopreventtheoutbreakofanother
war”Discuss.
4. “TheVersaillesTreatyof1919wasboundtoleadtoanotherWorldcrisis”.Disc
uss.
5. “TheviabilityoftheVersaillespeaceTreatywasquestionablerightfromthest
art”Discuss.

6. TowhatextentdidtheVersaillesSettlementsolvetheproblemsofthepeace
makers?
7. ExplainthesignificanceoftheVersaillesPeaceTreatyinthehistoryofEurope
upto1939.
8. Assesstheimpactofthe1919ParispeaceconferenceonEuropeoreastandcentralEurope
between1919and1940.
NOTE:Theimpacthereshouldincludealltheeffectsorinfluenceofallthe5treatiesonthearea
ofneed.Forexample;
1. ItLedtotheestablishmentoftheLeagueofNations
2. Itledtothecreationofnewstates.
3. ItledtothehumiliationofGermanyandherallies
4. ItexposedthetreacherousintentionsoftheEuropeanstatesmen
5. ledtothelossoftheoverseascoloniesofGermany
6. ledtoGermany‘slossofenormousterritoryinEurope
7. ledtoFrance’srepossessionofAlsaceandLorraine
8. ItalsostimulatedthegrowthofGermanynationalism.
9. Itunderminedthemilitarypowerofthevanquishedstates
10.LedtodemilitarizationoftheRhineland.
THELEAGUEOFNATIONS(1920-1945)
TheLeagueofNationswasaninternationalorganizationthatwasformedon10 thJanuary1920,wi
thitsheadquartersatGenevainSwitzerland.TheideaofformingtheLeagueofNationswasbroug
htupbyPresidentWOODROWWILSONofUSAduringtheParisPeaceConferenceof1919andi
twasacceptedbyotherleadersoftheVictorPowersofWorldWarI.Atthestart,theLeagueofNatio
nshad42memberstatesbutby1926whenGermanywasadmitted,ithad55members.
OBJECTIVESOFTHELEAGUEOFNATIONS:
TheLeagueofNationshadthefollowingobjectivestoachieve;
 Tomaintainorkeepinternationalpeace(order)
 Tosettledisputesbetweennationsthrougharbitration
 Toguaranteeorsafeguardthesovereigntyofthenewlyindependentmemberstates
 Topromoteinternationalco-operationamongthememberstates.
 Toalleviateaddressinternationalsocialandeconomicproblemssoastoimprovesocialw
elfareofthemassesinthememberstates
 Toeffectdisarmamentandcheckonre–armamentbytheaggressivepowers
 Toadministerthemandatedterritories
 Tocheckonelicittradeanddrugtrafficking
THEORGANSOFTHELEAGUEOFNATIONS

Inordertoachievetheaboveobjectives,thememberstatesoftheLeagueofNationssetupthefoll
owingadministrativeorgans;
TheGeneralAssembly
ThishadallthemembersoftheLeagueofNations.Eachstatewasrepresentedandhadonevotein
theassembly.Itmetonceayearandallthedecisionshadtobetakenasagreeduponbythemajorit
ymembers.Oneofitsfunctionswasthatitconsideredtheconditionswhichthreatenedthepeace
oftheworldandit’stheGeneralAssemblythatelectedthe15judgesoftheInternationalCourtofJ
ustice.
TheSecurityCounciloftheLeagueofNations
ThisservedastheExecutive.Itconsistedoffivepermanentmemberspickedfromthevictoriousp
owerswhichincludedBritain,France,Japan,ItalyandUSA.However,atthebeginning,USAdidn
otjointheLeagueofNationsandthereforethecouncilinitiallyhadfourmembers.
Thecouncilhadtomakeplanstoreducearmsandalsotolookforwaysormeasurestobetakenbyth
eLeagueofNationsagainstexternalaggressionsthatweredirectedtowardsthememberstates.
Itwasalsotorecommendtheuseofsanctionsandexpulsionofanymemberstatethatviolatedany
provisionoftheLeagueofNations.
TheSecretariat
ThiswasthepermanentcivilserviceoftheLeagueofNationsanditwasheadedbyaSecretaryGen
eralandithaditsheadquartersinGeneva.Thesecretariatdealtwiththedaytodayadministrative
workoftheLeagueofNations.
ThePermanentCourtortheInternationalCourtofJustice
ThiscourtwassetupinthecityofHagueinNetherlands.Itconsistedoffifteenjudgesandthecourt
electedapresidentfromamongstitsmembers.Thecourtwastosettleinternationalconflictsbet
weenthememberstatesandamembersubmittinganydisputetothatcourthadtopromiseinadv
ancethatitwouldacceptanyjudgmentthecourtwouldtake.
Besidestheaboveadministrativeorgans,theLeagueofNationsalsohadotherspecializedagenci
esorcommitteesliketheInternationalLabourOrganization,theWorldHealthOrganization,Inte
llectualOrganizationandtheMandatesCommissionamongothers.
NOTE:
TheLeagueofNationswastomaintainpeacethroughthefollowingmeasures;
 SettlingconflictsusingtheInternationalCourtofJustice.
 Useofeconomicsanctionsonproblematiccountries.

 Useofthesystemofcollectiveresponsibilitywhereeverymemberhadtosharetherespon
sibilityofdefendingtheothermembersfromexternalaggression.
 Theuseofforceandthisiswhensanctionsfailedsuchthatthememberstateswouldcontri
butesoldierssothattheaggressivestateisforcedtostopattackingtheotherstate.
 IftheaggressorwasamemberoftheLeagueofNations,thenshewouldbeexpelledfromt
heLeagueofNations.
ACHIEVEMENTSORSUCCESSESOFTHELEAGUEOFNATIONS
TheLeagueofNationssucceededinincreasingitsmembership.Atthestart,theLeagueofNation
shad42membersbutthisnumberhadincreasedto55statesby1930followingtheadmissiononn
ewmembersintotheleague.Forexample,Germanywasadmittedin1926andlaterRussiain193
4.Bywideningorincreaseditsmembership,theLeagueofNationswasabletoincreaseinternatio
nalco-operationwhichwasoneofitsobjectives.
Itssurvivalfornineteenyearswasanincredibleachievement.Formedin1920,theLeagueofNati
onsmanagedtosurvivefornineteenyearswithoutcollapsingupto1939whenWorldWarIIbroke
out.Itmetseveralchallengesduringthisperiodlikethepresenceofaggressivestatesbutitpersist
eddespitethechallenges.
ItimprovedtheconditionsoftheworkersallovertheworldthroughtheformationoftheInternat
ionalLabourOrganization(ILO).ThroughtheILO,theLeagueofNationspersuadedgovern
mentstofixthemaximumworkinghours,specifyadequateminimumwageandintroducesickne
ssandunemploymentbenefitsaswellasoldagepensions.ThesestandardsthatweresetbytheIL
OhadtobefollowedbyallthememberstatesoftheLeagueofNationstoavoidtheexploitationofth
eworkers.Therefore,theILOsucceededinaddressingtheworkers’problemswhichwasamajor
achievementoftheLeagueofNations.
TheLeagueofNationsrehabilitatedtheEuropeaneconomiesthathadbeendestroyedbyWorld
WarI.inthefirstfouryearsofitsoperation,theLeagueofNationsprovidedfinancialassistanceora
idinformofloanstothewartorncountriesofthathadbeendevastatedbyWorldWarI.Theseinclu
dedlikeAustria,Hungary,BulgariaandGreeceamongothers.Thisfinancialassistancebroughta
boutrapideconomicrecoveryintheabovecountrieswhichhelpedthemtoovercometheadverse
economiceffectsofWorldWarI.
TheLeagueofNationswasinstrumentalinaddressingtheplight(suffering)oftherefugeesthrou
ghtheformationoftheRefugeeOrganization.WorldWarIcreatedaproblemofcaringforandr
esettlingofmillionsofdisplacedpeopleorrefugees.By1934,theLeagueofNationshadextended
reliefassistancetoalmostfourmillionpeopleinthiscategoryandmajorityoftheserefugeeswere
RussiansandGreeks.Forexample,itreturnedhalfamillionpeoplehomeandgavereliefassistanc
etothousandsofpeoplefleeingtheNazipersecutioninGermany.Similarly,theLeagueofNations
settledtheissueofthePrisonersofWarthathadbeencapturedduringthecourseofWorldWarI.F
orexamplebetween1920and1925,itsuccessfullyrepatriatedallthePrisonersofWartotheirmot
hercountriesandthiswasamajorachievement.

ItimprovedthehealthstandardsinEuropethroughtheformationoftheWorldHealthOrganiz
ation(WHO)in1923.Throughthisagency,theLeagueofNationsorganizedmedicalassistance
anddistributionofvaccinestocombattheepidemicsofTyphus,Cholera,Dysentery,Malaria,Sm
allpox,Leprosy,heartdiseaseandotherswhichhadsweptacrossEuropebefore,duringandafter
WorldWarI.Importantresearchwasalsocarriedoutinvariousepidemicdiseasesandconferenc
eswereorganizedtoimproveonthehealthstandardsofthememberstatesoftheLeagueofNatio
ns.ThiswasthereforeanimportantachievementoftheLeagueofNations.
TheLeagueofNationssucceededinimprovingtransportandcommunicationamongthemembe
rstates.ThiswasthroughtheformationoftheCommunicationandTransportOrganizatio
nin1920.ThisorganizationestablishedguidelinesliketheHighwayCodeandotherMaritim
elawsthatencouragedfreedomoftransportbetweenstatesaswellasfreenavigationontheinte
rnationalwaterways.Thiswasanimportantachievementespeciallyinthedirectionofmaintainin
gpeaceandstabilityinEuropeafterWorldWarI.
ItremovedthesocialevilofslaverywhichwasrampantduringthecourseofWorldWarI.Thiswast
hroughtheformationoftheSlaveryCommissionin1924whichledtotheendofslavetradeand
slaveryinEurope.Inaddition,theLeagueofNationsattemptedtocheckorcontrolhumananddru
gtraffickingintheworld.Itarrestedthehumananddrugtraffickers,destroyeddrugsandevenco
nfiscatedthehumananddrugtraffickingships.Throughthesemeasures,theproblemofhuman
anddrugtraffickingwaslessenedintheworldafterWorldWarI.
TheLeagueofNationsreconciledGermanywithotherpowersespeciallyherformerWorldWarIe
nemiesofBritainandFrance.ThiswasthroughthesigningofinternationaltreatieslikeLOCARN
OTreatiesof1925.ThesewereagreementsnegotiatedatLocarno,Switzerlandon5th–
6thOctober1925andformallysignedinLondonon1stDecember1925inwhichBritainandFra
nceagreedtonormalizetheirrelationswiththedefeatedGermany.Thisthereforerestoredfriend
shipbetweenGermanyandherformerenemies,thuspromotinginternationaldiplomacyinEuro
pe.
TheLeagueofNationspromotedinternationalco-
operationamongthememberstates.ThiswasthroughthefamousKelloggPactorTreatyof1
928thatwassignedintheFrenchcapitalofParis.ThistreatywasnamedaftertheAmericanSecre
taryofStateF.W.KelloggwhoarrangeditundertheinfluenceoftheLeagueofNationstogether
withtheFrenchForeignMinisterAristideBriandanditwassignedbysixtyfivestates,includingd
efeatedGermany.Allthesignatoriestothispactrenouncedoroutlawedwarasaninstrumentofn
ationalpolicy.Theythereforepledgedthemselvesnottofighteachotherexceptin“self-
defence”.Thisthereforepromotedpeaceandinternationalco-
operationamongtheEuropeanpowerswhichwasanincredibleachievementorsuccessbytheLe
agueofNations.
TheLeagueofNationssucceededinpromotinghumanrights.ItshouldberememberedthatWorl
dWarIWorldWarIhadinterferedwiththefreedomandrightsofpeopleinEurope.Forexample,du
ringthecourseofthewar,therewasforcefulconscriptionincountrieslikeBritain,FranceandGer

manyaswellasmassivekillingofpeopleamongotherhumanrightsviolations.Asaresult,afterW
orldWarItheLeagueofNationsestablishedtheInternationalCourtofJustice(I.C.J)atHagu
ein1921todefendhumanrights.By1926,thiscourthadsettled26(twentysix)casesrelatedtohu
manrightsviolationandby1939ithadpresidedover400(fourhundred)treatiesaimedatpromoti
nghumanrightsinthemembercountries.
TheLeagueofNationspromotededucationandintellectualco-
operationamongthememberstates.ItsetuptheIntellectualOrganizationorCommitteeb
asedinParisthroughwhichLeagueofNationsorganizedconferencesandpublishedmaterialsins
upportofcollectivesecuritywhereeverymemberhadtheresponsibilityofensuringdisarmamen
t.Thiscommitteewhichbroughttogetherintellectualsalsopublishedmaterialstoarousepublico
pinionagainstwar.Throughthesameagencyorcommittee,theLeagueofNationspromotedchil
dwelfarebycheckingonthetradeinobsceneliterature.Italsodiscouragedchildlabouraswellasc
ampaigningforgoodhealthandeducationforthechildreninthememberstates.
TheLeagueofNationssuccessfullyadministeredthemandatedterritoriesthroughtheMandat
esCommissionwhichitsetup.Theseweretheterritoriesthatwereformerlyunderthecontrolof
GermanyandTurkeybutwhichweregiventothevictoriouspowersafterWorldWarItoadministe
rthemonbehalfoftheLeagueofNations.SuchterritoriesincludedTanganyika,Cameroon,Togo
,Namibia,Syria,IraqandIran.TheMandatesCommissionsupervisedthegovernmentsofthesef
ormerGermanandTurkishcoloniesandusedtomakereportsabouthowthoseformercoloniesw
erebeingadministeredandifacountrythatcontrolledtheformercolonywasfoundpracticingpoo
radministration,thecountrywouldbeforcedtoimproveontheadministrationinthecolony.
Similarly,theLeagueofNationssucceededinadministeringtheSaarregion.Itshouldbereme
mberedthattheSaarregionhadbeenannexedbyFrancefromGermanyattheendWorldWarIas
acompensationforthedamagesofthecoalminesintheNorthEastofFranceandalsoaspartpaym
entforthetotalreparationsthatGermanyhadtopaytotheAlliedPowers.Thisregionwasrichinco
alanditsannexationhadcreatedbitternessamongtheGermans.Asaresult,in1935,theLeague
ofNationsorganizedaplebisciteorreferendumandthepeopleofthisregionvotedfortheirreturnt
oGermany.Therefore,theLeagueofNationscontrolledeventsintheSaarregionwhichwasanim
portantachievement.
TheLeagueofNationssucceededinmaintainingworldpeaceinthe1920swhichwasoneofitsmaj
orobjectives.Itmanagedtosettleconflictsordisputesthatinvolvedsmallstates.Overfourtypolit
icaldisputeswerehandled,somebytheGeneralAssemblyandtheSecurityCounciloftheLeague
ofNationswhileotherswerehandledbytheInternationalCourtofJustice.Theconflictsthatwere
settledbytheLeagueNationsincludedthefollowingamongothers;
In1920,theLeagueofNationssettledadisputebetweenSwedenandFinlandovertheAaland.T
hetwocountrieswereclaimingtheAalandwhichwereislandsintheBalticSea.TheLeagueofNati
onsruledthattheterritorybelongedtoFinlandandSwedenacceptedtherulingandthereforethe
possibilityofwarbetweenthetwocountrieswasavoided.

In1921,theLeagueofNationssettledaconflictbetweenGermanyandPolandovertheownership
ofUpperSilesiawhichwasarichterritoryontheboarderofthetwocountries.Toavertwar,theLe
agueofNationsdividedUpperSilesiabetweenGermanyandPoland,leavingagreaterparttoGer
manyandbothpartiesacceptedtherulingwhichavoidedthepossibilityofawarbetweenthetwoc
ountries.
In1925-
1926,theLeagueofNationssettledafrontierorboarderdisputebetweenGreeceandBulgaria
intheBalkans.BecauseoftheinterventionoftheLeagueofNations,Greecewasforcedtowithdra
wfromtheareaandpaydamagesorfinetoBulgaria.
In1926,theLeagueofNationssettledaconflictbetweenTurkeyandIraqovertheoilrichMosulpr
ovincewhichTurkeyhadforcefullyoccupiedyetitbelongedtoIraq.TheLeagueofNationsdecide
dorruledinfavourofIraqandTurkeyacceptedtheruling.
In1931,adisputearosebetweenGreeceandYugoslaviaregardingtheboundaryofAlbania.The
possibilityofwarloomedsohighbuttheLeagueintervenedinthematterandreconciledbothparti
esbymutualdiscussion.
TherewasadisputebetweenTurkeyandIraq(ruledoverbyGreatBritain)overthecontroloftheM
onsulareawhichwasrichinoilontheIraq-
Turkishborder.Thetwocountriesclaimedtheterritory.In1926theLeagueofNationsintervened
anddrewtheboundarylinegivingagreaterpartofittoIraq.Turkeyprotestedbutinvain.
TheLeagueofNationssuccessfullysettledtheconflictbetweenPeruandColumbiaoverLeticiain
SouthAmerica.In1922,PerusurrenderedcontrolofLeticiatoColumbia.However,in1933,Perui
nvadedColumbiaandcapturedLeticia.Theleaguesetacommissionofinquiryintothecrisis.Thec
ommissioninvestigatedandrecommendedthatLeticiashouldbehandedovertoColumbia.This
wasimplementedandthematterpermanentlysettled.
FAILURESOFTHELEAGUEOFNATIONS
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtomaintainthemembershipespeciallyofsomekeymemberswh
ichinsteadwithdrewfromtheleagueastimewenton.Forexample,in1933JapanandGermanywi
thdrewfromtheLeagueofNationsandin1935Italyalsowithdrewhermembership.Thewithdra
walofthesememberstatesgreatlyaffectedthefunctioningoftheSecurityCounciloftheLeagueo
fNationsbecausetheystartedconductingactionslikeaggressionwhichunderminedtheoperati
onsoftheLeagueofNations.
ItfailedtowinorsecurethemembershipofsomemajorpowerslikeUSAandRussia.Rightfromthe
start,theLeagueofNationswassupposedtoincorporateallthemajorworldpowersbutunfortun
atelysomecountriesduetotheirselfishinterestsrefusedtojointhisorganization.Forexample,al
thoughitwastheAmericanPresidentWoodrowWilsonwhobroughtuptheideaofformingtheLea
gueofNations,theAmericansrefusedtosupportAmerica’smembershiptotheorganization.Eve

nRussiawasnotamemberoftheLeagueofNationsuntil1934whenshejoinedbutthiswasrathert
oolate.Thesewerepowerfulstatestheworldthatwouldhavegreatlyhelpedintheimplementati
onoftheresolutionsoftheLeagueofNations.
Itfailedtoeffectorenforcethedisarmamentpolicywhichwasoneitsmajoraims.TheDisarmam
entCommissionoftheLeagueofNationsfailedtopersuadethememberstatestoreducearma
menteventhoughtheyhadsignedandagreedtothecovenantoftheLeagueoftheNations.Forex
ample,in1935AdolfHitlerannouncedconscriptioninGermanyandalsoannouncedanewmassiv
eprogrammeofre-
armingGermany.ThesemeasureswereviolatingtheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919buttheLea
gueofNationsfailedtoforcehimtoabandonthem.ThisrevivedthearmsraceinEuropeasotherco
untriesalsomanufacturedweaponsandincreasedthesizeoftheirarmieswhicheventuallyspark
edoffWorldWarIIin1939.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtoprotectthedemocraticgovernmentsinEuropefrombeingoverthr
ownbydictators.Forexample,inGermanythedemocraticWeimerRepublicthathadbeenestabli
shedin1919followingtheabdicationofKaiserWilliamIIwasoverthrownbyAdolfHitlerin1933w
hileinItalytheliberalgovernmentunderKingVictorEmmanuelIIIwasoverthrownbyBenitoMus
soliniin1922.ThesamewastrueinSpainwhereGeneralFrancowiththesupportofHitlerandMuss
olinioverthrewtheConstitutionalMonarchyin1936andestablishedaFascistregimethere.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtoimprovethesocialandeconomicwelfareofthenationsoutsideEur
opeifevenifthesenationswerefullmemberstates.ThoughtheLeagueofNationswasmeanttob
eaninternationalorganization,itmemberstatesoutsideEuropelikethoseinAfricasuchasEthiop
iacontinuedtosufferfromsocialandeconomicproblemslikepoverty.Thiswasamajorfailureont
hepartoftheLeagueofNations.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtowinthesympathyoftheEuropeannationalsofeventhememberst
ateswhichgreatlycontributedtoitsfailure.FortheLeagueofNationstoachieveitsobjectivesthe
citizensofthememberstatesweresupposedtobepartofitsoperationswhichwasnotthecase.In
steaditwasdominatedbytheleadersoftheleadingmemberstateslikeBritainandFrancewithout
includingtheviewsandopinionsofthegrassrootorcommonpeople.Asaresult,thelocalpopulati
onrejectedsomeofthecoreprinciplesoftheLeagueofNations.Forexample,theBritishpeopleop
posedtheGenevaProtocolof1920whichestablishedtheLeagueofNationsandpreferredtheLoc
arnotreatiesof1925.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtopreventtheriseofdictatorsintheworld.The1920sand1930switn
essedtheriseofseveraldictatorsintheworldlikeAdolfHitlerofGermany,TojoHirohitoofJapan,B
enitoMussoliniofItalyandGeneralFrancoofSpain.Theserulersendedupestablishingauthorita
rianordictatorialsystemslikeFascismandNazismamongothersintheirrespectivecountrieswhi
chcreateddifficultenvironmentfortheLeagueofNationstooperate.Asdictators,theserulerswe
realsoverymuchdeterminedtofightagainstthedemocraticstateslikeBritain,FranceandUSAw
hichweretryingtodefendthespreadofdemocracyintheworld.ThisthereforeunderminedtheLe
ague’seffortstomaintainworldpeace.

ItfailedtoaverttheSpanishcivilwarof1936-
1939.In1931,acivilwarbrokeoutinSpainwhichledtotheoverthrowofthemonarchicalregime.
GeneralFrancocopiedthisexampleandalsoroseupinarmsagainsttherepublicangovernmenti
nSpain.Therefore,from1936-
1939,therewasabloodyconfrontationinSpainbetweenGeneralFranco’srebelsbackedbyItaly
andGermanyagainsttheSpanishrepublicangovernmentbackedbyRussia,BritainandFrance.
TheLeagueofNationsdidnothingandwasinactiveoverthisbloodySpanishwar.Moreover,Britai
nandFrance,themostinfluentialmembersoftheleaguetooksidesandsupportedSpain.TheLea
gueisthereforefurtherblamedforfailingtosettletheconflictsinSpainpeacefullynorcondemnin
gandrestrainingBritainandFrancefromparticipatinginthecivilwar.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtoresolvemajordisputesorconflictsamongstateswhichthreatene
dEuropeanpeace.Forexample,theconflictbetweenPolandandLithuaniawasnotresolved.Bot
hcountriesclaimedtheterritoryorcityofVilnawhichwaslocatedattheircommonborder.In192
0,PolanddeclaredVilnaasitsterritoryandthisactworsenedtherelationshipbetweenPolandand
Lithuania.However,becausetheLeagueofNationswasoverruledbyaconferenceofAmbassad
orsbasedinParisonthisincidentitfailedtoresolvetheconflictbetweenthetwocountries.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtorestrainorstopmilitaryaggressionintheworld.Forexample,itfail
edtoaverttheaggressionofJapanonChina.In1931,theJapanesearmyinvadedandoccupiedth
enorthernprovinceofChinaknownasManchuria.TheLeagueofNationsrequestedJapantowit
hdrawafterthefailureofeconomicandmilitarysanctionsthatithadimposedonJapan.Insteadin
1933,JapanwithdrewfromtheLeagueofNationsandnoactionwastaken.Thiswasabigfailureof
theLeagueofNationsfornotkeepingJapanintheleague.
ItalsofailedtostoptheItalianattackonCorfuwhichwasanislandforGreece.Duringthisincident
,BenitoMussoliniwhowasthePrimeMinisterofItalyinvadedtheGreekislandofCorfuasareveng
etotheGreekswhohadshotandkilledsomeItaliansoldiersattheirboarder.Greeceappealedtoth
eLeagueofNationsbutitdidnothingtoforceItalyoutoftheIsland.Instead,ItalyforcedGreeceto
pay50millionLyresascompensation.
ItalsofailedtostoptheItalianinvasionofAbyssiniaorEthiopiaandthiswasaseriousblowtotheLe
ague’sprestigeandcredibility.On3 rdOctober1935,BenitoMussoliniofItalyinvadedEthiopiatoa
vengethedefeatofItalyintheBattleofAdowaof1896bytheEthiopiansunderEmperorMenelikII.
TheEthiopianEmperorbythenHaileSelassiepersonallypresentedhiscasetotheLeagueofNatio
nsinGenevabuttheLeagueofNationsfailedtoforceItalyoutofEthiopia.Thiswasbecausetheeco
nomicsanctionsthatwereimposedonItalydidnotincludeoilandcoal.Theseweremajorenergys
ourcesthatwouldhaveforcedItalyoutofEthiopia.
ItalsofailedtostopGermanaggressioninEurope.AftercomingtopowerinGermanyin1933,Adol
fHitlersetoutaplantoviolatetheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919whichheconsideredunfairtoGer
manybyinvadingseveralsmallstatesinEurope.Forexampleon7thMarch1936,AdolfHitlersen
ttheGermantroopstooccupytheRhinelandterritorywhichhadbeendeclaredbytheVersaille
sPeaceTreatyof1919asademilitarizedzonewhereGermanywasnotallowedtostationhertr

oops.However,theLeagueofNationsfailedtoforceGermanyoutofthiszone.Italsofailedtostopt
heGermaninvasionofAustriain1938,Czechoslovakiain1939andfinallyPolandinSeptember19
39.TheLeagueofNationsthereforefailedtoguaranteeorprotecttheindependenceofthememb
erstatesandyetthiswasoneofitsmajorobjectives.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtowinthesupportandsympathyofthesmallstates.TheLeagueofNa
tionswasmeanttobeaninternationalorganizationofallcountriesintheworldandwassupposedt
ocaterfortheirinterestsirrespectiveoftheirsize.Unfortunately,theorganizationwasdominate
dbythebigpowersofthedayandthemajordecisionsintheLeaguewerealwaysmadeanddetermi
nedbythevictoriouspowersofWorldWarIespeciallyBritainandFrance.Asaresult,thesmallstat
eslikeEthiopiaandLiberiarefusedtoassociatethemselveswiththeLeagueandtheyinsteadcond
uctedactionsthatwereagainsttheLeagueofNations.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtototallyeradicatetheproblemofdrugtraffickingintheworld.Despit
ealltheeffortsputinbytheleaguetofightthisillegalpracticelikearrestingofthedrugtraffickersan
dconfiscationofthedrugtraffickingships,theproblemofdrugtraffickingpersistedandbecamea
majorthreattointernationalpeacethroughouttheinterwarperiod.Thiswasamajorfailureonth
epartoftheLeagueofNations.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtoformajointforceforkeepingpeaceintheworld.Thiswasbecauset
hemembercountriesfailedtocontributeforcesthatcouldbeusedtocreateanindependentarmy
andnavy.Thisjointforcewouldbeusedtoenforcetheresolutionsoftheleagueaswellasfightinga
gainstEuropeanaggressorslikeItalyandGermany.Forexample,in1935BenitoMussoliniofItaly
attackedEthiopiabutnothingwasdoneforcehimoutofEthiopia.Thislackofajointforceclearlyin
dicatedthattheLeagueofNationswasweakorganization,thusmakingitunabletoachieveitsobj
ectives.
ItfailedtostoptherevivalofthealliancesysteminEurope.TheLeagueofNationswassupposedto
ensurecollectiveeffortamongthememberstatesespeciallyinmattersconcerninginternational
peaceandsecuritybutwhichitwasunabletoachievethis.Consequently,anumberofallianceswe
reformedintheinterwarperiodwhichrevivedthealliancesystem.Forexample,therewastheRo
me-Berlin-
TokyoAxisorAllianceofthedictatorialcountriesthatstoodagainstthedemocraticstatesofFra
nce,USAandBritainamongothers.Thisweakenedtheleaguebecauseitfailedtocontroltheactivi
tiesofsuchhostilealliances.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtoaverttheEconomicDepressionof1929-
1935.Theworldeconomicdepressionwastheperiodwhentheworldexperiencedaslump(crush
)andageneralrecession(collapse)intheeconomiesoftheindividualstatesorwhentheeconomic
variablessuchassavings,incomes,investments,employmentopportunities,pricesandwages
wereallattheirlowest.ThisdepressionbrokeoutbecausetheLeagueofNationsfailedtoimpleme
nteconomicpoliciesnecessaryforfreetrade.Forexample,itfailedtostoptheeconomicprotectio
nismthatwaspursuedbyUSAwhichmadeitdifficultforEuropeancountriesthathadsurplustosel

ltoUSA.ThisshatteredinternationaltradewhichleftmanygoodsinEuropeunbought,thusleadin
gtotheoutbreakoftheGreatEconomicDepressionin1929.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedtoavertorpreventtheoutbreakofanotherWorldWar.Themilitarya
ndeconomicweaknessesoftheLeagueofNationsencouragedAdolfHitlerofGermanytoinvade
Polandon1stSeptember1939becauseheexpectednoresistanceatall.Hitlerwantedtoannexthe
PolishterritorywhichhadGermansandalsototakeovertheportofDanzigwhichtheVersaillesPe
aceTreatyof199haddeclareda“freecity”undertheLeagueofNations.Whenthishappened,Brit
ainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermanyon3rdSeptember1939soastosavetheirallyPolandw
hichsparkedoffWorldWarII.
REASONSWHYTHELEAGUEOFNATIONSFAILEDTOACHIEVETHEOBJECTIVESOF
ITSFOUNDERS
TheLeagueofNationswasaproductofWoodrowWilson’s14pointsandwasthereforebornoutof
theVersaillesPeaceSettlementof1919afterWorldWarI.Hesuggestedthecreationofaninterna
tionalorganizationtomaintainpeacewhichwasacceptedandthereforeon10 thJanuary1920the
LeagueofNationswasofficiallylaunchedinGeneva.TheobjectivesoftheLeagueofNationsinclu
ded;
 Tomaintainpeaceandsecuritythroughcollectivesecurityorresponsibility
 Topromoteinternationalco-operationinordertosolvetheeconomicproblems
 Tostopexternalaggressiononthememberstates
 Toprovideeconomicaidtothememberstates
 Toimprovethesocialwelfareofthemasses
 Tostopdrugtrafficking
 Toaddresstherefugeeproblem
 Toadministerthemandatedterritories
TheLeagueofNationswasboundtofailandindeeditfailedtoachievetheaboveobjectivesduetot
hefollowingreasons;
TheisolationofUSAunderminedtheLeagueofNations.AlthoughitwasPresidentWoodrowWils
onofUSAwhoinitiatedtheLeagueofNationsin1920,thepeopleofUSAespeciallytheRepublican
sopposedtheinclusionofUSAintotheLeagueofNationsbecausePresidentWoodrowWilsonwh
owasademocratdidnottaketheirviewstotheParisConferencewhichgavebirthtotheLeagueof
Nations.TheythereforerefusedtoapproveUSA’smembershipandthiswasamajorsetbacktoth
eorganizationbecauseitmeantthattheLeagueofNationshadlostahugesourceofmilitaryandec
onomicsupportandthereforeitwasboundtofail.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedbecauselackedenoughfundstofinanceitsactivities.TheLeagueof
Nationsasanorganizationentirelydependedonthefinancialcontributionsfromthememberstat
es.However,between1920and1939manymemberstateswerenotwillingtocontributemoney
becausetheywerestillrecoveringfromtheadverseeconomiceffectsofWorldWarI.Withouteno

ughfinancialresourcestherefore,theLeagueofNationscouldnotsuccessfullyimplementitsres
olutions,thusleadingtoitsfailure.
TheLeagueofNationsalsofailedbecauseitlackedanindependentarmyorjointforceandnavyto
enforceitsresolutions.TheLeagueofNationsdependedontheforcesfromindividualmemberst
atesforitsmilitaryoperationsandpeacekeepingmissions.Unfortunately,inthe1920sand1930
sthemembercountriesfailedtocontributeforcestoformajointforcethatcouldbeusedfightagai
nstEuropeanaggressorslikeItalyandGermany.Forexample,in1935BenitoMussoliniofItalyatt
ackedEthiopiabutnothingwasdoneforcehimoutofEthiopiasincetheLeagueofNationshadnost
andingarmytoperformthatfunction.ThiswasaclearindicationthattheLeagueofNationswasw
eak.
TheabsenceofanumberofbigstatesintheLeagueofNationsalsogreatlyundermineditsoperati
on.Atthestart,theLeagueofNationsexcludedsomebigpowers.Forexample,USSRwasnotame
mberuntil1934,Germanywasnotamemberbetween1926and1933whileItalybecameamemb
eroftheLeaguebetween1926and1935.Theseweregreatpowersandthereforetheirexclusion
meantthattheresolutionsoftheLeagueofNationswerenotbindingonthem.Asaresult,theycall
editaBritish-Frenchleague,whichmadeithardfortheLeagueofNationstoachieveitsobjectives.
TheprincipleoffreeentryandexitunderminedtheoperationoftheLeagueofNations.Accordingt
othestructureoftheLeagueofNations,thememberstateswerefreetoenterandgetoutoftheLea
guewithoutanyrestrictions.Thisweaknesswasthereforeexploitedbysomememberstatestop
ulloutoftheleague.Forexamplein1933,theLeagueofNationsaskedGermanytoobserveitsprin
cipleofdisarmamentandinOctober1933,AdolfHitlerrefusedandheinsteadwithdrewGermany
fromtheLeagueofNations.RussiaalsowithdrewfromtheLeagueofNationsin1936whensheref
usedtoobservetheprinciplesanddecisionsoftheLeagueofNations.ButtheLeagueofNationsto
oknoactiontokeepthesecountriesintheleague.ThisaffectedtheLeagueofNationsbecausethe
absenceofsuchmembersunderminedco-operationwhichwasvitalinmaintainingpeace.
TheassociationoftheLeagueofNationswiththeharshandunpopularVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1
919undermineditsoperation.TheLeagueofNationswassetupin1920intheaftermathoftheVer
saillesPeaceTreatythathadbeensignedin1919attheendofWorldWarIbetweenvictoriouspow
ersandthedefeatedGermany.Thetermsofthistreatywereconsideredtooharshandunfairbyth
eGermansandthereforetheyrejectedthem.Asaresult,whentheLeagueofNationswasformedi
n1920,thedefeatedpowersespeciallyGermanyassociatedtheLeagueofNationswiththisunfai
rVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919.ThisthereforemadetheLeagueofNationsunpopularamongth
edefeatedpowerswhichundermineditseffortstoachievetheobjectivesofitsfounderslikeinter
nationalco-operation.
TheLeagueofNationsfailedbecauseitneglectedoftheindependentstates.TheLeagueofNatio
nswassetuptoprotectthememberstatesfromexternalaggressionbutitgreatlyfailedinthisarea
.Forexample,ItalyinvadedEthiopiain1935whileGermanyinvadedAustria,PolandandCzechos
lovakia.ThesewereindependentstateswhichtheLeagueofNationswassupposedtoprotectbut
itfailedtouseitssystemofcollectivesecurityorresponsibilityagainsttheaggressivepowers.This

thereforemadetheLeagueofNationsunabletoachieveitsobjectiveslikemaintainingpeaceinth
eworld.
ThefailureofthedisarmamentpolicywasamajorblowtotheLeagueofNations.TheLeagueofNat
ionsfailedtodisarmthebigpowersyetthiswasoneofitsmajorobjectives.Forexample,AdolfHitle
rofGermanypublicallydenouncedtheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919andheintroducedmilitary
conscription.Healsostartedprogrammestomanufacturedeadlyweaponssoastore-
armGermanybuttheLeagueofNationsdidnothingtostophim.ThisgaveGermanyconfidenceto
destabilizeworldpeacewhichunderminedtheoperationoftheLeagueofNations.
TheriseofdictatorsintheworldcreatedadifficultenvironmentfortheLeagueofNationstooperat
e,hencemakingitunabletoachievetheobjectivesofitsfounders.Duringthe1920sand1930san
umberofdictatorialrulerscapturedpowerinseveralstatesintheworld.Forexample,therewasA
dolfHitlerofGermany,TojoHirohitoofJapan,BenitoMussoliniofItalyandGeneralFrancoofSpai
n.Theaboveweredictatorswereverymuchdeterminedtofightagainstthedemocraticstateslike
Britain,FranceandUSAwhichweretryingtodefendthespreadofdemocracyintheworld.Indeed
,in1935HitlerandMussoliniinvadedSpaintoinstallGeneralFranco,afascisttopower.Thiscreate
dinstabilityinEuropewhichunderminedtheoperationoftheLeagueofNations,thusleadingtoits
failure.
TherevivalofthealliancesystemweakenedtheLeagueofNations.AfterWorldWarI,anumberof
hostileallianceswerecreatedinEuropewhichrevivedthealliancesystem.Forexample,in1939B
ritain,FranceandTurkeyconcludedanalliancetoresistGermanaggression.Alsoin1939,thethre
eaggressorsthatincludedJapan,ItalyandGermanysignedanallianceknownastheRome-
Berlin-
TokyoAxistoworktogetherasdictatorsintheirforeignpoliciesandtofightagainstthedemocrat
icstatesofFrance,USAandBritain.Thisdividedtheworld,henceweakeningtheLeagueofNation
sasitfailedtocontroltheactivitiesofthesehostilealliances.
TheLeagueofNationslackedmasssupportwhichmadeitunabletoachieveitsobjectives.TheLe
agueofNationsneglectedthesmallandweakmemberstatesbecausethemajordecisionsandres
olutionsweremadebytheWorldWarIvictoriouspowersornationsofBritainandFrancewithoutc
onsideringtheinterestsofthesmallstates.ThesmallerstateslikeEthiopiaandLiberiathereforer
efusedtoassociatethemselveswiththeLeagueofNationsandthereforerefusedtosupportitsres
olutions.
TheweaknessesinthestructureoftheLeagueofNationsalsomadeitunabletoachievetheobjecti
vesofitsfounders.Forexample,theLeagueofNationswasbasedontheprincipleofequalityinrep
resentationyetthememberswerenotequal,forexampleBritainwasnotequaltoLiberia.Also,int
hevotingprocedure,votingwasdoneontheUnanimousprinciplewherebyallthememberstate
sinthecouncilhadtofirstagreeoversomethingbeforeitcouldbeimplementedwhichwasdifficult
.ThismadeitdifficultfortheLeagueofNationstoachieveitsobjectives.

TheLeagueofNationsalsofailedtoachieveitsobjectivesbecauseitwasveryslowindecisionmaki
ng.AlthoughtheLeagueofNationshadclearobjectivesandmethodstouseintheimplementatio
noftheobjectives,withitsheadquartersinGeneva,itneverimmediatelyputthemintopractice.T
hiswaspartlyduetothefactthattheLeagueofNationsmetfewtimesinitslifetime.Asaresult,allits
resolutionsendingupremainingofpaperwithoutbeingputintoactionandthatiswhyitwasreferr
edtoasa“backingdogthatcouldnotbite”,whicheventuallyledtoitsfailure.
Theselfishnationalinterestsattheexpenseofinternationalinterestsunderminedtheworkofthe
LeagueofNations,thusmakingitunabletoachieveitsobjectives.WhentheLeagueofNationswa
sinitsoperation,somestatesoftheworldpromotedtheirselfishnationalratherthaninternationa
linterests.Forexample,USArefusedtojointheLeagueofNationsattheverystartforfearoftheAm
ericansoldierswho,inanattempttocreatepeace,wouldgetinvolvedinwarsontheEuropeancon
tinentthatwouldledtotheirdeath.ThispartlyexplainswhyUSArefusedtobecomeamemberofth
eLeagueofNationsatthestartandyetshewasaverypowerfulcountrywithhugefinancialandmili
taryresourcesthatwouldhavegreatlyhelpedtheLeagueofNationstoachieveitsobjectives.
TheLeagueofNationsalsofailedtoachieveitsobjectivesbecauseitusedineffectiveorweakpuni
shmentsagainsttheoffenders.TheLeagueofNationshadclearmechanismsofpunishinganyme
mberstatesthatviolateditsprinciplesandobjectivesbutitneverhadthemilitaryandeconomicm
achinerytoapplythemtothemaximum.Forexample,in1935BenitoMussolinioccupiedEthiopia
andItalywasdeclaredtheaggressorbytheLeague.TheLeagueofNationsthenimposedeconom
icsanctionsonItalyhopingthatitwastowithdrawfromEthiopia.However,Italydidnotfeelthese
sanctionsbecauseoilandcoal,thetwomajorenergysourceswerenotincludedonthelist.TheSue
zCanalalsoremainedopentotheItalianshipsandItalycontinuedtoimportoilandotheritemsfro
mAsiathroughtheSuezCanal.
TherewasdisunityamongthemembersoftheLeagueofNationswhichalsomadeitunabletoachi
eveitsobjectives.TheprincipleofcollectiveresponsibilitywhereeverymemberoftheLeagueof
Nationshadtosharetheresponsibilityofdefendingtheothermembersfromexternalaggression
failedtoworkonsomeoccasions.ThisisillustratedbytheincidentoftheItalianinvasionofEthiopi
a.CountrieslikeAustria,AlbaniaandSwitzerlandrefusedtoimposeeconomicsanctionsonItalys
oastoforceheroutofEthiopiayettheyweremembersoftheLeagueofNations.Mussolinitherefor
ewentaheadandconsolidatedtheItaliancontroloverEthiopiawhichwasanindependentstate.
TheLeagueofNationsworkedonfalseassumptionswhichalsomadeitunabletoachieveitsobjec
tives.Duringitexistence,theLeagueofNationsusedonworkonsomeassumptionsinordertoach
ieveitsobjectivesbutunfortunatelysometheseassumptionswerefalse.Forexample,itworked
onafalseassumptionthatallpowerswereinterestedinpeace.Thiswasamiscalculationbecause
countrieslikeGermanyandItalywhichwereledbyaggressivedictatorsweremorethanreadytog
oagainsttheobjectivesoftheLeagueofNationsandcreateinstabilityinEurope.Theywantedtoa
nnexterritoriesandalsoincreaseontheirarmamentamongotherdesire.Therefore,theycouldn
otbeloyaltotheLeagueofNations.

TheoutbreakoftheGreatEconomicDepressionin1929furtherweakenedtheLeagueofNations,
thuscontributingtoitsfailure.From1929,Europewasfacedwithadepressionbecausetherewer
emanygoodsbutlessmoneytopurchasethem.Thiseconomicdepressionunderminedthework
oftheLeagueofNationsofpromotinginternationalrelationsbecausecountriesimposedveryhig
htaxesontheimportsfromothercountriesandabolishedfreetrade.Thisincreasedenemityamo
ngtheEuropeanpowerswhichanyhopesforlastingpeaceinEurope.
Theideologicaldifferencesevenamongthevictoriouspowersthemselveswhichweremembers
oftheLeagueofNationsaffectedtheoperationoftheLeagueofNations.Forexample,therewaslit
tleco-
operationbetweencommunistRussiaandtheWesterncapitalistcountriesofEuropelikeFrance
andBritain.That’swhyRussiawasnotamemberoftheLeagueofNationsuntil1934.Above,allso
mestatesweredictatorialwhileothersweredemocratic.Forexample,FranceandBritainsupport
edthepoliciesofdemocracyyetItaly,Japan,GermanyandSpainweredespoticordictatorialcou
ntries.
ThemagnitudeoftheproblemsofEuropemadetheLeagueofNationsunabletosucceed.Betwee
n1920and1939,Europewitnessedseveralsocial,economicproblemswhichlargelyaresultofW
orldWarIandyettheLeagueofNationswassupposedtoaddressallofthem.Forexample,therew
asinflation,unemploymentaswellasarefugeecrisis.TheseproblemsoverwhelmedtheLeague
ofNationsthusmakingitunabletomaintainpeaceinEuropeupto1939.
TheappeasementpolicyofBritainandFrancecreateddifficultiesfortheLeagueofNationstooper
ate.Inthe1920sand1930s,BritainandFrancepursuedorpracticedapolicyofappeasementwhic
hwasbasedonthewrongassumptionofsatisfyingthetwoEuropeandictatorsofHitlerandMusso
linisoastopreventthemfromengaginginactsofaggressionandpreventtheoutbreakofanother
worldwarinEurope.Forexample,itwasbecauseofthispolicythatBritainandFranceallowedBeni
toMussolinitotakeoverEthiopiain1935.Unfortunately,thispolicyunderminedtheoperationoft
heLeagueofNationsbecauseitjustencouragedaggressionbyMussoliniofItalyandHitlerofGer
manywhichunderminedpeaceinEurope.
TheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939wasthefinalblowtotheLeagueofNations.Duetothefailureo
ftheLeagueofNationstoprotecttheindependentstates,AdolfHitlerofGermanyinvadedPolandi
n1939.Then,BritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermanyandthiswasthebeginningofWorldWa
rII.TheLeagueofNationswhichhadfailedtoaverttheoutbreakofthiswarwasdisbandedandrepl
acedbyUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)in1945.
Questions:
 WhydidtheLeagueofNationsfailtoachievetheaimsofitsfounders?
 “TheLeagueofNationswasboundtofailinachievingitsaims”Discuss.
 HowsuccessfulwastheLeagueofNationsasaninstrumentofpeaceintheinte
rwarperiod?

 TowhatextentwastheLeagueofNationssuccessfulasaninstrumentofpeac
ebetween1920and1945?
 ExaminethesuccesesandfailuresoftheLeagueofNationsbetween1920and
1945.
THERUSSIANREVOLUTIONSOF1917
Background
TheRussianEmpirestretchedfromtheBaltictotheBlackSeaandfromPolandtothePacificOcean
intheeast,coveringasixthoftheEarth’stotallandsurface.Itwasamultiracialempireconsistingof
manynationalitieslikethePoles,Latvians,Ukrains,FinsandtheMongolsamongothers.Theemp
irehadanautocraticorabsolutesystemofgovernmentknownasTsardomortheTsaristregim
eandbecauseofthistheleadersofRussiahadthetitleoftheTsar.By1917,Russiawasunderthele
adershipofTsarNicholasIIwhohadsucceededTsarAlexanderIIIin1894.However,in1917Rus
siawitnessedrevolutions.
TheRussianrevolutionswereviolentreactionsbythepeopleofRussiaagainsttheconservatisma
nddespotismoftheTsardomorTsaristRegimeinRussia.Therevolutionsweretwoi.e.oneinFebr
uaryorMarchandtheotheroneinOctoberorNovember1917.TheoneinFebruaryorMarch19
17overthrewTsarNicholasIIandthereforeledtothecollapseofTsardominRussia.Whatfollow
edwastheestablishmentofaProvisionalGovernmentoftheMensheviksledbyPrinceLvova
ndKerensky.TheoneofOctoberorNovember1917ledtothecollapseoroverthrowofthepr
ovisionalgovernmentandbroughtintheBolsheviksundertheleadershipofVladimirLenin.
NOTE:
TheRussianrevolutionof1917isalsoknownastheBolsheviksrevolutionof1917.
THECAUSESOFTHERUSSIANREVOLUTIONSOF1917
ThedespoticandharshnatureoftheTsaristregimecausedtheRussianrevolutionsof1917.TheT
sarsinRussiaweredictatorsandneverallowedanydegreeofdemocracy.Forexample,therewas
noconstitution,nofreedomofthepress,associationaswellasnoequalitybeforethelaw.Therew
asalsonofreedomofworshipbecausetheProtestantsandJewswerepersecutedwhiletheOrtho
doxChurchwasgivenmonopolyoverthereligiousaffairsoftheRussians.By1917,TsarNicholasI
Ihadrefusedanydemandforreformswhichgenerateddiscontentthatsparkedoffrevolutions.
TheriseofsocialistreformistorrevolutionarypartiesliketheBolsheviksandMensheviksledt
otheoutbreakoftheRussianrevolutionsof1917.Thesepoliticalpartiesspreadsocialistideasde
mandingforimprovementinthegeneralwelfareofthemasseswhichprovedtobeasolutiontope
oples’existingproblemslikeunemployment.Theythereforeinspiredthemassestoriseupin191
7.

ThenegativeeffectsofindustrializationcausedtheRussianrevolutionsof1917.Industrializatio
ninRussiabroughtaboutproblemslikelowpay,overcrowdinginfactoriesandpoorventilationa
mongothers.Italsoincreasedrural–
urbanmigrationwhichledtourbanunemploymentandthedevelopmentofslumswithpoorsanit
ationandaccommodation.TsarNicholasIIfailedtosolvetheaboveproblemsresultingfromindu
strializationwhichcauseddiscontentamongthemasses,thussparkingoffthe1917Russianrevo
lution.
TheweaknessesofTsarNicholasIIcontributedtotheoutbreakoftheRussianrevolutionsof1917
.Hewasweakincharacterandthereforelackedtheabilitytosolvethecountry’sproblems.Heacce
ptedtobeundertheinfluenceofhiswifetheTsarinaAlexandriawhopoorlyadvisedhimagainst
reformsinRussia.Hewasadictatorandthereforebannedpoliticalpartiesandtradeunionswhilet
heopponentsofhisregimewereeitherimprisonedorexiled.Healsocensoredthepressandpubli
cmeetingswerecontrolled.HealsoestablishedsecretpoliceknownastheChekaPolicewhich
wasverybrutalinsuppressingthemasses.Healsofailedtocurbdowncorruptionwhichwaswides
preadinhisgovernment.Asaresult,TsarNicholasIIbecameveryunpopularamongthemassesw
hichfinallycausedarevolutioninRussiaby1917.
ThenegativeinfluenceoftheTsarinaAlexandrialedtotheoutbreakofthe1917Russianrevolu
tions.ShewasthewifeofTsarNicholasIIbutshewasveryconservative.Asaresult,shealwayspo
orlyadvisedtheTsartointroducereformsthatwouldhaveimprovedtheconditionsoftheordinar
ymassesinRussia.ThisincreasedtheunpopularityoftheTsaristgovernment,thusforcingthem
assestoriseupin1917.
TheinfluenceofRasputincausedtheRussianrevolutionsof1917.Heclaimedtobeaholymanor
monkandapriest.Rasputinwasunsympathetictopeoples’sufferingyethehadalotofinfluenceo
nTsarNicholasII.HeadvisedTsarNicholasIItorefuseanydemandsforreformslikefreedomofsp
eech,worshipandassociation.Asaresultofthisnegativeinfluence,themassesdecidedtoorgani
zearevolutionagainstbothTsarNicholasIIandRasputinin1917.
TheeffectsoftheRusso–
JapaneseWarof1904to1905ledtotheoutbreakoftheRussianrevolutionsof1917.Followingt
heBerlinCongressof1878,RussianimperialismintheBalkanswaschecked.Consequently,Russ
iastartedexpandingeastwardswhichbroughtherintowarwithJapanby1904.Thiswarwasadisa
stertoRussiabecauseshewasdefeatedbyJapan,leadingtothedeathofmanyRussiansoldiersas
wellasfinanciallossesontopoflosingthestrategicPortArthurtoJapan.Thisincreasedinternalop
positionagainsttheTsaristregimeofNicholasIIwhichfinallysparkedoffarevolutionby1917.
TheRussianpolicyof“Russification”oftheconqueredstatescausedthe1917Russianrevoluti
ons.Forexample,theTsaristgovernmentunderTsarNicholasIIimposedtheRussianlanguageo
nthepeopleofPoland,Estonia,LatviaandFinland.ThisgeneratedhatredagainsttheTsaristgov
ernment,thuscausingarevolutioninRussiaby1917.

ThelandproblemcausedtheRussianrevolutionsof1917.By1917,therewasunequaldistributio
noflandinRussiawithmostofthelandownedbythearistocratsandtheOrthodoxChurch.Thisleft
thepeasantsinRussialandless,henceforcingthemtoriseupin1917soastobringaboutlandrefor
msthatwouldbenefitthepeasants.
ThenegativeeffectsofWorldWarIof1914-
1918onRussiacausedtheRussianrevolutionsof1917.Thiswasawarthatwasfoughtbetweent
wohostilecampsi.e.theTripleEntentepowersandtheiralliesledbyFrance,BritainandRussiaag
ainsttheTripleAllianceorCentralPowersledbyGermany,Austria-
Hungary,BulgariaandTurkey.ThiswarledtothedeathofmanyRussiansoldiersatthebattlefront
.Thegovernmentalsospentalotofmoneytofinancethewarwhichcausedeconomicproblemsat
home.TsarNicholasIIcontinuedwiththewardespiteoppositionathome.Asthewarprogressed,
thesoldierswerebeingforcedintothewarwithpoorandinefficientweaponspluslackoftraining.
Asaresult,mostofthemdiedandthosewhosurviveddesertedthearmyandjoinedthepeasantsin
causingtherevolutionby1917.
WorldWarIalsoresultedintothedestructionandoccupationoftheUkraineWheatfieldsbytheGe
rmanforcesandthiswasamajorsourceoffoodsupplyforRussia.Thisresultedintoshortageoffoo
dandunemploymentinRussia.Alltheseproblemsforcedthemassestoriseupagainsttheexistin
ggovernmentofTsarNicholasIIwhichhadmaintainedawarpolicy.
NaturaldisastersorcalamitiescausedtheRussianrevolutionsof1917.Forexample,since1912R
ussiawashitbybadweatherwithextremewinterwhichledtopoorharvestsandsubsequentlyfoo
dshortages.Thismadethegovernmentunpopular,thusforcingthepeasantstostagearevoltde
mandingforfoodandbetterstandardsoflivingby1917.
TheroleofLeninandtheBolshevikspartyinspiredthemassesinRussiatoriseupin1917.Lenindre
wtheattentionoftheworkingclasstotheirbadconditions.HewastheleaderoftheBolshevikspart
ywhichwasadvocatingforsocialisminRussia.Headvocatedfortheimprovementintheworkingc
onditionslikebetterpay,improvedfactoryconditionsinthefactories.Hethereforeofferedleader
shipwhichwasvitalinmakingthe1917Russianrevolutioninevitable.
TheinfluenceoftherevolutionaryideologiesfromWesternEuropeinspiredtheRussianstoriseu
pin1917.Revolutionslikethe1789Frenchrevolution,the1830and1848revolutionsinWesternE
uropespreadideologieslikeliberalismintotheRussiansociety.Suchideologiescriticizedthedes
poticpoliciesoftheTsaristregimeinRussia,thusencouragingthemassestoriseupin1917.
TheweaknessesoftheRussianparliamentcausedtheRussianrevolutionsof1917.By1917,Russ
iahadaparliamentwhichwasknownasthe“Duma”.However,thisparliamenthadseveralweak
nesses.Forexample,itfailedtobringaboutthedesiredreforms.Insteadofpressingforreformsth
eDumaorparliamentjustco-
operatedwithTsarNicholasIIinoppressingthemasses.Thiscauseddiscontentwhichfinallyspa
rkedarevolutionby1917.

Theinadequateorhalf–
heartedpoliticalandeconomicreformsintroducedbyTsarAlexanderIIledtotheoutbreakofthe
Russianrevolutionsof1917.HewastheTsarofRussiafrom1855to1881andduringhisregimeh
eintroducedmanyreformslikethe“Edictofemanicipation”of1861soastoliberatetheserfso
rpeasantsfromtheirlandlords,builtschoolsandrelaxedpresscensorshipamongotherreforms.
However,thereformswereinadequate.Forexample,thepeasantsorserfsdidnotenjoyrealfree
domandweredeniedsecondaryschooleducation.ThisannoyedthepeasantsespeciallywhenT
sarNicholasIIcontinuedwiththesamepolicy.
Theimpactofthe“RedorBloodySunday”of1905ledtotheoutbreakoftheRussianrevolution
sof1917.InJanuary1905,FatherGapon,ayoungpriestandfriendtotheworkersledabigcrowdof
peopletothe“WinterPalace”ofTsarNicholasIIinSt.Petersburg.ThedemonstrationbyFathe
rGaponwaspeacefulanditspurposewastodeliverapetitiontotheTsardemandingforreformslik
ebetterpayfortheworkersaswellasareductionintheworkinghours.However,theroyaltroops,a
ctingontheinstructionsofTsarNicholasII,blockedthedemonstrationandinsteadopenedfirean
dmanypeoplewerekilled.Thisannoyedthemassesandby1917,itmadearevolutioninevitable.
Thegrievancesofthearmyandpolicemadethegovernmentunpopularamongthesoldiers.Tsar
NicholasIIfailedtoimprovetheconditionsofthearmy.Asaresult,therewaspoorpayaswellasthe
continueddeathofthesoldiersduringWorldWarIamongothergrievances.Consequently,there
wasamutinyorrebellionoftheCossackswhichwasregardedbytheTsarasthemorereliablesup
porters.ThisencouragedtherestofthemassestoriseupagainsttheTsaristgovernment.
TheriseofsocialismandcommunisminRussiaincreasedtheunpopularityoftheTsaristregim
e,thusleadingtotheoutbreakofthe1917Russianrevolutions.Thesetwoeconomicideologiesad
vocatedforthestateownershipofpropertylikelandonbehalfofthemasses.Theyalsoadvocated
fortheimprovementintheconditionsoftheworkersintheindustriesandfactories.Theseideolog
iesthereforeattractedtheattentionofthemasseswhoweresufferingunderTsarNicholasII.Asa
result,theywereinspiredtojoinLeninin1917toseethatsocialismorcommunismisestablishedin
Russia.
ThesupportfromtheforeignorEuropeanpowerscontributedtotheoutbreakoftheRussianrevol
utionsof1917.TheEuropeanpowerslikeGermany,SwedenandSwitzerlandprovidedfunds,ma
npowerandarmstotherevolutionaryleadersinRussialikeLeninandTrostky.Suchsupportinspir
edtheRussianstoriseupagainsttheTsaristregimein1917.
TheweaknessesoftheProvisionalGovernmentledtotheoutbreakofthesecondrevolutiono
fOctober1917.Forexample,thenewleaderscontinuedwithfightinginWorldWarIasTsarNich
olasIIhaddone.Theleaderswerealsoweakintheirpoliciesandtheyfailedtosolvethesocialande
conomicproblemsthathadcausedtheMarchrevolutionlikeunemploymentandfoodshortages.
ThatiswhyinOctober1917,LeninandJosefStalinorganizedasecondrevolutionwhichoverthre
wtheProvisionalGovernment.
EFFECTSOFTHERUSSIANREVOLUTION(S)OF1917

ItmarkedtheendofTsardomanditsautocraticruleinRussiaaftertheresignationofTsarNicholas
II.On5thMarch1917,TsarNicholasIIwasadvisedtoleaveorabdicatethethroneafterthefirstr
evolutionandaccordingly,heabdicatedinfavourofhisgrandsonDukeMichael.However,theDu
kealsorefusedandthatmarkedtheendofTsardominRussia.
ItledtothewithdrawalofRussiafromWorldWarI.Aftertherevolutions,Russiasignedthetreatyo
fBrest–
LitovskwithGermanyinMarch1918bywhichRussiawasmadetowithdrawfromthewarandt
hisendedthesufferingthatthewarhadbroughttotheRussians.
Itledtotheriseofagovernmentofthepeasantsandworkers(Bolsheviks)inRussiaafterthecollap
seoftheTsaristregimeunderTsarNicholasII.
ItledtotheriseofnewmenofcommonoriginlikeTrotsky,VladimirLeninandStalininRussia.Thes
ementookoverleadershipinRussiaandintroducedanumberofreformsaimedataddressingthe
grievancesofthemassesthathadcausedthe1917Russianrevolution.
ItcausedconflictsbetweenRussiaandtheWesternPowers,thusleadingtotheisolationofRussia
fromEuropeandiplomacybetween1917and1934.By1917nearlyallthecountriesofWesternEu
ropewerefollowingcapitalismandthereforetherewasnowaytheywouldrelatewithRussiawhic
hwasfollowingthecommunistideologyafter1917.Asaresult,Russiamissedthechanceofjoinin
gthealliedpowersinmakingthepostWorldWarIsettlementof1919atVersailles.Thisfurtherexp
lainswhyRussiawasnotamemberoftheLeagueofNationsuntil1934.
SocialismandcommunismwereestablishedandentrenchedinRussia.Thisthereforeledtotheel
iminationofcapitalisminRussia.
Aftertherevolution,educationalreformswerecarriedout.Forexample,newschoolsweresetup
whiletheexistingoneswereimprovedupon.Suchreformsledtotheimprovementintheeducatio
nalstandardsinRussia.
ItresultedintoeconomicdevelopmentinRussia.ThenewgovernmentlaunchedtheNewEcono
micPolicy(NEP),throughwhichindustrialization,agricultureandtransportwereimprovedupon
,thusresultingintoeconomicdevelopment.
Aftertherevolution,Russiarepudiatedherforeigndebtswithothercountries.ThisenabledRussi
atoconcentrateonherdomesticaffairs.
TherevolutionendedtheexploitationofthepeasantsinRussia.Beforetherevolution,theRussia
npeasantswereexploitedthroughovertaxationaswellasforcedlabourwhichhadsubjectedthe
mtowidespreadmiseryandsuffering.WiththecollapseoftheTsaristregimein1917,thisexploita
tionwasended.
ItledtothelargescalelossoflivesinRussiaduringthedemonstrationsandafter.Forexample,itle
dtotheassassinationofTsarNicholasIIandhisroyalfamilyinJuly1918.

Similarly,therevolutionledtothedestructionofpropertyinRussia.Duringthecourseoftherevol
ution,alotofpropertywasdestroyedespeciallythepropertyofthenoblesandtheOrthodoxChurc
h.
ItledtotheestablishmentofanewconstitutionofRussia.Thisconstitutionseparatedthechurchf
romthestateaffairsandalsoendedthequestionoftheminoritiesinRussiathroughtheestablish
mentofequalityonallnationalitiesinRussia.Thisendedthesufferingthattheminoritieshadwitn
essedinRussiabeforetherevolution.
TherevolutionresultedintoreformsinthelocaladministrationofRussia.Forexample,localSovie
tsorCommitteeswereestablishedwhichwereelectedbyUniversalAdultSuffrage.
Itledtotheendoffeudalism,thusimprovingthelandtenuresysteminRussiaasallthelandwasn
ationalized.Aftercomingtopower,VladimirLeninnationalizedallthelandtobenefitthepeasants
.Landoriginallybelongingtothegovernment,OrthodoxChurchandtheprivatelandlordswasred
istributedtothepeasants.
ItledtothebirthandspreadofcommunisminEurope.ManyEuropeancountriesespeciallyinEast
ernEuropeadoptedcommunismlikeCzechoslovakia,PolandandBulgariaamongothers.
ItledtotheoutbreakofcivilwarsinRussiabetween1918and1921.Thiswasaresultoftheclashes
betweenthe“WhiteArmy”oftheanti–
communistsandthe“RedArmy”oftheBolsheviksorcommunists.Thecommunistsmanagedt
odefeattheanti–
communists.ThiscivilcrisisinRussiaafter1918resultedintofurtherlossoflivesandproperty.
Itledtotheabolitionofthesocio-
economicinequalitiesandclassdivisionsthathadexistedinRussia.Beforetherevolution,theno
blesandclergyhaddominatedalltheimportantpositionsintheTsaristgovernment.Aftertherev
olution,theaboveinequalitiesweredestroyedwhichestablishedequalityinRussia.Itwasthede
structionofthesocialclassdivisionsthatdestroyedbledmenofahumbleoriginlikeLenintocomet
opowerinRussia.
ItlaidafoundationforamodernRussiaespeciallyeconomically.RussiawastransformedintoaSu
perPowerfromapovertystrikenstate.Aftertherevolution,thesocialistgovernmentdevelopeda
numberofindustriesaswellasnationalizingtheprivateenterprises.ThatiswhyRussiasurvivedt
heGreatEconomicDepressionof1929to1933.
ItledtotheriseofFascisminItalyandNazisminGermanytofightcommunism.Bothideologieswe
reanoutcomeofthefearandhatredforcommunismespeciallyasthepropertyownersfearedthe
establishmentofcommunistgovernmentsinthosecountrieswhichwouldnationalizetheirprop
ertyasthecasehadbeeninRussiaafter1917.

ItledtotheestablishmentoftheOnePartySysteminRussia.AftertherevolutiontheCommunistP
artybecametheonlypartyallowedinRussiabylaw.ThisthereforedeniedpoliticallibertytotheRu
ssiansthroughpoliticalpluralismorMulti-Partism.
ItledtotheabolitionofreligioninRussia.Thiswasbecausebeforetherevolution,theRussianOrth
odoxChurchhadcollaboratedwiththeTsaristregimetooppressthemassesthroughpromotingr
eligiousintoleranceandthishadpartlycontributedtotheoutbreakofthe1917RussianRevolutio
n(s).
ItledtotheoverconcentrationofpoliticalpowerinthehandsofJosefStalinafterthedeathofVladi
mirLenin.JosefStalinsucceededVladimirLenininthe1924asthePresidentofRussiabuthec
oncentratedallpoliticalpowersinhishandsthusentrenchingdictatorshipinRussia.
ItledtothelossofRussianterritories.TheinternaldisordercausedbytherevolutionweakenedRu
ssiaandthereforeshelostherterritoriesorconqueredstateslikeGeorgia,Finland,EstoniaandLa
tviaamongothersafterWorldWarIastheybecameindependent.
REASONSFORTHESUCCESSOFTHERUSSIANREVOLUTION(S)OF1917
TheabdicationofTsarNicholasIIledtothesuccessofthe1917Russianrevolutions.On5thFebru
ary/
March1917,TsarNicholasIIabdicatedthethroneinfavourofhisgrandsonDukeMichael.Howe
ver,theDukeandotherprincesalsorefusedtotakeoverthethrone.ThismarkedtheendofTsarist
regimeinRussiawhicheventuallyledtothesuccessofthe1917Russianrevolutions.
Theweaknessesoftheprovisionalgovernmentledtothesuccessofthe1917Russianrevolutions
.ThisgovernmenthadbeensetupbytheMensheviksfollowingtheFebruary/
March1917RussianrevolutionbutithadsomanyweaknessesthatmadeitunabletogovernRussi
a.Forexample,thenewleaderscontinuedwiththewarpolicyjustasTsarNicholasIIhaddone.Th
eleaderswerealsoweakintheirpoliciesandtheyfailedtosolvethesocialandeconomicproblemst
hathadcausedtheFebruary/
Marchrevolutionlikeunemploymentandfoodshortages.ThisinspiredVladmirLeninandJosefS
talintoorganizeasuccessfulrevolutioninOctober/November1917.
TheexecutionoftheRomanovfamily(Tsar’sfamily)contributedtothesuccessoftheRussianrev
olution.InJuly1918,theRussianImperialRomanovfamily(TsarNicholasII,hiswifeTsarinaAlex
andria,andtheirfivechildren)wereexecutedbytheBolsheviks,bringinganendtothethree-
centuryoldRomanovdynasty.Thisthereforecontributedtothesuccessofthe1917Russianrevol
utions.
Thepopularsupportbythemassesalsocontributedtothesuccessoftherevolution.Whentherev
olutionbrokeout,itwassupportedbythevarioussectionsoftheRussiansocietybecausetheyhad
genuinegrievancesagainsttheTsaristgovernment.Therevolutionwasspearheadedbytheinte

llectualsandsupportedbythepeasantstogetherwiththeworkerswhicheventuallyledtoitssucc
ess.
TheunityamongtheRussiansenabledthemtosucceedin1917.TheywereunitedundertheBolsh
evikspartywithadeterminationtoestablishasocialistgovernmentinRussiawhichledtotheovert
hrowoftheTsaristgovernment.
Thesupportgivenbytheforeignpowersenabledtherevolutionariestosucceed.Therevolutiona
ryleaderslikeStalin,Trotsky,KerenskyandLeninsecuredfunds,manpowerandarmsfromsome
friendlycountrieslikeSweden,GermanyandSwitzerland.Germanyforexamplesupportedther
evolutioninordertocausechaosinRussiasothatitcouldwithdrawfromWorldWarIagainsther.T
hatiswhyGermanysmuggledLeninintoRussiainadisguisedtrain.GermanywantedLenintoove
rthrowtheprovisionalgovernmentandendthewarwhichhedidinOctober1917.
TheroleplayedbytherevolutionaryleaderslikeLenin,TrotskyandStalinwasvitalinthesuccesso
ftheRussianrevolutionof1917.Thesemenmobilizedandorganizedtheworkers,peasantsands
oldiersthroughtheirattractivespeeches.Forexample,Leninpromisedpeaceandfoodwhichear
nedhimsupportthatledtothesuccessoftherevolution.
ThesuccessoftheNewEconomicPolicy(NEP)contributedtothesuccessofthe1917Russianrevo
lution.ThiswastheofficialeconomicreconstructionprogramoftheSovietUnion(Russia)from19
21to1928.ThepolicywasintroducedbythenewSovietgovernmentin1921throughwhichindust
rialization,agricultureandtransportwereimprovedupon.Thisguaranteedtheprovisionofenou
ghfoodandfundswhichcontributedtothesuccessoftherevolution.
Thesupportfromthearmyledtothesuccessofthe1917Russianrevolution.By1917,theonlyrem
aininginstrumentfortheunpopularTsarNicholasIIwasthearmy.Unfortunately,whenthearmy
waspromiseanendtothewarbytheBolsheviks,theydecidedtojointherevolutionaries,thusleav
ingTsarNicholasIIpowerless.
ThesupportoftheminorityracesinRussiacontributedtothesuccessofthe1917Russianrevoluti
on.By1917,
RussiawasamultiracialempireconsistingofmanynationalitieslikethePoles,Latvians,Ukrains,
Fins,LithuaniansandtheMongolsamongothers.Theseminoritieshadbeensubjectedtoseveral
injusticeswhichprovokedangeramongstthemby1917.Forexample,theTsaristlanguagehadi
mposedtheRussianlanguageontothem.Theythereforedecidedtosupporttherevolutionwhen
itbrokeoutinbignumberswhicheventuallycontributedtoitssuccess.
TheincreasedeconomicdifficultiesinRussialedtothesuccessofthe1917Russianrevolutions.B
y1917,Russiawasexperiencingeconomicchaosorinstabilitycharacterizedbyinflation,increas
edfoodpricesandunstablewagesamongotherproblems.Theseproblemsprovokedangeramo
ngthecitizenswhichforcedthemtojointherevolutioninbignumberssoastobringaboutachange

intheirlivingconditions.ThiseventuallycontributedtothesuccessoftheRussianrevolutionsof1
917.
Theuseofviolencebytherevolutionariesmadetherevolutiontosucceed.TheRussianrevolution
ariesadoptedviolenceorthe“redterror”whichwasdirectedtowardsthosewhowereagainstther
evolution.Forexample,in1919over100,000peasantswereexecutedbytherevolutionaries.Thi
spolicyofterrorhelpedtoeliminateanyoppositiontotherevolution,thuscontributingtoitssucce
ss.
ThelargenumberoftheRedArmyagainstthesmallwhitearmycontributedtothesuccessofthe1
917Russianrevolution.Between1918and1921,therebrokeoutacivilwarinRussia.Thiscivilwar
wassparkedoffbytheclashesbetweenthe“WhiteArmy”oftheanti–
communistsandthe“RedArmy”oftheBolsheviksorcommunists.However,thecommunistsw
hohadaverybigarmymanagedtodefeattheanti–
communists.Thisthereforefacilitatedthesuccessoftherevolution.
Questions:
 TowhatextentwasTsarNicholasIIresponsiblefortheoutbreakoftheRussia
nrevolutionsof1917?
 AccountforthecollapseofTsardominRussiain1917.
 ExaminethecausesandeffectsoftheBolsheviksrevolutionof1917inRussia.
THEWEIMARREPUBLICINGERMANY(1919–1933)
Bytheendof1918,theGermanyandallheralliesorfriendshadbeendefeated.PublicopinioninGe
rmany,however,blamedthedefeatoftheircountryontheGermanEmperorKaiserWilliamIIand
therefore,thepopularfeelingwasthatheshouldbeoverthrown.Asaresultofsuchfeelingsandal
soduetotheinspirationfromthe1917Russianrevolution,theSocialDemocratsinGermanyor
ganizedarevolutioninNovember1918,whichoverthrewKaiserWilliamIIandforcedhimintoe
xiletoHolland.LaterinFebruary1919,theNationalAssemblyorparliamentdecidedtomeetint
heGermantownofWeimarandproclaimedordeclaredGermanyaRepublicwithanewdraftedc
onstitutionknownastheWeimarConstitution.TheSocialDemocraticPartyleaderFriedrich
EbertbecamethefirstPresidentofthisnewWeimarRepublicangovernmentup.Thisgovernme
ntstayedinpoweruntilJanuary1933whenPresidentHindenburgappointedAdolfHitlerasa
Chancellor.
FACTORSFORTHERISEOFTHEWEIMARREPUBLIC
ThedefeatofGermanyinWorldWarIfrustratedmanyGermannationalistslikeHitlerwhoof
tenremarkedthatGermanyhadnotbeendefeatedbutsimplybetrayedbytheincompetentKaise
rWilliamII’sgovernment,andthatGermanyarmywasstillstrongenoughtocontinuewiththewar
.Subsequently,widespreaddiscontentensuedinGermany,sincethewarhadbeensocostly.Suc
hNationalistswhosupportedwarsawnojustificationtosurrender.Tothiseffect,peoplelostconfi

denceinKaiserWilliamII’sgovernment,andpressedfortheabolitionofthemonarchyandtheest
ablishmentofarepublicinGermanyin1918.
ThenegativeeffectsofWorldWarIalsopavedwayfortheriseoftheWeimarRepublic.Kaiser
WilliamsII’sgovernmenthadchanneledenormousresourcesintothewarwhichdrainedstatetr
easuryandthereforeunderminedbothAgriculturalandindustrialproduction.Besides,by1918,t
healliedpowershaddestroyedGermanyeconomy,industry,agriculturalfieldsandevenitshum
anresources.Consequently,unemployment,inflation,famineandstarvationescalatedandsoo
nprovokedstrikesanddemonstrationsacrossBerlinandothertownsofGermany.TheGermans
becamesofrustratedbythedespoticgovernmentofWilliamandthehardshipscausingeveryrea
sonfortheestablishmentofademocraticallyelectedgovernmentwhichtheyhopedcouldallevia
teGermanmiseryanddesperations,hencetheWeimarrepublic.
TheriseofliberalismledtotheestablishmentoftheWeimarRepublic.Itwasalsofacilitatedbyt
hegrowthofliberalisminGermany.ForexampleevenbeforeGermansurrendered,severalGerm
ansadvocatedforademocraticallyelectedParliamentandliberalconstitutiontosafeguardtheir
politicalliberties.Theagitatorsofthistypeofgovernmentincreasinglycondemnedthegovernm
entKaiserWilliamIIforlackofdemocraticinstitutions.Itwasalsohopedthatperhapsthenewgov
ernmentwouldrestoretheinternalpoliticalsocialandeconomicordersinceitwouldbethegover
nmentofthepeopleandnotofabsolutedictatorship.
TheabdicationofKaiserWilliamIIandhissubsequentmovementtoexileinHollandleftapo
wervacuumwhichtheoppositioninGermanyexploitedtodeclaretheWeimarrepublic.Thiscam
eattheheightofincreasedstrikes,mutiniesanddemonstrations.Forexample,inOctoberamutin
yoccurredinGermannavy.Aroundthesametimeaseriesofviolentdemonstrationssweptacross
Berlin.Besides,thesocialistswhohadsupportedhimtodeclarewarin1914hadalsowithdrawnfr
omthegovernmentandwhileintheReichstag(parliament)tooktheleadindemandingforhisabd
ication.Hefinallysuccumbedtopressureandresignedon9 thNovember1918pavingwayforEber
t,asocialisttobecomethechancellor,hencetheriseoftheWeimarrepublic.
TheroleofRussianrevolutionof1917ledtotheestablishementoftheWeimarRepublicinG
ermany.TheGermanswereencouragedbythesuccessoftheRussianrevolutionof1917toovert
hrewKaiserWilliamIIandestablishtheWeimarrepublic.TheRussiansunderLeninhadsuccessf
ullywagedacommunistrevolutionthatoverthrewthedespoticandconservativeTsardomofNic
holasIIandestablishedapeople’scommunistgovernmentin1917.TheGermansledbythesocial
istdemocrats(socialists)werethereforeencouragedtothateffecttodislodgethegovernmentof
KaiserWilliam11inNovember1918andsubsequentlyestablishedanewRepubliccalledtheWei
marrepublic1919.
TheneedforconstitutionalruleinGermanyledtotheestablishmentoftheWeimarRepubli
c.OntheeveofWorldWarI,manyGermansdesiredconstitutionalanddemocraticsystemofrulei
nGermany.Theyresentedthedespoticandconservativeembodimentofmonarchismwhichdo
minatedtheGermanempireespeciallyfrom1870.E.g.,theydesiredanelectedgovernment,aso
pposedtohereditarymonarchicalgovernmentoftheemperors.Theyalsowantedanelectedparl

iamentasopposedtotheoneinfluencedbythekingandhischancellor,theyalsoresentedtheemp
erorsemergencedecreesthroughwhichheinstituteddictatorshipuntoGermans.Theyalsowan
tedindividuallibertiessuchasthefreedomofpressandassociation,freedomofworshipandtheri
ghttomeaningfuleducationasweretheBritishandFrenchsystems.Inspiredbysuchdesires,the
GermansoverthrewKaiserWilliamIIin1918andinstitutedademocraticallyelectedWeimarrep
ublicin1919
TheinfluenceofthealliedpowersledtotheestablishmentoftheWeimarRepublicinGerman
y.ThevictorpowersofWorldWar1alsofavoredtheestablishmentofarepublic.Inthefirstplace,t
healliesfoughtKeiser’sgovernmentpartlybecauseofKaiser’sadamancyanddespotism.By191
5,theallieswantedtoenddictatorshipinGermanysothattheycouldestablishasubmissivegover
nmentinGermanywhichamongotherthingswouldrelinquishcommunism,accepttoabandon
militarismandaggressionandgenerallyadheretotheirpolicies.ThisiswhyBritain,Franceandth
eUSAhighlybackedchaosinGermanythatoverthrewKeiserandalsosupportedtheconstituenta
ssemblymeetingsthatmadetheWeimarconstitution,whichledtothebirthoftheWeimerrepubli
cin1919.
TheroleofFrederickEbertledtotheriseoftheWeimarRepublic.TheriseofWeimarrepublicw
asalsoinpartfacilitatedbytheworkofFrederickEbert.Hewasamoderatesocialistwhousedthefo
rmerimperialarmytosilencethevariouscoupsattemptedbythecommunistsinGermanywhowa
ntedtoestablishcommunisminGermany.Ebert,wasalsotheonewhosetforththeformationofth
enewconstitutionatWeimarthatdeclaredtheWeimarrepublicinJanuary,1919.
ThefailureofthecommunistrevolutioninGermanyinitselffacilitatedtheriseoftheWeimar
Republic.Thecommunistsectionofthesocialists-
theSpartacus,ledbyKarlLiebknechtandRosaLuxemburgattemptedarevolutioninGermanyso
astoestablishcommunistgovernmentinRussia.OnJanuary6 th1919,theirsupportersnumberin
gabout100,000seizedcontrolofthemainpublicbuildingsinBerlin.ButthesocialistsandFreecor
pssuppresseditwithseveraldeathsincludingLiebknechtandRosaLuxemburg.Thus,thefailure
bythecommuniststoestablishacommunistgovernmentinGermanyimpliedthatthesocialistss
wiftlyestablishedtheWeimarRepublicinGermanyin1919.
TheroleofthesocialistgroupledtotheriseoftheWeimarRepublic.Thiswasthemostdomina
ntpartyinGermanyontheeveofKeiser’sresignation.E.g.asthemajoritymembersintheReichst
ag(parliament),theytooktheleadindemandingforKeiser‘sabdication.Ledbythesocialistminis
terNoske,thesocialistswiththehelpoftheFreeCorpssuppressedtheattemptedcommunistrev
olutionwhichwasmastermindedbytheNationalists.Thisessentiallyfacilitatedtheestablishme
ntofanewgovernment,Weimarrepublicin1919.
ACHIEVEMENTSOFTHEWEIMARREPUBLIC
TheWeimarRepublichelpedtofillthepowervacuumthatwascreatedaftertheabdicationofKais
erWilliamIIafterWorldWarI.On9thNovember1918,KaiserWilliamIIabdicatedorleftthethro
neandescapedtoHollandfollowingthedefeatofGermanyinWorldWarIbytheAlliedPowers.The

establishmentoftheWeimarRepublicthereforesavedGermanyfromtheinternalchaosordisord
erimmediatelyafterWorldWarIthathadbeencreatedbythepoliticalvacuumleftbehindbyKaise
rWilliamII.
ItsignedtheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919onbehalfofGermany.ThiswasatreatythatendedW
orldWarIanditwassignedbetweenGermanyandtheAlliedPowersthatincludedBritain,France,
RussiaandUSAamongothers.AlthoughthetermsofthistreatyweregenerallyunfairtoGermany
,itmarkedtheendofWorldWarIwhichpromotedpeaceinGermanyandEuropeasawholebetwe
en1919and1933.
Similarly,theWeimarRepublicattemptedtopromoteinternalstabilityduringitsreigninGerman
y.ImmediatelyafterWorldWarI,Germanydescendedintoinstabilityasthemassesorganizedde
monstrationsanduprisingsinresponsetotherampantsocialandeconomichardshipsarisingout
ofthewar.However,theWeimarRepubliccrushedsometheseuprisingswhichrestoredstabilityi
nthecountry.Forexample,itdefeatedtheGermancommunistsandtheBavarianswhowereorga
nizingrevolts,thusfurtherpromotingpeaceinGermany
ItrevivedtheGermanculturewhichpromotedtheGermannationalism.Forexample,itrestoredt
heoldGermanart,theatreandarchitecture.ItalsochangedthenationalflagandintroducedtheN
ewRepublicanflagconsistingofBlack,RedandGoldasitscolours.ThismadetheWeimarRepubli
cpopularatleastintheinitialdaysofitsreign.
TheWeimarRepublicrestoredparliamentarydemocracyandconstitutionalisminGermany.Th
eSocialDemocratswereveryeagertoseethatdemocracyisentrenchedinGermany.Consequen
tly,whentheymetintheGermantownofWeimarinFebruary1919,theyproclaimedGermanyaR
epublicwithanewdraftedconstitutionknownastheWeimarconstitution.Thisconstitutionp
rovidedforaparliamentarysystemofgovernmentinGermany,thuspromotingdemocracy.
ItsecuredforeignalliancesforGermanywhichprotectedtheGermaninterestsabroad.Forexam
ple,itsignedatreatywithRussiaknownastheSecretRusso–
GermanCollaborationof1921soastoprotecttheGermanmilitaryinterestsinEurope.Thisal
somadetheWeimarRepublicpopularinGermany.
ItpromotedliberalismandpoliticalpluralisminGermany.Thisisapoliticalsystemwheretwoorm
orepoliticalpartiesareallowedtocontestfornationalleadershipwithoutrestrictions.TheWeima
rconstitutionof1919allowedtheexistenceofseveralpoliticalgroupsorpartieswithequalrepres
entationintheGermanparliament.SuchpartiesincludedtheSocialDemocraticParty,theNaziPa
rtyandmanyothers.Thisgavethemassesachancetocompeteforpoliticalpower.
ItcarriedouteconomicreformsinGermany.ThesereformswereinitiatedduringthereignofGus
tavStresemann,theForeignMinisterupto1929.Theseeconomicreformsincludedthere-
buildingofindustriesthathadbeendestroyedduringWorldWarI,improvingagricultureaswella
sencouragingforeigninvestmentwhichsubsequentlyincreasedproductionaswellasexporttra

dethatfetchedGermanyforeignexchange.ThisthereforemadetheWeimarRepublicpopularin
Germanyespeciallyduringitsinitialdays.
ItalsostabilizedtheGermanycurrencyby1929throughcarryingoutcurrencyreforms.AfterWor
ldWarI,GermanywashitbytheproblemofinflationwhichmadetheMark(theGermancurrency)t
olosevalueby1923.Consequently,theWeimarRepublicissuedanewcurrencyknownastheRe
ntmarkinNovember1923whichwassuccessfulinstabilizingthecurrencyby1929.
TheWeimarRepublicreconciledGermanywithherformerWorldWarIenemiesofBritainandFra
ncethroughtheLOCARNOTreatiesof1925.TheseweresevenagreementsnegotiatedatLoc
arno,Switzerlandon5th–
6thOctober1925andformallysignedinLondonon1stDecember1925inwhichBritainandFra
nceagreedtonormalizetheirrelationswiththedefeatedGermany(undertheWeimarRepublic).
ThisthereforerestoredfriendshipbetweenGermanyandherformerenemies,thuspromotingin
ternationaldiplomacyinEurope.
Similarly,theWeimarRepublicsecuredGermany’sadmissionintotheLeagueofNationsin1926
.ThisentryofGermanyintotheLeagueofNationspromotedinternationalco-
operationbetweenGermanyandotherEuropeanpowersuntillaterwhenAdolfHitlercametopo
werandbecameaggressivewhichunderminedinternationalco-operation.
TheWeimarRepublicpersuadedthevictoriouspowerstoreducethewarreparationsthathadbe
enimposedonGermanybytheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919thatwassignedattheendofWorld
WarI.Thewarindemnityof6.6billionpoundswasreducedandpartofitwaspaidbytheWeimerRe
publicupto1933whichwasamajorachievementbythegovernment.
TheWeimarRepublicalsopersuadedthevictoriouspowerstoremovethearmyofoccupationfro
mGermany.ThisarmyofoccupationhadbeenstationedintheGermanterritoryoftheRhinelands
attheendofWorldWarItosafeguardFrancefromGermanaggression.However,throughtheeff
ortsoftheWeimarRepublic,thearmyofoccupationwasremovedandthisrestoredtheindepend
enceandnationalprideofGermany.
ItsecuredfinancialassistancefromabroadwhichenabledGermanytorecoverfromtheadversee
ffectsofWorldWarI.Forexample,itsecuredaloanof800MillionMarksfromUSAthroughtheDaw
esPlanofMay1924(namedafterGeneralDawes,theAmericanwhochairedthecommitteeth
atwasinchargeoftheseloans).Usingthismoney,theWeimarRepublicwasabletorehabilitateth
einfrastructuresthathadbeendestroyedbyWorldWarI.Forexample,itrebuiltrailways,bridges
,roadsaswellashousesforoverthreemillionGermanswhichwasamajorachievement.

TheWeimarRepublicsignedthefamousKelloggPactorTreatyof1928inPariswhichwasimp
ortantinpromotinginternationalpeaceandtheworkoftheLeagueofNations.Thistreatywasna
medaftertheAmericanSecretaryofStateF.W.KelloggwhoarrangedittogetherwiththeFrenc
hForeignMinisterAristideBriandandwassignedbysixtyfivestates,includingGermanyunder
theWeimarRepublic.Allthesignatoriestothispactrenouncedoroutlawedwarasaninstrumento
fnationalpolicy.Theythereforepledgedthemselvesnottofighteachotherexceptin“self-
defence”.ThisthereforepromotedpeaceinEurope,atleastintheyearsupto1929.
FAILURESOFTHEWEIMARREPUBLIC
ItacceptedtheharshandunpopularVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919.Rightfromthestart,theGer
mansblamedtheWeimarRepublicforhavingacceptedaharshtreatywhosetermshadgreatlyaff
ectedorhumiliatedGermany.ThisthereforeunderminedthepopularityoftheWeimarRepublic
andeventuallycontributedtoitscollapseby1933.
ItfailedtostopcivilstrifeandpoliticalunrestinGermany.DuringthereignoftheWeimarRepublic,
Germanywascharacterizedbypoliticalinstabilitywhichresultedintothebreakdownoflawando
rderinthecountry.Forexample,therewasthe1919Berlinstrikebythecommunists,the1920rev
oltoftheFreeCorps(warveterans)inBerlinaswellasthe1923attemptedcoupbyAdolfHitler.Simi
larly,GermanywascharacterizedbypoliticalassassinationsandviolencecarriedoutbytheStor
mTroopers(aNaziterroristsquadorgrouporganizedbyAdolfHitler’ssupporters).Thisunrestu
nderminedthepopularityoftheWeimarRepublicinGermany.
ItfailedtodefendGermanyagainstforeigninvasion.Forexample,in1923,theFrenchandBelgia
ntroopsoccupiedtheRuhrindustrialregionofGermanyintheRuhrValleytoensurethatthewarre
parationswerepaidingoodssuchascoalfromtheRuhrandotherindustrializedzonesofGermany
.ThisaffectedtheGermanyeconomy,thusincreasinginflationinthecountry.
ItfailedtoaddressorsolveeconomichardshipsinGermany.ImmediatelyafterWorldWarI,Germ
anylikemanyotherEuropeancountrieswitnessedeconomichardshipslikewidespreadunempl
oymentandincomeinequalitiesduetothedestructionofindustriesandfactories.Theseeconomi
cproblemsledtosocial–
economicinstabilityinGermanyinformofindustrialunrestorstrikesanddemonstrationsasthe
masseswantedtooverthrowtheWeimarRepublicwhichtheyblamedfortheirsuffering.Thisincr
easedtheunpopularityoftheWeimarRepublicinGermany.
ItpromotedtheJewishandAmericanculture(foreignculture)inGermanywhichleftmanyGerma
nsbitter.ThiswasdonebyencouragingJewishandAmericanArtistesandmusiciansintheGerma
ntheatreswhichincreasedtheunpopularityoftheWeimarRepublicinGermany.

ItfailedtocontainthecommunistforcesinGermany.Followingthesuccessofthe1917Russianre
volutionandthesubsequentestablishmentofcommunisminRussia,thecommunistideologyst
artedspreadingtotheWesternEuropeancountries,includingGermany.Consequently,thecom
munistsopposedtheWeimarRepublicfornotestablishingagovernmentlikethatoftheSovietUni
on(Russia)thathadbeenestablishedafterthe1917Russianrevolution.Theythereforeorganize
dstrikesagainsttheWeimarRepublicwhichincreasedviolenceinGermany.
ItfailedtocontroltheGreatEconomicDepressionanditseffects.Between1929and1935,Germa
ny,likemanyotherEuropeannations,wasexperiencingadevastatingeconomicdownturn,kno
wnastheGreatEconomicDepression.Thisdepressioncreatedseriouseconomichardshipsi
nthecountry.Forexample,banksandfactoriescollapsedwhichincreasedunemploymentandp
overtyinGermany.TheWeimarRepublicwasunabletosolvetheseproblemswhichincreasedits
unpopularityandeventuallyledtoitscollapseby1933.
TheWeimarRepublicfailedtorevivetheGermangloryandmilitarystrengthinEuropewhichhadb
eenreducedbytheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919.Asaresult,theWeimarRepublicwascharacte
rizedbymilitaryweaknessthroughoutitslifetimewhichmadeitunpopularamongtheGermanna
tionalistsandgloryseekers.
TheWeimarRepublicalsofailedtoliberatetheGermansintheoccupiedterritoriesorforeigncoun
trieslikeAustria,CzechoslovakiaandPolandandthisalsoincreaseditsunpopularityinGermany.
Question
Assesstheachievementsofthe1919–1933WeimarRepublic.
THECOLLAPSEOFTHEWEIMARREPUBLIC
ThegovernmentoftheWeimarRepublicfailedtomaintainitsholdonpower.Itwasoverthrownby
AdolfHitlerwhenhewasappointedChancellorofGermanyinJanuary1933.Thereasonsforthi
suntimelycollapseoftherepublicincludethefollowing:-
TheweaknessoftheWeimarparliamentarysystemledtothecollapseofthegovernment.Therep
ublichadaweakconstitutionbasedonproportionalorequalrepresentationwhereallpoliticalpar
tiesweretohaveafairrepresentationintheparliament.Unfortunately,thereweremanypolitical
partiesinGermanyandthereforenosinglegroupcouldeverwinmajorityvotes.Thisledtochaosin
theparliament,henceunderminingtherepublic.Italsohinderedprogressbecausenosinglepart
ycouldcommandoverallleadershiptocarryoutitsnationalprogrammes.Allthisincreasedintern
alviolencewhichunderminedtheinfantrepublic.
Rightfromthestartthe,theGermanmassesresentedtheWeimarRepublicduetothefactitaccept
edthe1919VersaillesPeaceTreatyimposedonGermanybythealliedpowers.Thistreatyhadver
yharshtermslikethedisarmament,thereparationaswellthewarguiltclausesamongotherswhic

hgreatlyaffectedGermanyandhence,acceptingitbytheRepublicwasconsideredbetrayal.This
madetherepublicunpopular,thusleadingtoitscollapse.
TheWeimarRepublicwasalsounpopularrightfromthestartduetothefact thatbythe1920’s,the
Germanshadnorespectforademocraticgovernment.Theyhadalongtraditioninthearmyofficia
lsandkingsastherightfulleadersofGermanybecausethepowerofsuchleadersespeciallythekin
gswasneverquestionedsinceitwashereditary.ThatiswhytheydisrespectedthedemocraticWe
imarrepublicandsupportedAdolfHitlerwhowasadictatortocometopowerin1933.
TheWeimarRepublicwasassociatedwithdefeatandhumiliationsinceitwasanoutcomeofthede
vastatingeffectsofWorldWarIonGermany.Therefore,theGermannationalistsrefusedtosupp
ortit.
TheeffectsofthealliedreparationscrippledtheGermaneconomyandledtoeconomichardshipsl
ikeunemploymentandmassivepovertywhichresultedintountoldsuffering.Theoppositionpart
ygroupsliketheNazitookadvantageofthismiserytomobilizethemassessoastoendtheWeimar
Republicsinceithadfailedtoaddresstheseproblems.
TherepublichadweakpoliticianslikeFriedrichEbertandlaterHindenburgwhofailedtodealwit
htheinternalproblemsofGermanylikeviolence.Uprisingsorganizedbytheoppositiongroupslik
etheCommunists,FreeCorpsandtheNaziunderHitlerbecametheorderoftheday.Thisinsecurit
ymadetherepublictolosepublicconfidenceinGermany.Theyalsolackedtheabilitytosolvethepr
evailingeconomicproblemslikeunemployment,henceleavingtherepublicunpopularwhichled
toitscollapse.TheonlystrongpoliticianofthetimewasGustavStresemann,theForeignMinist
erbutwhosuddenlydiedin1929.
TheEconomicDepressionthatsweptacrossEuropebetween1929and1935weakenedtheWei
marRepublicbywideningthescopeofitstroubles.Germanysufferedfromthenegativeeffectsof
thedepressionsuchasmassiveunemploymentandpovertyduetotheindustrialbreakdownthat
theWeimargovernmentfailedtoaddress.Thisstrengthenedthepropagandaoftheoppositiong
roups,especiallytheNaziunderHitler,whichenabledthemtoattractmasssupportthattheyeven
tuallyusedtodoawaywiththerepublicby1933.
TheweaknessoftheLeagueofNationsledtothecollapseoftheWeimarRepublic.TheLeagueofN
ationswasaninternationalorganizationthatwassetin1920afterWorldWarItopromoteWorldp
eaceanddemocracyamongotheraims.Duetoitsmilitaryandeconomicweaknesshowever,itfai
ledtodefendthedemocraticWeimarRepublicagainstitsenemieslikeAdolfHitlerwhoeventually
overthrewthegovernmentby1933.
TheriseofAdolfHitlerwithhisNaziPartyledtothecollapseoftherepublic.HitlerunderminedtheR
epublicbypromisingtodofortheGermanswhattheRepublicangovernmenthadfailedtodo.Fore
xample,hepromisedtorestoretheGermanglory,politicalstabilityaswellassolvingtheunemplo
ymentproblem.MostGermansacceptedthispropagandaandthereforetheysupportedhimtoo
verthrowtherepublic.HitleralsocarriedoutviolenceandmadeGermanyungovernable,thusfor

cingtheleadersoftheWeimarRepublictoappointhimChancellorinJanuary1933.Itwasfromthis
highofficethatheoverthrewtheRepublicandreplaceditwithadictatorialgovernment.
NOTE:
By1932,theWeimarRepublicwasabouttocollapseandtherefore,PresidentHindenburghadno
optionbuttoappointAdolfHitlerasthenewChancellorinJanuary1933.Hethoughtthatbyallowin
gHitlertojointhegovernment,thiswouldreducetheoppositionfromtheNazipartyandthusenab
letherepublictosurvive.Instead,AdolfHitleroverthrewtherepublicandhesetupaNazigovernm
entin1934.
Question
AccountforthecollapseoftheWeimarRepublicby1933.

NAZISMINGERMANY,1933-1945
NazismwasadictatorialpoliticalmovementorideologyinGermanythatwasestablishedbyAdol
fHitlerundertheNazipartyafterthecollapseoftheWeimarRepublic.Thispoliticalmovementle
dGermanybetween1933and1945whenAdolfHitlerandhisNazipartycontrolledthecountrythr
oughdictatorship.NazismsharedmanyelementswithItalianfascismthatwasestablishedbyBe
nitoMussolini.
AdolfHitler,whobecametheleaderofNaziGermanyupto1945,wasborninthetownofBrannaui
nAustriain1889toacustomsofficial.HeservedintheGermanarmyduringWorldWarI.Whenthe
warended,HitlerjoinedtheNationalSocialistGermanWorkers’PartyformedinJanuary1
919inMunichtown.ItsinitialmembershipwascomposedofthediscontentedpeopleinGermany
liketheunemployedanddemobilizedsoldiers.Givenhisoratoryorgoodspeakingskills,AdolfHitl
erquicklydominatedandeventuallybecametheheadofthisparty.ThepartylaterbecametheNa
ziPartyin1923.
AdolfHitlerpromisedtooverthrowtheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919whichhadhumiliatedGer
manyandtorevivetheGermanprestigeandpowerinEurope.AdolfHitleralwayscriticizedtheWe
imerRepublicblamingitforthesufferingoftheGermansandin1923heattemptedacoupagainstt
herepublicbutfailedandwassentencedtofiveyearsimprisonment,althoughreleasedafteronly
sixmonths.UnderAdolfHitler,theNazipartybecameverystrongtotheextentthatby1933,thestr
engthandthreatofHitler’sNazipartyforcedPresidentHindenburgtoappointhimasaChancellor
whichledtheNaziPartyandHitlerintopowerby1933.
FACTORSFORTHERISEOFADOLFHITLERANDNAZISMTOPOWERINGERMANY
ThefollowingfactorsexplaintheriseofAdolfHitlerandtheNazisminGermany;
ThenegativeeffectsofWorldWarIonGermanyledtotheriseofAdolfHitlertopower.Thew
arleftGermanyeconomicallyweakenedwhichcreatedmisery,confusionandgeneralturmoilint
hecountryandthisgavebirthtotheNaziparty.TheclimaxofWorldWarIwastheVersaillesPeaceT
reatyof1919,whichamongotherthingsforcedGermanytoacceptthewarguiltclause,toloseallh
ercolonies,hermilitaryandnavalstrengthandsomeofhercherishedterritoriesinEurope.Thishu
rtthenationalisticfeelingsofmanypatrioticGermanswhobecamediscontentedandvowedtoov
erthrowtheWeimarRepublicthatacceptedthesehumiliatingterms.TheNazipartyandHitlerhi
mselfexploitedthesegrievancestowinsupportfromthemasseswhichenabledhimtocometopo
wer.
TheweaknessesoftheWeimarRepublicledtotheriseofHitlertopower.Thiswastherepubl
icangovernmentthatwassetupinGermanyin1919followingtheresignationofKaiserWilliamIIi
n1918andhissubsequentescapetoHolland.Thegovernmentwascharacterizedwhichundermi
neditscredibility.Forexample,rightfromthestart,therepublicwasunpopularbecauseitaccepte
dtheharshandunpopularVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919.ThiswasquicklyexploitedbyAdolfHitl
ertoturntheGermansagainsttherepublicasheblameditforhavingacceptedaharshtreatywhos

etermshadgreatlyaffectedGermany.AdolfHitlerthereforepromisedtorebuildastrongGerman
ywithoutsuchhumiliationswhichunderminedtheWeimarRepublic,thusfacilitatinghisrisetopo
wer.
TheWeimarRepublicalsofailedtorestoreAlsaceandLorrainetoGermanywhichcreateddiscont
entamongtheGermanswhothereforedecidedtosupportAdolfHitler.Germanyhadgotthesepr
ovinceswhichwererichincoalandironfromFrancethroughwar.However,theywererestoredto
FranceattheendofWorldWarI.AdolfHitlerthereforecriticizedtheWeimarRepublicforthisbeca
usetheirexploitationwouldhavehelpedhertodevelopherindustriesespeciallythedisastrousW
orldWarI.ThisalsomadeHitlerpopularinGermany.
Besides,theWeimarRepublicfailedtocontroltheproblemofinflationwhichaffectedGermanyby
1923.GermanyhadlostmostofherindustriesduringWorldWarIandthiscreatedscarcityofgood
sinthecountry.TheGermaneconomywasfurtherweakenedbytheFrenchinvasionoftheRuhrin
dustrialregioninJanuary1923.Asaresult,thepricesofgoodsroseup.Thegovernmentprintedan
ewpapermoneywhichwasputincirculationsoastostabilizethecurrencybuttheproblemofinflat
ioncontinued.HitlerexploitedthistocriticizetheWeimarRepublicasweakandthereforehegotal
otofsupportwhichenabledhimtorisetopower.
TherepublicalsohadweakleaderswhofailedtostopviolenceinGermanysince1920.Asaresult,l
awandorderbrokedownthroughoutthecountry,hencemakingitpossiblefortheoppositiongro
upssuchastheNazipartytosucceed.By1933,PresidentHindenburgdecidedtoappointHitleraC
hancellor,hopingthathewouldusehimbothtostoptheviolenceandalsotomaintaintheWeimar
Republicinpower.Instead,HitlerexploitedsuchweaknesstocapturepowerinGermany.
ThefearorthreatofCommunismledtotheriseofHitlerandNazisminGermany.Nazismwaso
pposedtocommunismasaneconomicsystemwhichadvocatedforthestatecontrolofbusinesse
sandgivingmuchpowertotheworkers.Thisfearthereforeforcedtheindustrialistsandotherwea
lthyGermanstosupportAdolfHitlerandtheNazipartytocometopowersoastoprotecttheirprivat
epropertyorwealth.
TheEconomicDepressionof1929–
1935createdconditionsthatfavouredtheriseofAdolfHitlerandNazism.Between1929and193
5,theworldwasexperiencingadevastatingeconomicdownturn,knownastheGreatEconomi
cDepression.ThenegativeeffectsofthisGreatEconomicDepressionlikemassiveunemploym
entandpovertyduethecollapseofbanksandindustriescreatedmiseryorsufferingwhichincreas
edthepopularityoftheNazipartyasHitlerblamedtheWeimarRepublicforallthesufferingthatth
eGermansweregoingthrough.Asaresult,manyangryGermanssupportedHitlerandtheNazipa
rtytocometopowerhopingthattheywouldsolvetheproblemscausedbythedepression.
TheroleoftheNaziStormTroopersortheBrownshirtsenabledHitlertorisetopower.Thiswa
saNaziterroristsquadorgrouporganizedbyHitler’ssupporterslike ErnestRoehm.Theyprom
otedviolenceinthecountryandintimidatedtheenemiesoftheNaziideologysuchastheJewsand
communists.ThisweakenedtheWeimarRepublicandforcedtheGermanstosupportAdolfHitler

andhisactivities.Indeed,theirpresenceinthe1932parliamentaryelectionsintimidatedthevote
rswhoendedupvotingfortheNazirepresentatives,givingthem107seats.Itwasalsotheirthreat
stoPresidentHindenburgthatforcedhimtoappointHitlerasChancellorin1933.
ThelackofexperienceinparliamentarydemocracyunderminedtheWeimarRepublic,thusenabl
ingAdolfHitlertorisetopower.Traditionally,theGermansloveddictatorshipandthereforewere
usedtotheauthoritariangovernmentsofthekingsandthepowerofthekingswasrarelyquestion
edsinceitwashereditary.SomeGermansthereforeconsidereddemocracywhichwasbeingcher
ishedbytheWeimarRepublicasaweakformofgovernmentnotfitfortheGermannation.Asaresu
lt,theysupportedtheautocraticHitlertocometopower.
TheinfluenceoftheNazipropagandafacilitatedtheriseofHitlertopower.TheNazipartycar
riedoutanextensivepropagandacampaignusingallthemeansattheirdisposal.Intheircampaig
ns,theyaccusedtheJewsforbeingnon-
German,corruptaswellastraitorswhobetrayedGermanyinWorldWarI.Theyalsodenouncedth
ecommunistsforbeingrevolutionaryandtheVersaillesPeaceTreatyforhumiliatingGermany.T
hepropagandawascarriedoutthroughnewspapersandpublicrallies.Withsuchcampaignlandi
ngintotheearsofpeoplewhowerealreadydiscontented,theNazipartyunderHitlergainedalotof
supportfromtheGermanpopulationwhichenabledittocometopower.
Hitler’swritingsfacilitatedhisrisetopower.Thiswasbecausetheywereinlinewiththeinterest
softheGermanpeople.Forexample,whileinprisonin1923,hewroteabook,“MeinKampf”-
meaning“MyStruggle”whichbecametheNaziBible.Inthisbook,Hitlerpromisedtoaddressth
eproblemsthatGermanyfacedafterWorldWarIaswellastocreateagreatGermanempirecoveri
ngEuropeandRussia.Throughhiswritings,HitlerprovidedhopetotheGermanpopulationthatw
asforlonginastateofdespairormisery.Thisthereforemadehimpopularhimpopularamongthe
Germans.
ThepopularityoftheNaziIdeologyalsofacilitatedtheriseofHitlertopower.TheNazihadthe“
Twenty-
fivepointProgramme”thatadvocatedforGermannationalism,eliminationoftheJews,territ
orialexpansionbyGermany,improvingtheconditionsofthepoorandthelowermiddleclassamo
ngothers.ThisattractedmasssupporttotheNazipartywhichenabledHitlertocometopowerby1
933.
Hitler’sspecialpersonalityandoratorypowerassistedhimtorisetopower.Hitlerwasgifte
dwithlanguageandoratoryskillswhichcapturedtheattentionofverymanyGermansespeciallyt
hediscontentedpeople.Throughsuchskills,heconvincedthemembersoftheNationalSocialist
GermanWorkers’partytoappointhimastheirleaderin1920whichwasasteppingstoneforhisris
etopower.Inaddition,asagoodmobiliser,Hitlermobilisedthemassesthroughpublicralliesand
propagandacampaignswhichearnedhimalotoffameandsupportthatledtohisappointmentast
heChancellorofGermanyin1933.

ThesupportofthearmyenabledAdolfHitlertorisetopower.TheNaziPartyunderHitlerwonadmir
ationfromthearmymenandWorldWarIveteransbecauseitadvocatedfortherevivaloftheGerm
angloryinEurope.ThesearmymenthereforesupportedAdolfHitlertocometopowerinGermany
by1933soastocreateastrongGermanyonceagain.
TheweaknessofhisopponentsenabledHitlertocometopowerinGermany.Alltheanti-
NazigroupslikethecommunistsandJewswereweakandevenfailedtouniteagainsttheNaziPart
yunderAdolfHitler.Asaresult,therewaslackofeffectiveoppositionagainstAdolfHitlerwhichpa
vedwayforitsrisetopowerinGermany.
ThesupportfromthepressinGermanyenabledAdolfHitlerrisetopower.Thenewspapers,maga
zinesandotherpublicationsextensivelycoveredAdolfHitler’spoliticalrallieswhichmadehimpo
pularamongtheordinaryGermans.ThisthereforeincreasedAdolfHitler’spopularityinGermany
whichhelpedhimtocometopowerby1933.
Hitler’snegativeattitudetowardstheJewswasresponsibleforhisrisetopowerinGermany.Adolf
HitlerhatedtheJewssomuchandthereforeheaccusedthemofmanycrimeslikebetrayingtheGe
rmanpeopleinWorldWarIaswelltheeconomicproblemsinGermanybythen.ThiswonAdolfHitl
ermasssupportinGermanyespeciallyfromtherichmiddleclassandnationalistswhichenabledhi
mtocometopowerby1933.
TheweaknessoftheLeagueofNationsledtotheriseofHitlertopower.TheLeagueofNationswhic
hwaseconomicallyandmilitarilyweakfailedtodefendthedemocraticWeimarRepublicagainstit
senemieslikeAdolfHitlerduetoitsmilitaryandeconomicweakness.Suchweaknesswaseventua
llyexploitedbyAdolfHitlertooverthrowtheWeimarby1934.
TheriseBenitoMussoliniinItalyin1922wasalsoresponsiblefortheriseofHitlerinGermany.Thes
uccessofBenitoMussoliniinoverthrowingtheliberalItaliangovernmentunderKingVictorEmm
anuelIIIin1922greatlyinspiredhiscomradeAdolfHitlertoalsooverthrowthedemocraticWeima
rRepublicinGermany.Thisthereforefacilitatedhisrisetopowerby1933.
ThedeathofPresidentHindenburgin1934directlybroughtAdolfHitlertopowerinGermany.Heb
ecamethePresidentoftheWeimarRepublicin1925followingthedeathofPresidentFriedrichE
bertandhiswasthelastleaderoftheRepublic.EarlierinJanuary1933,hehadappointedAdolfHitl
erChancellorofGermanysoastosatisfyhispoliticalambitions.WhenhediedinAugust1934,Adol
fHitlertookoverthetwooffices,thusofficiallycomingtopower.
NOTE:
AdolfHitlerwasappointedChancellorinJanuary1933butPresidentHindenburgremainedtheH
eadofState.WhenPresidentHindenburgdiedinAugust1934,AdolfHitlertookoverthetwooffice

s.HethenruledGermanyfrom1934upto1945whenGermanywasdefeatedbytheAlliedPowers
duringWorldWarII.
HOWADOLFHITLERCONSOLIDATEDHIMSELFINPOWER,1933-1945
HitlerappliedseveralmeansespeciallydictatorialonestoretainpoweruntilthetimeofWorldWar
II.Theyincludedthefollowing:-
HecentralizedpowerwhileincontrolofGermany.Heorganisedelectionson5thMarch1933by
whichhecentralisedpowersofadministration.Hesuppressedthecommunistsandallotherparti
esexceptNazi.Heblamedthecommunistsforbeingtooviolentincharacteranddemocratsforbei
ngweakpolitically.ThismadeHitlerarealdictatorinGermany.FollowingthedeathofPresidentHi
ndenburgon2ndAugust1934,HitlerbecamebothPresidentandChancellorofGermanyandthe
reforeallauthoritytogovernGermanyrestedinhishandsandafewofhispartymembers.
HitlermadeeffortstoestablishnationalunityinGermany.Heabolishedtheseparateprovincialgo
vernmentsinfavourofapowerfulcentralgovernment.Hethereforeestablishedonepartyruleun
dertheNaziPartyandabolisheddemocracyforthesakeofnationalunity.
HitlerenrolledmanyyounggirlsandboysintohisNaziparty.Thishelpedhimtostrengthenhisposi
tionsincetheirpopulationwasbiginGermany.Thiswasthroughencouragingtheformationofyo
uthmovementsliketheGermanMaidensforgirlsandHitler’sYouthsforboys.TheNaziParty
thereforehadmanysupporterswhichhelpedAdolfHitlertoconsolidatepowerinGermany.
Hecrashedtheoppositionwhichhelpedhimtoconsolidatepower.Hitlerhatedcriticismandoppo
sitiontohispolicies.Asaresult,hesetupaspecialNazipoliceknownasthe“Gestapo”.Usingthiss
ecretpolice,thepoliticalsuspectsandenemiesofhisregimewereeitherimprisonedorkilled.Som
eofthevictimsofHitler’sterrormethodswerehisassociateswhohadtirelesslyservedtheNazipar
tylikeErnestRoehm.Thesewereshotbyfiringsquad.ThishelpedhimtogainfirmcontroloverG
ermany.
Similarly,HitlerdissolvedallthetradeunionsinGermanyinJune1933.Thesetradeunionsrepres
entedtheinterestsoftheworkersyettheprivatebusinessmenhatedthegrowingpowerofthewo
rkers.Hitlerfurtherreducedtheirpowerbyconfiscatingtheirfundsaswellasimprisoningoftheirl
eaders.Thismadehimpopularespeciallyamongtheindustrialists.
HeusedpresscensorshiptoconsolidatepowerinGermany.Hitlersuppressedpublicopinionthro
ughcensoringthemeansofcommunicationlikenewspapers,radiobroadcasting,music,drama,
paintings,publicfilmsandbooksinschools.OnlyPro-
NazinewspapersandpublicationswereallowedtocirculateinGermany.Forinstance,in1935allt
heforbiddenbookswithanti-
NaziideaswerecollectedanddestroyedinahugebonfireinBerlin.Similarly,teachers,Professors
andreligiousleaderswerewarnedagainstspreadinganti-Naziideas.

HitlerconsolidatedpowerinGermanythroughthepersecutionoftheJews.HitlerhatedtheJewsa
ndaccusedthemofhavingbetrayedtheGermanpeopleinWorldWarI.Bythe NuremburgLaw
sof1935,HitlerembarkedonthesystematicpersecutionoftheJews.Hebeganbydenyingthem
GermancitizenshipandpreventingthemfromintermarryingwithGermans.Attheheightofhisp
ower,theJewswerepersecutedforheavycrimessuchasfailuretoshowsolidaritywiththeGerma
narmyinwareffort.HealsosetupconcentrationcampswheremanyJewswereconfinedandtort
ured.Bydoingso,theGermansthoughtthatHitlerwassolvingtheirproblemswhichthereforeear
nedhimalotofsupportathome.
HemodernizedtheGermanarmyandgaveitanationaloutlook.HeadmittedonlyGermanpeoplei
ntothemilitaryserviceandeliminatedforeigninfluences.HeincreasedthesizeoftheGermanar
my,acquiredmodernweaponsandalsoexpandedthenavyandairforces.Thisarmysilencedinte
rnaloppositionwhichhelpedHitlertoconsolidatepower.ThearmypromotedGermaninterestsa
broadwhichequallymadeHitlerpopular.Thesemilitaryreformshoweverwereaviolationofthetr
eatyofVersaillesof1919andwerestronglyopposedbytheotherpowerslikeBritainandFrance.Hi
tlerdidnottakeheedoftheinternationalcallsfordisarmament.Suchapolicythereforeledtointer
nationalantagonismandsubsequentlysparkedoffWorldWarII.
HedealtwiththeCatholicChurchsoastoconsolidatepower.Thoughhesubjectedthechurchtost
atecontrol,HitlermadeacompromisethroughsigningatreatywiththePopein1933bywhichthec
atholicpriestswouldtakenointerestinpolitics.Hitlerwouldthereforeinterfereinthereligiousma
tters.Catholicchurcheswerehowevergiventherighttoruntheirreligiousinstitutionsandimpart
educationintheirownway.ThesereformshoweverdidnotpleaseallCatholicsandtheiroppositio
nagainstgovernmentcontinued.Inreturn,HitlercontinuedtopersecutetheCatholicsinorderto
consolidatehispower.
HeestablishedfullstatecontrolovereducationalinstitutionsinGermanyinordertopromotetheN
aziideologywhichwasthestrongestinstrumentofhispower.Intheschools,HitlerspreadtheNazi
propagandathroughchangingtheschoolcurriculumsoastosuittheNaziprinciples.Hetherefore
usededucationtobrainwashthemindsoftheGermanssothattheymightwalkinhisfootsteps.Thi
senabledhimtoconsolidatehispositionbutleftmanydissatisfiedwithhispolicies.
Hitlerinitiatedmajorinfrastructuralprojectsofpublicworks.Theseprojectsincludedthebuildin
gofgovernmentoffices,stadiums,artgalleriesaswellashousingdevelopments.Heconcernedh
imselfpersonallyinthearchitecturaldesignsfortheseprojects,pickingAlbertSpeerashisfavo
uriteassistant.Amongtheseweretheenormousstadiumsandmeetinghallsbuiltontheoutskirts
ofNuremburgtownfortheannualpartycongresses.ThisearnedHitlermassivesupport.
HitlerintroducedeconomicreformswhichpromotedeconomicdevelopmentinGermany.Facto
riesweresetuptoprovideemploymentopportunitiesandactsorlawswerepassedtoimprovethe
labourconditions.WiththehelpoftheGermanscientists,arms,ammunition,steamshipsandaer
oplanesweremanufacturedinGermany.HealsorestrictedimportssoastoprotecttheGermanin
dustries.TheJewswereexpelledfromthegovernmentjobsandreplacedbyGermans.Allthisledt
oeconomicprosperityandthereforeincreasedthepopularityofAdolphHitler.

Similarly,HitlerdevelopedtheagriculturalsectorinGermanythroughintroducinganumberofre
forms.Forexample,herecognizedthesuccessfulfarmerswhichincreasedtheirmorale.Healsoe
xtendedcreditfacilitiestothefarmerswhichenabledthemtofinancetheiragriculturalactivities.
Thisincreasedtheproductionofagriculturalgoodswhichmadetheeconomyself-
sufficientespeciallyintermsoffoodproduction.ThisalsomadeHitlerpopularinGermany.
Heusedtheforeignpolicytoconsolidatepower.Inhisforeignpolicy,AdolfHitlerwasdeterminedt
oreversetheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919whichhadhumiliatedGermany.Consequently,whe
nhecametopowerheviolatedthetreatyofVersaillesbyre-
armingGermany.Hewentaheadandre-
occupiedtheRhinelandsin1936whichhadbeendemilitarized,annexedAustriain1938andalsoc
onqueredCzechoslovakiainMarch1939.HitlerthereforetriedtocreatethelargeandstrongEmpi
reinEuropewhichhehadpromisedtotheGermanswhichincreasedhispopularity.However,this
aggressiveforeignpolicysparkedoffWorldWarIIbecausewhenHitlerattemptedtoannexPolan
dinSeptember1939,BritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermanysoastodefendtheirallyPoland
.
HeexploitedthepolicyofappeasementtorestorethepowerofGermanyinEuropewhichhelpedh
imtoconsolidatepowerinGermany.Inthe1930s,thePrimeMinisterofBritainNevilleChamber
lainandthatofFranceDeladierhadresortedtopleasingAdolfHitlerhopingthathewouldstophi
sactsofaggression.Forexample,whentheylefthimtooccupyAustriain1938,heusedthisopport
unitytooccupyCzechoslovakiainMarch1939.ThismadetheGermanstoconsiderHitlerasveryst
rongandthereforetheysupportedhim.
HitleralsousedalliancestostrengthenhisdiplomaticrelationswithotherEuropeanpowers.Fore
xample,in1935heenteredintoanalliancewithBenitoMussoliniknownastheRome–
BerlinAxis.ThisalliancewaslaterjoinedbyJapantoformtheRome–Berlin–
TokyoAxis.TheseallianceshoweverrevivedthealliancesysteminEuropewhicheventuallyled
totheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.
NOTE:
Hitlercommittedsuicidein1945,duringthecourseofWorldIIandhediedwithmostofhisstaunch
supporters.
Question
AssesstheachievementsofAdolfHitler’sregimeinGermanybetween1933and1945.

FASCISMINITALYANDTHERISEOFBENITOMUSSOLINI,1922-1943
FascismwasanItaliandictatorialandanti-
communistmovementorpoliticalsystemdevelopedbyBenitoMussoliniafter1919.Itderivedits
namefromtheword“fasces”whichreferredtoabundleofsticksaroundanaxe,thesymbolofsta
tepowerintheAncientRomanEmpire.Inshort,Fascismexpressesanextremedictatorialpolitica
lsystemandthereforeafascistisadictator.
In1871,theunificationofItalywascompletedandtheItaliansestablishedaliberalorconstitution
algovernmentwithVICTOREMMANUELIIasthekinguptohisdeathin1878.Hisgovernment
hadaparliamentandaconstitutionwhichallowedthedifferentpoliticalgroupstooperateandthe
ywererepresentedintheparliament.However,liberalismwasviolatedwhenMussolinirosetopo
werinItalyandreplaceditwithFascism,aoneman’sdictatorshipthatturnedItalyintoafasciststat
e.
BENITOMUSSOLINI(1922-1943)
Mussoliniwasbornin1883inRomagna-
ItalytoaBlackSmith.Hewasawelleducatedmanandgraduate.In1904,hejoinedamilitaryschoo
linItalyandin1915hefoughtinWorldWarI.In1921,hefoundedtheNationalFascistPartyan
dheadoptedtheBlackShirtUniformwhichwastheuniformofthesoldiersthathadservedinW
orldWarI.

Mussolini’sFascistpartygotseatsintheparliamentofItalyandwhiletheretheydemandedforrep
resentationingovernment.ThegovernmentrefusedandinOctober1922,Mussoliniandhisar
myinvadedRome.KingVictorEmmanuelIIIrefusedtoresistMussoliniandhismenandinstea
dheallowedhimtobecomethePrimeMinisterandrequestedhimtoformagovernment.AsaPrim
eMinisterofItalyfrom1922to1943,Mussolinicreatedafasciststate.Heabolishedalltheoppositi
ongroupsandtheItalianparliamentcollapsed.Therefore,liberalItalyhadfallentoFascism.
FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHERISEOFFASCISMANDBENITOMUSSOLINIINITALY:
ThefearofthespreadofcommunismbythecapitalistsledtotheriseoffascisminItaly.Thebusines
smen,governmentofficialsandlandownershadfearforcommunismwhichadvocatedforthesta
tecontrolofbusinessandgivingmuchpowertotheworkers.Mussoliniopposedcommunismandt
hereforetheygavehimfinancialsupporttocreateastronggovernmentthatwouldreducethepoli
ticalpowersoftheworkingclassandputanendtothestrikesoftheindustrialworkers.
ThecauseforwhichfascismstoodforledtoitsriseinItaly.Mussoliniandhisfellowfascistsoftensp
okeabouttherestorationofthegloryorprestigeandmilitarystrengthoftheAncientRomanEmpir
e.TheyarguedthattheempirehadcoveredagreaterpartofEuropeandNapoleonIhadledtoitsco
llapsein1797.ThedreamofrevivingtheEmpireattractedtheattentionofthearmyofficersandna
tionalistswhoprovidedsupporttoMussolini’sfascism.Fascismalsostoodforthecreationofastro
ngortotalitariansystemofgovernment,aonepartystateandself–
sufficiencyintermsoffoodandmanufacturedgoodswhichmadeitpopularamongtheItalians,h
enceexplainingitsrise.
ThefrustratednationalismcharacterizedbythefailuretogetcoloniesbyItalyledtotheriseoffasci
smandMussolini.Forexample,ItalyhadfailedtogetEthiopiaandinsteadshewasdefeatedatthe
BattleofAdowaof1896.ShealsolostTunisiatotheFrenchin1882aswellasEgypttoBritainin1
882.MussolinithereforeusedthistopromisethathewastocreateastrongItalywithoutsuchhumi
liation.
ThedisappointmentarisingfromtheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919ledtotheriseoffascisminItal
y.DuringWorldWarI,ItalywaspromisedterritoriesbylikeTrentino,TyrolandTriesteamongoth
erswhichwerenotgiventoherattheendofthewar.Similarly,theItaliansexpectedalotofcompen
sationintheVersaillesPeaceTreatyhavinglost700,000menduringWorldWarI.However,they
werenotgivenanyshareontheGermanandAustrianpossessionsorcoloniesandthereforetheyf
eltcheatedbyVersaillesPeaceTreaty.Asaresult,Mussoliniandhissupportersstarteddemandin
gforsuchsharesandthereforetheygotalotofsupportespeciallyfromthewarveterans.

ThenegativeeffectsofWorldWarIonItalyledtotheriseoffascisminItaly.Thiswarbrokeoutin19
14followingthemurderofanAustrianprinceArcdukeFerdinandandhiswifeSofie.In1915,Itlayj
oinedthewarandfoughtonthesideoftheTripleEntentPowersupto1918whentheCentralPower
sledbyGermanyweredefeated.ThewarleftmanynegativeeffectsonItalywhichcreatedcircum
stancesthaledtotheriseofFascismandBenitoMussolini.Forexample,itcreatedaveryhighlevel
ofunemploymentwithover2.5millionex-
servicemen,inflation,decliningstandardsoflivingandgeneralpoverty.Thegovernmenthadals
oborrowedheavilyfromUSAwhichcreatedaneconomiccrisisinItalyasthegovernmentstruggle
dtorepaytheloans.ThoseItalianswhowereaffectedthoughtthattheliberalgovernmentwasno
tcaringforthemandthereforetheyjoinedthefascistpartyofMussoliniwhichtheythoughtwould
solvetheirproblems.
ThefailureoftheparliamentarysystemofgovernmentinItalyledtotheriseoffascism.AlthoughIt
alyhadaliberalgovernmentwithaparliament,thegovernmentlackedconsistencyinpolicymaki
ngduetothepresenceofmanypoliticalpartiesthatdominatedtheparliament.By1921,there
wereninepoliticalpartiesandtheyincludedtheSocialists,Liberals,Nationalists,Communists,C
atholicPopularPartyandtheFascistPartyamongothers.Thesystemthereforepreventedtheexi
stenceofastronggovernmentinItaly.AsaresultmanyItaliansjoinedMussolini’sfascistparty,th
usleadingtotheriseoffascisminItalyby1922.
ThecivilunrestinItalyledtotheriseoffascisminItaly.Between1919and1920,therewasawaveof
strikes,riots,lootingofshopsaswellastheoccupationoffactoriesbytheworkers.Thiswascause
dbythewidespreadunemploymentinthecountry.Forexample,therewasTurinfactorywhich
wastakenoverandinSouthernItaly,theSocialistLeagueofworkerscapturedlandfromthewe
althylandlordsandtheyalsosetupco-
operatives.ThefailurebytheItaliangovernmenttostopthisunrestorinternalviolenceandprote
ctthepropertyofthewealthygroups(church,landlordsandindustrialists)madethemtosupport
thefascistswhomtheyhopedtoputanendtothisdisorder.
ThepersonalityofBenitoMussoliniledtotheriseoffascisminItaly.Bycharacter,hewasagoodora
tororspeakerandorganizerwithalotofauthority.Hecriticizeddemocracyasaweakformofgover
nment.Asajournalist,hesetupanewspaperthroughwhichhespreadtheFascistpropagandaan
dthismadehimpopularinItaly.HealsoformedtheFascistPartyin1921andwhenthiswasdone,h
esuppressedalltheotherpoliticalpartiesandtherefore,Italybecameafasciststate.
Theroleofthe“BlackShirts”andtheirviolencefrom1920onwardsledtotheriseoffascisminItal
y.ThiswasaprivatearmysetupbyMussoliniandtheykilledtheiropponentswithhighadegreeofb
rutalityorharshnesswhichthreatenedthosewhowouldhaveopposedfascism.Mussolinialsous
edhis“BlackShirts”armytointimidateandtortureanysuspectedopponentstofascism.Thisther

eforemadetheFascistPartytoremainwithnoopponents,henceexplainingtheriseoffascisminIt
aly.
Furthermore,themilitarystyle,disciplineandorganizationoftheFascistPartyattractedmanysol
diers.ThewayMussolini’sgroupsmartlydressedintheirBlackShirtscarriedweaponsandfought
battleswiththeTradeunionmembersorworkersmademanyformersoldierstojoinMussoliniand
supportFascism.
ThesupportfromPopePiusXIandtheRomanCatholicChurchledtotheriseoffascisminItaly.M
ussoliniandhisfellowfascistspromisedtorepairtherelationshipbetweentheItaliangovernmen
tandtheCatholicChurchwhichhadbeendamagedsince1871whentheItaliangovernmenttook
overRome.Asaresult,theFascistPartyreceivedalotofsupportfromthePopeandtheentireRom
anCatholicChurchinItalywhichenabledittocometopowerin1922.
Thefailureofotheroppositiongroupstoganguporuniteagainstthefascistsledtotheriseoffascis
minItaly.Alltheanti-
fascistgroupslikethecommunists,socialists,nationalists,liberalsandmonarchistsfailedtounit
eagainsttheFascistPartyunderBenitoMussolini.Asaresult,therewaslackofeffectiveoppositio
nagainstfascismwhichpavedwayforitsriseinItaly.
TheweaknessofKingVictorEmmanuelIIIalsoledtotheriseoffascisminItaly.By1922,theIt
alianliberalmonarchywasundertheleadershipofKingVictorEmmanuelIIIwhohadcometopow
erin1878followingthedeathofhisfatherKingVictorEmmanuelII.Hisgovernment,however,fa
iledtosolvetheprevailingeconomicproblemsinItalylikepovertyandunemployment.Healsofail
edtousetheItalianarmyasrecommendedbytheparliamenttosuppressthe“BlackShirts”under
MussoliniwhohadinvadedRomein1922andinsteadheinvitedMussolinitoformanewgovernme
nt.TherewasalsowidespreadcorruptioninthegovernmentofVictorEmmanuelIIIwhichmadeit
unpopular,thusenablingthefascistsunderMussolinitogainpowerinItalyby1922.
TheweaknessofPrimeMinisterOrlandoledtotheriseoffascisminItaly.BesidesKingVictorEm
manuelIII,ItalyhadaPrimeMinisterbythenameofOrlandobeforeBenitoMussolinicametopow
er.However,OrlandowasaccusedofbeingaweakandinefficientPrimeMinister.Thisledtotheap
pointmentofMussoliniasthePrimeMinisterin1922andsincehewasafascist,thisledtotheriseoff
ascisminItaly.
Hegel’sPhilosophyledtotheriseoffascisminItaly.HegelwasaProfessoratBerlinUniversityinGe
rmanywhobelievedinstatepowerandauthority.AccordingtoHegel,thestatewasthesupre
memanifestationorrepresentationofGodontheearth.Hethereforeadvocatedfortheestablish
mentofastronggovernment.HisphilosophyorbeliefmadeMussolinipopularinItalysincehepro

misedtosetupastronggovernmentinItalythatwouldreplacetheweakItalianmonarchyunderK
ingVictorEmmanuelIII.
Thesuccessofthe“FascistMarch”toRomein1922ledtotheriseoffascisminItaly.InOctober1
922,BenitoMussoliniorganizedhisfasciststomarchtoRomeandcapturepowerinacoup.KingVi
ctorEmmanuelIIIrefusedtoresistthemarcheventhoughtheItalianarmywaswellequippedtodi
sperseit.Instead,thekinginvitedMussoliniandtoldhimtoformagovernment.Thismarkedtheri
seoffascisminItaly.BenitoMussolinigovernedItalyasaFascistordictatorupto1943whenhewa
soverthrownduringthecourseofWorldWarII.
Questions:
 WhydidliberalItalycollapseeasilytofascism?
 AccountforthecollapseofliberalisminItaly.
 AccountforMussolini’sriseandconsolidationtopower.
ACHIEVEMENTSOFBENITOMUSSOLINI’SREGIME
MussolinireconciledtheCatholicChurchwiththestate.In1929,hesignedtheLaterantreatywi
thPopePiusXI.ThistreatysolvedtheconflictbetweentheCatholicChurchandItaliangovernm
ent.Thistreatywasimportantbecausesince1871thePopeswereinconflictwiththeItaliangover
nmentforhavingtakenoverRomewhichwastheircapital.Bythistreaty,thePopeacceptedRome
toserveasthecapitalofItalyandinreturnthePopesweregivenVaticantobetheirindependentsta
te.
Similarly,whenMussolinicametopower,heinitiallydenouncedCatholicism.Healsoabolishedth
eRomanCatholicYouthorganizationsandtheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchinthestateaffairs.
However,bytheLaterantreatyof1929MussolinichangedhisattitudeandrecognizedtheCatholi
cismasthestatereligion.HeevenwentaheadandcompensatedtheCatholicChurchforallthelos
sesincurredsince1871.ThismadeMussolinipopularamongtheCatholicsinItaly.
HecarriedoutmilitaryreformswhichcreatedaverylargearmyforItaly.Thearmywasequippedw
ithmodernfightingtools.Itwasalsotrainedtoaveryhighlevelofefficiencyorability.Thisarmyhel
pedtoensureinternalorderaswellaspromotingtheItaliangloryabroad.
MussoliniencouragedindustrializationinItaly.Between1931and1935,hisgovernmentfunded
industrialestablishmentthroughgivingcreditfacilitiestotheindustrialists.Theironandsteelind
ustry,shipbuildingandthetelephonesystemswerethemainbeneficiaries.Thishelpedtocreate
employmentopportunitiesfortheItalians,henceincreasingMussolini’spopularity.

Mussoliniincreasedtheproductionofhydro-
electricpowerinItaly.Duringhisregime,alltheriversthathadmuchwaterwereexploitedforthis
purpose.Thishelpedtoincreasethelevelofindustrializationaswellastoprovidepowertotheho
meswhichalsomadeMussolinipopularinItaly.
MussolinicontributedtothedevelopmentofinfrastructuresandpublicworksinItaly.Forexampl
e,townswerebuilt,leisureactivitieswereencouragedthroughtheconstructionofsportsground
s,hallsandlibraries.MussolinithereforemodernizedItalywhichincreasedhispopularityamongt
heItalians.
Mussolinipromotedlawandorder(peace)inItaly.Hedealtwiththeopponentsofhisregimeliketh
esocialistsandcommunistswithahighdegreeofbrutalitythroughexilingthemtoLapariIslandin
theMediterraneanSeaorkillingthem.Forexample,heorderedforthemurderoftheleaderoftheS
ocialistswhowasknownasMatteottiin1924.Thisscaredallthosewhowouldhaveopposedthe
Fascistregime,thuspromotinginternallawandorderinItaly.
HisgovernmentcontributedtothedevelopmentofagricultureinItaly.Mussoliniintroducedmod
ernmethodsofagricultureespeciallytheuseoffarmmachinery.Swampswerealsoreclaimedwh
ichincreasedfoodproductionespeciallywheat.Thiswasaimedatachievingself–
sufficiencyintermsoffoodproductioninItaly.
MussolinidevelopedthetransportandcommunicationfacilitiesinItaly.Forexample,heconstru
ctednewrailwaylines,roads,bridgesandcanalswhichhelpedtopromotetradeandcommercein
Italy.ThisalsoincreasedhispopularityamongtheItalians.
MussolinicarriedouteducationalreformswhichstrengthenedtheeducationsysteminItaly.Hei
ntroducedtheFascistcurriculumwhichemphasizedthefascistprinciples.Healsoconstructedne
wschoolsinItalywhichboostedtheeducationsector.ThisalsomadehimpopularamongtheItali
anfascists.
HisgovernmentencouragedtheestablishmentCorporatetradeunions.BeforeMussolinica
metopower,theunionsoftheworkerswereverystrongandtheyusedtogiveproblemstotheempl
oyersespeciallythroughstrikes.However,Mussoliniabolishedthetradeunionsandreplacedthe
mwithcorporationswheretheworkers,employersandthegovernmentwereequallyrepresen
ted.Thesecorporatetradeunionssettledtheworkers’wagesandthereforecreatedadisciplined
workingclassinItaly.
MussolinirestoredandpromotedtheItaliangloryabroad.Forexample,in1935,Mussolinisentth
eItaliantroopstoEthiopiaandtheycapturedAddisAbaba,theEthiopiancapital.Hethereforeann
exedEthiopiatotheItalianEmpire.MussoliniwentfurtherandoccupiedAlbaniain1939andthere

foreheextendedtheItalianinfluencethere.HealsoparticipatedintheSpanishCivilWarthatbrok
eoutin1936whichassistedGeneralFrancotocometopowerin1939andthismadeItalypopularin
Europe..
Similarly,MussolinienteredintoallianceswithotherEuropeancountrieswhichpromotedtheItal
ianforeigngloryandnationalpride.Forexample,inOctober1936,heenteredintotheRome–
BerlinAxiswithGermanyunderAdolfHitler.ThisalliancewaslaterjoinedbyJapantoformtheR
ome–Berlin–TokyoAxisin1938.ThesealliancesstrengthenedthepositionofItalyinEurope.
MussolinipromotedEuropeandiplomacy.Forexample,hewasvitalinthenegotiationandlatersi
gningoftheLocarnoTreatiesof1925betweenGermanyandthevictoriouspowersofBritainan
dFrance.InthesetreatieswhichwerearrangedinLocarno–
SwitzerlandandlatersignedinLondon,BritainandFranceagreedtonormalizetheirrelationswit
hthedefeatedGermanywhichpromotedinternationalpeaceandsecurityandthecreditgoestoM
ussoliniwhohadmediatedinthesenegotiations.
FAILURESOFBENITOMUSSOLINI
HefailedtopromotefreedomofeducationinItaly.Mussoliniintroducedcensorshipofreadingma
terials.Forexample,thehistorybooksthatwereasmanyasthirtysevenbeforeMussolinicameto
powerwerereducedtoonlyone.In1938,fascismwastaughtintheclassrooms.Hisgovernmentr
eceivedalotofresistancefromtheuniversitiesandthisresistancewasreactedtowithbrutality.
Therewasalsoanattemptonlifewhichfailed.Thenon3 rdOctober1936,heputupaspecialtribuna
lforthedefenseofthestateandtotrypoliticaloffenderssuspectedtobeopponentsofhisregimew
erearrestedandimprisoned.
Hecrashedtheoppositionandformedaonepartystate.Alltheoppositiongroupstofascismwere
crashedespeciallyfromthesocialistsandcommunists.Mussolinikilledmostoftheenemiesofhis
regime.Forexample,theleaderoftheSocialistsintheparliamentcalledMatteottiwasmurdered
bythefascistsontheorderofMussoliniin1924forcriticizingtheriggingparliamentaryelectionsin
1923.
HeestablishedaconstitutionaldictatorshipinItaly.HemadesurethatallpowerstoruleItalyreste
dinhishandsasPrimeMinister.HeruledbydecreesandthisdenieddemocracytotheItalians.
Mussolini’sgovernmentimposedhightaxesontheforeigngoods.Asresult,herefusedgoodsfro
motherEuropeancountriestobeimportedtoItaly.Thiscreatedscarcityofforeigngoodswhichca
usedinflationinItaly.Inaddition,thosewhoweredealingintheforeigngoodsclosedtheirbusines

sesandtherefore,theybecameunemployed.TheseeconomichardshipsmadeMussolini’sregi
meunpopularinItaly.
AlthoughMussoliniencouragedincreaseinpopulation,hefailedtocontroltheresultanthighbirt
hratesthataffectedItaly.Healsoresistedruralurbanmigrationandthiscreatedshortageoflandi
nruralareas.
MussoliniwasveryaggressiveinhisforeignpolicyandthiscontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldW
arIIin1939.HeinvolvedItalyintheRome-Berlin-
TokyoAxis,analliancewhichhadacommonplanofdestroyingdemocracyinEuropewhichledt
oWorldWarII.HewentaheadandgangedupwithHitlerofGermanyandoverthrewtheconstituti
onalgovernmentofSpainandestablishedafascistgovernmentofGeneralFranco.Thisannoyed
thedemocraticstatesofEuropelikeBritainandFrancewhicheventuallysparkedoffWorldWarII.
MussolinifailedtoestablishastablemoneyorforeignexchangeratesysteminItaly.From1922to
1925,hesetthevalueoftheItaliancurrencyveryhigh.HisaimwastomaketheItaliancurrencymo
represtigious(stronger)comparedtotheBritishPound.Asaresult,thecostoflivinginItalybecam
everyhighandtheItalianworkersbecamethelowestpaidinEurope.Thisalsomadehisregimeun
popular.
HefailedtoextendthebenefitsofhisgovernmenttomostoftheItalians.Asaresult,Mussolini’sac
hievementswerelimitedtoafewItaliansandtheseweremostlysupportersoffascism.Forexamp
le,governmentjobswereonlygiventothefascistsandthenon-
fascistswereleftout.ThismadeMussoliniunpopularinItaly.
HefailedtoprotecttheinterestsoftheminotitiesinItaly.AsthePrimeMinisterofItaly,BenitoMuss
olinipromotedracismespeciallyagainsttheJews.HepromotedhatredoftheJews(ant–
Semitism)throughtheanti–
SemitismLawof1938.Asaresult,hispolicearrested,imprisonedthemandmanyfledtoexile.
TherewasasystematicpolicytoexpeltheJewsfromItaly.
MussolinigangeduptogetherwithAdolfHitlerofGermanytopromotefascismordictatorshipinE
urope.Thiswasaimedatdestroyingotherpoliticalideologieslikedemocracyandcommunism.F
orexample,in1936,thetwoleaderswenttoSpainandsupportedGeneralFrancoduringtheSpani
shCivilWar.ThiseventuallyledtotheoverthrowoftheliberaldemocraticgovernmentinSpainin1
939andthesubsequentestablishmentofafascistordictatorialgovernmentinSpainunderGener
alFranco.
HOWMUSSOLINICONSOLIDATEDPOWERINITALYBETWEEN1922AND1943

Heabolishedthemulti-
partypoliticalsystemthathehadfoundinItaly.Hebannedalltheoppositionpoliticalgroupsliketh
eSocialistandCommunistsandmostoftheirleaderswereeitherexiledonislandsorkilled.Forexa
mple,Matteotti,theleadertheSocialistPartythatformedthemajoroppositionpartywasmurd
eredin1924onMussolini’sorderforcriticizingtheFascistswhohadriggedthe1923parliamentar
yelections.Thisscaredtheopponentsandasaresult,theFascistPartyremainedunchallengedin
Italy.
PoliticaleducationwasusedbyMussolinitoindoctrinatethemassesintofascism.TheItalianswer
etaughttobewar-
likeanddespisedemocracy.Teachersweretowearfascistuniformsandstudentswereencourag
edtocriticizethoseteacherswhowereagainstfascism.Thestudentsweretaughtthat“Mussolinii
salwaysright”andthereforecouldnotbeopposed.Evennewbookswerere-
writtenglorifyingfascism.
MussolinistrictlycensoredthepressinItalyfrom1925purposelytocontrolpublicopinion.Newsp
apers,radioprogrammes,filmsandplaysthatdidnotsubscribetotheFascistideologywereclose
dandthosewriterswhoopposedMussoliniwerearrestedandexiledtolonelyislandsintheMedite
rraneanSea.ThisthereforereducedoppositiontowardstheFascistregimewhichhelpedhimtoc
onsolidatepowerupto1943.
HeestablishedaconstitutionaldictatorshipinItalywhichhelpedhimtoconsolidatepower.Hema
desurethatallpowerstoruleItalyrestedinhishandsasPrimeMinister.Heruledbydecreesandhe
clearlystatedthathewasalwaysrightandtherefore,hecouldnotbechallenged.Thisalsoscaredt
heopponentsofhisregime.
Hestrengthenedtheeconomybybuildingpublicworksandinfrastructureslikeroads.Ironandst
eelindustriesalsosetup,hydro-
electricpowerprojectsweresetuptogeneratepowerforindustrialdevelopment,landwasreclai
medthroughswampdrainageaswellasirrigationofthedrylandswhichincreasedfoodproductio
nespeciallywheat.
Hereconciledthestatewiththechurchthroughthe1929LaterantreatythathesignedwithPopePi
usXI.Asaresult,thePoperecognizedtheItaliankingdomandtheFascistregimeofBenitoMussoli
ni.
Hefilledthekeygovernmentpostslikethepoliceandadministrationwithfascistofficialswhosup
portedhispolicies.Thisenabledhimtocrashhisenemies.

Hestrengthenedthearmy.The“BlackShirts”wereturnedintothenationalarmypaidbythestate.
ThiswastoprotectthestateandMussoliniinpower.Toensurethattherewasaconstantsupplyofs
oldiers,MussolinimadeitdifficultfortheItalianstoleavethecountry.Healsoencouragedeveryfa
milytohavemorechildrenandthosemenwhohadbigfamiliesreceivedcashbonusesandverygo
odgovernmentposts.Withsuchastrongarmy,Mussoliniconsolidatedhimselfinpower.
Heestablishedasecretpolicetomaintainlawandorder.Thispolicewasinstrumentalinsuppressi
ngtheoppositionanditalsoactedaspynetworkforMussolini.
Mussolinialsousedoathsandswearingtoensureloyaltytohisgovernment.Forexample,univers
ityprofessorswereforcedtotakeanoathofloyaltytotheFascistgovernmentandtheyhadtoprom
isenevertoteachagainstfascistprinciples.
MussoliniemployedgroupsofarmedFasciststoterrorizehisopponentsthroughoutItaly.By193
0,alltheanti–
FascistelementsorgroupsinItalyhadbeenhunteddown,thusleavingMussolini’sgovernmentfr
eefromopposition.
Heinvolvedhimselfinagloriousforeignpolicysoastoconsolidatehimselfinpower.Hisforeignpol
icyaimedatrevivingItalyasagreatnationinEurope,buildtheItalianEmpireandtodoawaywithth
eItalianfailureinAfrica.Therefore,inOctober1935heinvadedEthiopiainordertoavengetheAd
owadefeatof1896.ThismadehimtogainthesupportoftheItalians.
Furthermore,inOctober1936MussolinisignedanagreementwithAdolfHitlerofGermanyknow
nastheRome-BerlinAxiswhichwaslaterjoinedbyHirohitoofJapantoformtheRome-
Berlin-
TokyoAxisin1938asastrategyoffightingdemocracyandcommunisminEurope.Therefore,hi
ssuccessesintheforeignpolicywonhimsupportfromtheItaliangloryseekers,thushelpinghimt
oconsolidatepower.
THEGREATECONOMICDEPRESSION,1929-1935
TheGreatEconomicDepressionwasasituationcharacterizedbythecollapseoftheglobalecono
my.ItstartedintheCanadianagriculturalsectorandby1929,ithadspreadtoEuropeandtheentir

eworldafterthecollapseoftheWallStreetStockExchangeMarketinUSAinOctober1929.TheEur
opeaneconomieswerebadlyhitexceptRussiawhichhadacommunisteconomy,especiallyduet
othefactthattheywerejustinthepost-
WorldWarIrecoveryprocess.Thedepressionwascharacterizedbymassunemployment,lowpri
ces,failureofagriculturalmarkets,closureofbanksandotherindustriesleadingtothedeclineint
hestandardsofliving.Duringthedepression,therewasalsowidespreadviolencecharacterized
byriotsandstrikes,humanmiseryandsocial-
politicaltensions.Generally,duringthisperiodthereweremanygoodsbutwithlessmoneytopur
chasethesegoods.
THECAUSESOFTHEGREATECONOMICDEPRESSION
TheeffectsofWorldWarIof1914-
1918ledtotheoccurrenceofthedepression.Thiswardevastatedworldeconomies,destroyedin
dustries,ships,agriculturalfarmsorgardensandevenhumanresources.It’sestimatedthatatot
alof186billionUnitedStatesdollarswerelostorincurredasaresultofWorldWarI.Suchdevastati
onsaffectedproduction,employmentrates,individualpurchasingpowerandgeneraleconomic
activityintheworld.Forexample,tradedeclinedbecausecountrieswereleftsopoorthattheycou
ldnotimportlargequantitiesofagriculturalandindustrialproduce.Consequently,therewaslowl
evelofimportandconsumptionwhichexplainswhythedepressionwasseverestintheUSAwhich
wasthegreatestproducerintheperiodafterthewar.
TheeffectoftheGoldStandardSystemwhichoperatedintheworldeconomiesbefore1929cr
eatedeconomicrigiditiesthatledtothedepression.Underthissystem,everyindividualeconomy
intheworldwassupposedtohave;initscirculation,atotalsumofmoneyequivalenttoitsgoldrese
rvesinthebank.However,therealitywasthatseveralnationsnaturallypossessedlessofsuchgol
dreserves,andsecondly;manycountriesindebtedtoUSAwereby1929requiredtopayAmerican
debtsingold.AsmuchofthegoldreservesoftheindebtednationsflowedouttoAmerica,thiscreat
edacuteshortageofmoneysupplyamongworldeconomiesbecauseseveralnationswereeither
payingtheirgoldtoUSAorsimplynaturallyendowedwithlittlegoldresources.Ascountriesreduc
edtheirmoneysupplyincirculation,therewasincreasinglydecliningpurchasingpowerwhichres
ultedintolowerinvestmentreturnsorprofits.Astheprofitsdeclined,thisledtothefailureandclos
erofbusinesses.Thisineffectmadetheemployerstolayoffworkers,henceleadingunemployme
ntandthustheoutbreakoftheGreatEconomicDepression.
ThepolicyofeconomicnationalismorprotectionismpursuedbysomecountriescausedtheGreat
EconomicDepression.AfterWorldWarI,countriesofEuropeandAmericapursuedeconomicpro
tectionisminordertosafeguardtheireconomiesagainstforeigncompetition,butthepolicyinste
adruinedorshatteredinternationaltradehenceleadingtotheeconomicdepression.Forexampl

e,America,thelessaffectedeconomyafterthewar,adoptedaprotectionistpolicybywhichshech
argedhighimporttaxesasawaytodiscourageimportation(toherinternalmarkets)whilepursui
nganaggressiveexportationofherindustrialandagriculturaloutput.Othercountriesespeciallyi
nEuropealsorespondedinsimilarwaysnotonlytotheUSAbutalsoamongthemselves.Thisunde
rminedinternationaltradeascountriesincreasinglyproducedlargervolumesofoutputsandcoul
donlysellthemlocallywherethepurchasingpowerwasverylimited.Asaresult,homemarketsbe
camefloodedwithlocallyproducedgoodswhichforcedthepricestodecline.Thisledtoadeclinein
profitswhichcalledforadeclineinproduction,andareducedproductionmeantfurtherreducedp
rofits.Thisbroughtabouttheretrenchmentofindustrialworkersandclosureofbusinesses.Allth
esepavedwayforunemployment,famine,generalcollapseoftheeconomyandhumansuffering
,henceleadingtotheoccurrenceoftheGreatEconomicDepressionof1929-1935.
Theeffectsofoverproductioninthe1920scoupledwithlimitedmarketscausedtheGreatEcono
micDepression.ThepostwarperiodsawscientificandtechnologicaladvancementnotonlyinEur
opebutalsoAmericaandotherpartsoftheworld.Afterthewar,scientificinnovativenesstendedt
oshiftfromthewarfareormilitaryfieldtoagriculturalandindustrialdevelopment.Inthefieldofag
ricultureforinstance,newmachineryandtractorsaswellasmodernfarmingtechniqueswereinv
entedtofosterlargescalefarmingwhileintheindustrialsector;betterindustrialmachineswereal
soinventedtofacilitaterapidindustrialproduction.Suchscientificinnovationsmorethaneverinc
reasedtheproductionofbothagriculturalandindustrialgoodsthatsoonexceededthedomesticc
onsumptions.Thiswasworsenedbytheprotectionismpolicywhichvirtuallydeprivedsuchheav
yproductionofexternalandoverseasmarkets.Theresultwashugesurplusproductionthatcould
besoldonlyifpriceswerereduced.Thismostlyhittheagriculturalsectorwhoseproductscouldn’t
waitforthepossibilitiesofpriceincreasebecausetheycouldeasilyperish.Producersthathesitate
dtosellatdowncutpriceshadagreatdealoftheirproductsunsoldorexpirewhichforcedthemtocu
tdownproductionorsimplyfallfrombusiness.Asituationofthiskindledtoenormouslossofincom
esbyproducers,bredafinancialcrisis,unemployment,andgeneralbreakdownofeconomicacti
vityinthevariousworldeconomies,henceleadingtotheoccurrenceoftheGreatEconomicDepre
ssionof1929-1935.
TherumoursabouttheclosureoftheWorldStockExchangeMarketattheWallStreetinUSAspark
edofftheeconomicstorm(fearorfight)thatcausedthedepression.Inthepostwarperiod,theval
ueofstock(shares)hadrisentounrealisticheightsbutasrumoursbegantospreadabouttheimpe
ndingendtothissituation,about600investorsrushedtoselltheirshares.On24 thOctober1929,1
3millionsharesweresoldandon29thOctober16.5millionshareswereexchanged.AttheendofOc
tober1929,Americaninvestorshadlost40,000milliondollarsandevenwithdrewtheirshortterm
loansfromEurope.Atthesametime,theystoppedlendingandthiswasunfortunateforcountriesl
ikeAustriaandGermanywhosepostwarre-

constructionwasentirelydependentontheAmericancredit.Theconsequencewasthattherewa
slessmoneytobuygoodsontheEuropeancontinent.Thiscausedparalysisininvestmentandpro
duction,hencecausingtheGreatEconomicDepressionof1929-1935.
ThewidespreadunemploymentthatexistedintheworldeconomiesatthattimecausedtheGreat
EconomicDepression.Forexample,althoughmostEuropeancountrieslikeBritain,FranceandG
ermanyregisteredsomelevelofeconomicboominthepost-
WorldWarIperiod,unemploymentremainedhigh.Thisthereforecausedfallingstandardsoflivi
ngaspeoplecouldnotaffordtopurchasethebasicgoodsandservicesduetothelackofjobs.Conse
quently,industriescloseddownastheiroutputlackedadequatemarkets,henceleadingtotheoc
currenceofGreatEconomicDepressionby1929.
Incomeinequalitiesandpovertyalsoworkedtoplungetheworldintoaneconomicdepressionbet
ween1929and1935.Mostoftheprofitsmadebytheindustrialistswerenotevenlydistributedam
ongtheworkers.Althoughwageswereincreasedbyanaverageof88%between1923and1929,
profitsalsoshotupby20%.Thisreducedthepurchasingpoweroftheworkersatthesametimethe
manufacturersandindustrialistswerenotwillingtoimprovethewelfareoftheworkersthroughin
creasedpay.Forexample,millionsofEuropeanscouldnotaffordaradio,acarorelectricwasherw
hiletheemployersatthesametimeseemednottobewillingtochangethewagestructure.Thisma
deaneconomicdepressioninevitableby1929.
ThenatureoftheAmericanloanorcreditschemepartlyledtotheoccurrenceoftheGreatEconomi
cDepression.DuringandafterWorldWarI,boththevictoriousanddefeatedEuropeannationsbo
rrowedhugeloansfromtheUSAinordertosustainthewarandtorebuildtheirdevastatedeconom
iesrespectively.Thus,attheendofthewar,almostallEuropeancountriesweredeeplyinvolvedin
repaymentoftheAmericanloans.From1924,whenUSApressurizedtherepaymentoftheoutsta
ndingloans,thiscreatedasituationwherehugesumsofmoneyandgoldflowedfromtheEuropea
neconomiestotheUSAnotinexchangeofgoodsandservicesbutratherinrepaymentofloans.Thi
sreducedthelevelofinvestment,aggregatedemandandpurchasingpoweracrossEurope,henc
eleadingtoafinancialcrisisthatfinallyledtotheGreatEconomicDepressionby1929.
TheheavywarreparationsorindemnityalsopartlycausedtheGreatEconomicDepressionof192
9-
1935.AttheendofWorldWarI,GermanyandherallieslikeAustriaandBulgariawerefinedhugesu
msofmoneyforthedamages(humanandmaterial)causedduringthewar.Butasifnotenough,th
esenationsofEuropewereforcedtosurrendersomeoftheireconomicallyrichterritoriestothealli
edpowerswhichhamperedtheireconomicprosperity.Forexample,Germanylosttherichminer
alareasofAlsaceandLorraine,theSaarcoalminesandallherAfricancolonies.Ontopofthis,thede
featednationswereneitherfreetoexportnorimporttoandfromtheotherEuropeancountries.All

thesestrainedrelationsandhighlyaffectedinternationaltradebetweenthevictorandthedefeat
ednationsandtheworldatlarge.Theresultwasanincreasedfinancialcrisiswhichdeterioratedin
totheGreatEconomicDepressionby1929.
ThefailureoftheLeagueofNationsalsolaidgroundfortheoccurrenceoftheGreatEconomicDepr
ession.Forexample,itfailedtoestablishaneconomicframeworkormechanismtopromotefreei
nternationaltrade.Asaresultofthisweakness,countriesbegantopursueeconomicprotectionis
m,apolicythatpavedwayforthedepression.Internationaltradewasthereforecompromisedast
heworldslidintooverproductionwithoutreadilysufficientmarkets.Secondly,asthewatchdogo
fglobalpeaceandprosperity,theLeagueofNationsalsofailedtocomeoutwithaclearpolicytoreg
ularizecurrencycirculationinregardtotheprevalentgoldstandardsystem.Onemayalsoarguet
hatitwasaleague’sweaknessnottoregulatetheUS-
GoldbaseddebtrecoveryandthereparationpaymentswhichruinedrelationsbetweentheUSAa
ndherdebtornationsononehandandalsothedefeatedpowersandthevictorpowersontheother
hand.Allthisaffectedtheinternationaltrade,hencepavingwayfortheoccurrenceoftheGreatEc
onomicDepressionby1929.
Thegrowingspeculationbyprominentpoliticiansaboutthedepressionindifferentcountriescau
sedtheGreatEconomicDepression.Thesepeoplewereusingthemassmediaorpressandtheycir
culatedrumoursandpropagandaabouttheimpendingdepressionwhichcreatedpanic,specula
tionandparalysisthatdisorganizedeconomicactivitiesevenbeforetheactualdepression.Forex
ample,thespeculationabouttheclosureoftheWallStreetStockExchangeMarketinUSAmadepe
opletowithdrawtheirmoneyinthebanksandkeptitinotherformslikebuyinggold.Thisreducedt
heamountofmoneyinbanksthatwouldhavebeenprovidedtopeopletobuythegoodsonthemar
ket.Asituationofthiskindthereforepavedwayfortheoccurrenceofthe1929–
1935GreatEconomicDepression.
EFFECTSOFTHEGREATECONOMICDEPRESSION
TheGreatEconomicDepressiondestroyedorshatteredinternationaltrade.Thiswasasaresulto
fthepolicyofeconomicprotectionismwhichwaslargelypushedbyUSA.Othercountriesalsoresp
ondedtothisthroughretaliationandthereforeadoptedprotectionismmeasuresastheycouldno
tallowotherstoselltothembecauseeverycountryhadsurplusproducts.Thisfurtherfrustratedt
hepossibilityofcommercialintercourseortransactionsbetweencountries.
ItalsocreatedsocialunrestinmanydevelopedcountriesinEurope.Almostallgovernmentshadf
ailedtoresolvetheproblemsresultingfromtheGreatEconomicDepression.Theseincludedpov
erty,unemploymentandstarvation.Thesehardshipsthereforeencouragedrebellionsagainstt

heexistinggovernmentswhichhadlostpublicconfidenceasthemasseswantedtooverthrowthe
mandputinpowerthosethattheyhopedwouldendtheirsuffering
Itledtothecollapseofindustriesandothereconomicsectors.Thiswasbecausetheycouldnotfind
adequatemarketfortheirgoods.Consequently,theirpriceswentdownwhichthereforeactedas
adisincentivetoinvestment,henceleadingtothesubsequentclosureoftheindustries,banksan
dinsurancecompaniesinseveralEuropeancountries.
Italsoledtofurtherwidespreadunemploymentaspeoplefailedtosecurejobs.Duringthedepres
sion,bankswereclosing,factorieswereshuttingdownandyetgovernmentswerenotrecruitingc
ivilservantsbecauseoftheirinabilitytopaythemattractivesalariesandwages.Thiswidespreadu
nemploymentinturn,broughtaboutotherproblemslikegeneralpovertyduetolowincomeswhic
hincreasedthemiseryorsufferingofthemasses.
Itacceleratedthedeclineinthestandardsoflivingaspeoplecouldnotaffordthebasicneedsoflife
notbecausethecostoflivingwashighbutbecausemoneywasscarcetopurchasetheavailablego
ods.Duringthisperiod,peoplecouldnotafforddecenthousing,food,basicmedicalcareandothe
rnecessarydemandsoflifewhichfurtherincreasedmiseryorsufferinginseveralcountries.
Itledtothefallinthepricesofproducts.TheGreatEconomicDepressionwasaresultofoverprodu
ctionofbothagriculturalandindustrialproductsinthe1920syettherewaslessmoneytobuythes
egoods.Thiseventuallyledtoafallinthepricesofgoodssincetherewasn’tenoughmoneytobuyt
hegoodsonthemarkets.Thisledtoadeclineintheprofitmarginsoftheinvestorswhichworsened
theglobaleconomiccrisis.
InternationalrelationsamongcountriesbrokedownasresultoftheGreatEconomicDepression.
Forexample,theEuropeancountriesblamedUSAforherpolicyofeconomicprotectionismornati
onalismwhichdisturbedfreeinternationaltrade.EnemityincreasedastheUSAcontinueddema
ndingfortherepaymentofherwardebtsorloansfromtheEuropeancountrieslikeGermany,Brita
in,France,AustriaandBulgariaamongothersdespitetheprevailingeconomichardshipsorprobl
ems.EveninEuropeenemityincreasedasthevictoriouspowerscontinueddemandingforrepara
tionpaymentsfromthedefeatedGermany.Thisthereforeunderminedthehopeforlastingpeace
inEurope.
TheGreatEconomicDepressionledtopoliticalunrestorinsecurityinEuropewhichgaverisetodic
tators.Forexample,inGermanythedepressioncreatedseriouseconomichardshipslikewidespr
eadunemploymentandpovertyduetothecollapseofbanksandfactories.TheWeimarRepublic
whichwasinpowerbythenwasunabletosolvetheseeconomicproblemswhichincreaseditsunp
opularity.Consequently,AdolfHitlerexploitedthisunpopularitytooverthrowtheWeimarRepub

licandcometopowerGermanyin1933ashepromisedtosolvetheeconomicproblemscreatedbyt
hedepression.Theriseofthesedictatorsincreasedtheideologicaldifferencesandenemitybetw
eentheFasciststateslikeGermanyandItalyandthedemocraticstateslikeBritainandFrancewhi
chtryingtodefendthespreadofliberaldemocracyinEurope.Thisunderminedanyhopesforlasti
ngpeaceinEurope.
ItalsounderminedtheperformanceorworkoftheLeagueofNations.Countriesrefusedtosubscr
ibefundstotheLeagueofNationsbecausetheywerepre-
occupiedwithsolvingtheirowndomesticproblems.Thus,theideaofcollectivesecuritydidn’two
rk.ThiswasexploitedbyGermany,ItalyandJapantounderminetheworkoftheLeagueofNations
.Similarly,countriesrefusedtoco-
operateininternationaltradebecausetheycouldnotallowotherstoselltotheirmarkets.Therefo
re,theLeagueofNationsfailedtoachievetheobjectiveofinternationalco-
operationbecauseoftheeconomicdepression.
ThedepressionfacilitatedthespreadoftheRussianideologyofsocialism(communism)especial
lyinEasternEurope.Thedepressionhadbeenblamedontheideaofeconomicliberalismasemph
asizedbycapitalisminwhichthequestforhighprofitsbythecapitalistsmadethewholeworldsuff
er.Thesocialistagitatorsthenprescribedsocialismasthebestalternative.Theyassertedthatsoc
ialismwouldimproveonthesufferingofthepoorworkersandensuregoodstandardsofliving.Att
hesametime,manycountriesadmiredRussiawhichwasnotseverelyaffectedbythedepression
becauseofhersocialistorientation.Asaresult,manyEasternEuropeancountrieslikeYugoslavia
,CzechoslovakiaandPolandamongothersembracedsocialismorcommunism.
Itcontributedtothecollapseofthebankingsysteminseveralcountries.Duringthedepression,b
anksranoutofmoneywasbecausethecustomerswithdrewtheirsavingsandasaresult,banksha
dtoclose.SuchbanksincludedtheAustrianCentralBankwhichclosedin1931andtheCentralBan
kofGermany.
Italsofacilitatedthedownfallandriseofnewgovernmentsasaresultofthediscontentcausedbyt
hedepressionplusthefailurebytheexistinggovernmentstoaddresssuchproblems.IntheUSAf
orexample,FranklinRooseveltwhowasaRepublicanreplacedDemocraticgovernment.InGer
many,AdolfHitlerandhisNaziPartyrosetopowerin1934andreplacedtheWeimarrepublicaftert
hedeathofPresidentHindenburgwhileinBritain,theLabourPartygovernmentofPrimeMinister
MacdonaldwhichcouldnotdealwiththeproblemsresultingfromtheGreatEconomicDepression
wasforcedtoresignin1934andreplacedbytheConservativeParty.InSpain,theLiberalRepublic
angovernmentwasoverthrownbyGeneralFrancoin1939afterthreeyearsofacivilwarfrom193
6.Thesenewgovernmentstriedtoovercomethedepressionbyintroducingseveraleconomicref
ormsintheirrespectivecountries.

ThedepressionalsogavebirthtoneweconomicreformsespeciallyinUSA.Forexample,theempl
oyerswereencouragednottolayoffworkers.Thegovernmentalsotriedtorecapitalizethebanks
aswellasgivingincentivesorsubsidestotheindustrialistsandfarmerstocombatunemployment
.Otherreformsincludedtheintroductionofpensionschemes,unemploymentbenefitsandinsur
anceschemes.Tradeunionswerealsofounded.InBritain,thenewgovernmentalsoestablished
unemploymentinsuranceschemestocaterfortheunemployed.Therewasalsopaymentof
relieformoneytothepoorandBritainalsodeclaredfreetradewhichwasfollowedbyothercountri
esinEuropesoastoendthedepression.
TheGoldstandardsystemwasabandonedinEuropeasameasureofcontrollingmoneyincirculati
onuptodate.Europeancountriesstartedcontrollingtheirmoneyincirculationwithoutreference
totheamountofgoldthattheyhadinthebanks.Thiswasbecausethesystemhadcreatedeconom
icrigiditiesbefore1929thatledtotheoccurrenceGreatEconomicDepression.Inaddition,during
thedepressionpeoplehadrushedtothebankstowithdrawtheirmoneyinformofgoldandtheban
kshadtoclose.
Theeconomicdepressionledtocolonialrivalryaswellasmilitaryaggressionbythestrongstatesa
gainsttheweakones.Forexample,in1931JapaninvadedtheChineseProvinceofManchuriasoa
stosecuremarketsandrawmaterials.ItalyalsoattackedandoccupiedEthiopiain1935insearchf
orrawmaterialsandGermanyinvadedtheSaarCoalfieldsaswellastheRhinelandsamongothert
erritories.Therefore,thedepressioncausedinterstateconflictsandbattleswhichthreatenedpe
aceintheworld.
TheGreatEconomicDepression,however,ledtothedevelopmentofsomemajorindustriesthat
provedtobeveryessentialatthattimeofglobaleconomiccollapse.TheseincludedtheRadioindu
strytoincreaseadvertsaswellastheautomobileindustrytofacilitatethetransportationofgoodst
othemarketcentressoastooffsetthesurplusproductsinthedifferentcountries.Thiswasperhap
soneofthemajorpositiveresultsoftheGreatEconomicDepressionworthnoting.
ItalsodisqualifiedtheclassicalEconomistsandthereforenewrevolutionaryEconomistslikeJoh
nMaynardKeynesemergedwithneweconomictheoriestoexplainthecausesandsolutionsofthe
unemploymentofthe1930s.DuringtheGreatDepressionofthe1930s,JohnMaynardKeynessp
earheadedarevolutionineconomicthinking,challengingtheideasoftheclassicaleconomiststh
atheldthatthefreemarketswould,intheshorttomediumterm,automaticallyprovidefullemploy
ment,aslongastheworkerswereflexibleintheirwagedemands.Hearguedthataggregatedema
nd(totalspendingintheeconomy)determinedtheoveralllevelofeconomicactivity,andthatina
dequateaggregatedemandcouldleadtoprolongedperiodsofhighunemployment.Inthemidtol
ate1930s,mostWesterneconomiesadoptedKeynes’policyrecommendationssoastoovercom
etheeconomicdepression.

ItlaidafoundationfortheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.Thedoctrineofliberalismanddemocra
cyhadbeendenouncedduetotheirfailuretosolvetheeconomicdepression.Thisgaverisetoworl
ddictatorslikeAdolfHitlerofGermanyandGeneralFrancoofSpainwiththesupportoftheirpopula
tionthathopedthatthesedictatorswouldsolvetheireconomicproblems.Whiletheywereinpow
er,thesedictatorsgotinvolvedinactsofaggressionwhicheventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorld
WarIIin1939.
(a) ExaminethecausesandeffectsoftheGreatEconomicDepressionof1929-1935.
(b) AssesstheimpactoftheGreatEconomicDepressiononEurope.
(c) Discussthecausesandeffectsoftheeconomicdepressionof1929–1935.
(d) Discussthemainfeaturesofeconomicdepressionof1929–1935.
MEASURESTAKENTOOVERCOMETHEGREATECONOMICDEPRESSION
By1936,almostallthecountriesoftheworldhadrecoveredfromtheWorldEconomicDepression
.Thefollowingwerethewaysthroughwhichthedepressionwasbroughttoanend.
AWorldEconomicConferencewasorganizedtoovercometheeconomicdepression.Thisconfer
encewasheldin1933inGenevaanditwasattendedbyrepresentativesfrom66nations.Thedele
gatesworkedoutmeasurestosolvetheGreatEconomicDepression.Forexample,therewasstab
ilizationoftheworldcurrency,removaloffreetraderestrictionsandimplementationofuniformta
riffsonimportsandexports.
Therewascancellationofthereparationpaymentsthathadbeenimposedonthedefeatednation
sbytheVersaillestreatyof1919andhadcrippledtheireconomies.ThiswasdoneduringtheLausa
nneconferenceofJune–
July1932thatwasheldinSwitzerlandtoliquidatethepaymentsofreparationsbyGermanytothef
ormerAlliedandAssociatedpowersofWorldWarI.Itwasattendedbythecreditorpowers(Great
Britain,France,BelgiumandItaly)andGermanyanditresultedinanagreementon9thJuly1932b
etweentheabovepowers.Bythisagreement,itwasconcludedbythealliedpowersthatthedifficu
lteconomicconditionsofthattimemadethecontinuedreparationrepaymentsbyGermanyimpo
ssibleandthereforetheywerevirtuallyabolished.ThisthereforehelpedGermanytoovercometh
edepression.
Therewaschargingofhightariffstheonimportsbysomecountriessoastoovercomethedepressi
on.Thishelpedtoprotectthedomesticmarketsfromforeigncompetition.Withtime,thisincreas
edthesaleofbothindustrialandagriculturalproductswhichoffsetsurpluses,thusleadingtothee
ndofthedepression.

Therewasalsotheexpansionofpublicworksbysomecountriesasameasuretoendthedepressio
n.Giantprojectslikeconstructionofbridges,damsandhighwayswereundertakenwhichprovid
edemploymentopportunitiestomanypeople,thusreducingtheproblemofwidespreadunempl
oymentthathadcharacterizedtheGreatEconomicDepression.ThiswasthecaseinUSAwhereth
ePresidentFranklinRooseveltintroducedaseriesofpublicworkprojectsandruralrehabilitation
schemesbetween1933and1936underthefamousNewDealPolicy.
Therewasalsothecreationoftradingblocsthroughregionaleconomicintegrationorco-
operation.Thisrevivedfreeinternationaltradewhichhadbeenshatteredbytheprotectionistpol
iciesthatwerepracticedbythedifferentcountries.Forexample,therewastheformationoftheBri
tishCommonWealthin1932,USAcameupwiththeintegrationoftheSouthAmericanstates,andt
heScandinaviancountriesformedtheOSLOBlocwhiletheagriculturalnationsofEasternEurop
ealsoteamedupundertheoneregionaltradingbloc.
Therewasalsothechangeofgovernmentsinsomecountriesasameasuretoovercomethedepre
ssion.Thegovernmentsthathadfailedtoaddresstheeconomicproblemscausedbythedepressi
onwereoverthrownandreplacedwithnewandstrongonesthatthemassesexpectedtoendtheir
suffering.Forexample,inGermanytheWeimarrepublicwasoverthrownbyNazistsunderAdolfH
itlerin1934whileinBritaintheLabourPartygovernmentwasalsoforcedtoresigninthesameyear
andtheConservativePartytookoverpower.
TheabandonmentoftheGoldStandardsystemwasanothermeasureundertakentoovercomet
hedepression.TheEuropeannationsstoppedthesystemofGoldstandardbecauseithadcaused
economicrigiditiesthathadcausedthedepression.Therefore,regardlessoftheamountofgoldi
nthereservesorbanks,moneywasprintedbythecentralbanksofthevariousnationswhichincre
asedthepurchasingpowerofthemasses,thusoffsettingthesurplusproductswhichledtotheen
dofthedepression.
Itwasalsosolvedthroughtheprovisionofunemploymentbenefits.Forexample,inBritainandUS
Awhoeverwasabove18yearsofagewastobepaidsomemoneyevenifheorshewasunemployed
.Therewasalsoprovisionofaidtothewomenandchildren.Alltheseincreasedthepurchasingpo
werofthemasses,hencesolvingeconomicdepression.
Somecountriescarriedoutcurrencydepreciationordevaluationasameasuretoovercometheec
onomicdepression.Bythispolicy,countrieslikeUSAdeliberatelyreducedthevalueoftheircurre
nciesinrelationtothecurrenciesofothercountries.Thisconsequentlymadetheirexportscheap
er,thusincreasingtheirvolumeofsalestoothercountries.Thisincreasedproductionandsubseq
uentlymoreemploymentopportunitiesthathelpedcountriestoovercomethedepression.

Economicimperialismwasalsoadoptedtoovercomethedepression.Somepowerfulcountriesb
ecameaggressiveonotherssoastosolvetheproblemscausedbythedepression.Suchcountries
embarkedonterritorialconqueststoacquirerawmaterials,marketsandareasforfurtherinvest
mentsoastoaddressthedomesticproblemscreatedbythedepression.Forexample,Japaninva
dedtheChineseprovinceofManchuriain1931whichwasrichinsilkandcotton.ItalyoccupiedEthi
opiain1935insearchforrawmaterialsandGermaninvadedtheSaarCoalfields,AustriaandCzec
hoslovakia.
Therewasadoptionofagro-
basedindustriesbyseveralcountriesasameasuretoovercomethedepression.Theseindustries
providedreadymarketstoboththeagriculturalandindustrialgoodswhichsubsequentlybooste
dproduction.Withincreasedproduction,moreemploymentopportunitieswerecreated,thusre
ducingpovertyandsubsequentlyresultinginhighapurchasingpoweramongthemasses.Allthe
sehelpedtoovercometheeconomicdepressionby1935.
Economicreformswereputinplacetoaddressthedepression.Thesepoliciesweredesignedtoim
proveontheindustrialandagriculturalsectors.Tradeunionsinvariouscountriesweregivenpow
ertoorganizeandbargainfortherightsoftheworkerslikeincreasedpay.Also,progressivetaxes
wereleviedontherichtosubsidizethepoor.Thesemeasuresincreasedpeoples’earnings,create
dmorejobsandimprovedthegeneralwelfareofthemasses.
Therewasalsotheadoptionofoutrightforcebytheexistinggovernmentsagainsttheriotersando
therformsofsocialunrest.InFranceforexample,thepoliceshotandkilledfifteendemonstrators
duringtheFebruary1934ant-
governmentstreetdemonstrationinParis.Thosewhosurvivedwereforcedtoabandonstreetpr
otestsandriotsagainstthegovernment.
Therewasalsomilitaryconscriptionasameasuretoovercometheeconomicdepression.Somec
ountrieslikeGermany,FranceandBritainrecruitedmanyoftheircitizensintothearmysoastored
ucetheunemploymentproblemwhichwasrampantduringthe1930s.Thisenabledsuchpeoplet
oearnincomewhichincreasedtheirpurchasingpower,thushelpingsuchcountriestoovercomet
heGreatEconomicDepression.
Governmentcontrolofbankswasalsoadoptedtoendthedepression.Throughthismeasure,cou
ntrieswereabletorestrictlendingandborrowing.Theyarguedthatmoneywhichwasborrowedf
orinvestmentwassimplyconsumed.TheUSAwasalsoforcedtostopgrantingloanstotheEurope
ancountriesandsheinsteadstarteddemandingfortherepaymenttoherloansespeciallythoses
hehadadvancedtodifferentEuropeanpowersbefore1929inordertoboosthereconomy.

SomeEuropeancountrieslikeBritaindeclaredfreetrade.Thishelpedthemtoincreaseonthevolu
meofsalesoftheexports.
HowweretheEuropeanpowersabletorecoverfromthe1929-
1935GreatEconomicDepression?
THESPANISHCIVILWAR,1936-1939
TheSpanishCivilWarof1936-
1939wasanarmedconflictbetweentheconservatives(church,landownersandFascisteleme
nts)againsttheRepublicans,socialists,communistsandanarchistsinSpain.Thecivilwarbrok
eoutorstartedwithamilitaryorarmyuprisinginMoroccoon17thJuly1936triggeredbytheeven
tsinMadridanditeventuallyspreadtomainlandSpain.ThewarwasledbyGeneralFranciscoFr
anco,aseniorarmyofficerintheSpanisharmy.
TheNationalists,astherebelsunderGeneralFrancowerecalled,weresupportedbyAdolfHittero
fGermanyandBenitoMussoliniofItaly-
theNazistsandFascistsrespectively.TheRepublicansontheotherhandreceivedaidfromtheSo
vietUnion(Russia)aswellasfromtheInternationalBrigadescomposedofforeignvolunteers
fromEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Thewarendedin1939withthevictoryoftheNationalistswho
overthrewademocraticallyelectedRepublicangovernmentandinstalleddictatorshipinSpaint
hatlasteduptoNovember1975.
CAUSESOFTHESPANISHCIVILWAR,1936-1939
ThenegativeeffectsoftheWorldEconomicDepressionof1929-
1935causedtheSpanishCivilWarof1936-
1939.Between1929and1935,therewasaworldeconomicmeltdownsituationorperiodofreduc
edeconomicactivitiescharacterizedbyincreasedunemployment,lowconsumption,lowincom
elevels,povertyandeconomicstagnationamongothers.ItstartedinNorthAmericaandlaterspr
eadtootherpartsoftheworldincludingSpain.TheSpanishRepublicangovernmentfailedtodeal
withtheseeconomichardshipswhichwereworsenedbythe1935droughtand1936stormswhic
hdestroyedcrops.ThispolarizedtheSpanishpublic,thusencouragingthearmyunderGeneralFr
ancotoorganizeacivilwarin1936.
ThesuccessoftheRepublicanRevolutionin1931againsttheSpanishMonarchylaidafoundation
fortheSpanishcivilwarof1936-
1939.In1931,theSpanishKingAlfonsoXIII,underincreasingpressure,authorizedelectionst
odecidethegovernmentofSpainandthevotersoverwhelminglychosetoabolishthemonarchyi
nfavourofaliberalRepublic.KingAlfonsoXIIIwentintoexileandthereforetheSecondSpanishRe
public,initiallydominatedbymiddleclassliberalsandmoderatesocialists,wasproclaimed.Thiss
uccessinspiredagroupofseniorgeneralsfromthepartoftheSpanisharmybasedinMoroccotost
ageacoupd’étatledbyGeneralFrancoon17thJuly1936andSpainquicklyeruptedintoacivilwar.

TheriseofSpanishnationalismfuelledbythelossofcoloniescausedtheSpanishcivilwarof1936-
1939.Forexample,therewaslossofCubaduringtheSpanish-
AmericanWarof1898inwhichtheUnitedStatesjonedCubaninherwarofindependenceagainst
Spain.ShealsolostabattletotheBerbersintheSpanishProtectorateofMoroccoin1921whichhei
ghtenednationalisticfeelingsamongthemassesinSpain.ThefailurebytheliberalSpanishgover
nmenttorestoresuchcoloniesandforeigngloryundermineditscredibilityandthereforeinspired
agroupofarmyofficersunderGeneralFrancotostageacoupattemptinJuly1936whichdeteriora
tedintoacivilwar.
ThegeneralinsecurityinSpaincausedtheSpanishcivilwarof1936-
1939.In1931,theSecondSpanishRepublicwasestablishedfollowingaperiodofright-
wingdictatorshipundermonarchicalrule.Unfortunately,thisrepublicfellvictimofthedeephisto
ricaldivisionsintheSpanishpolitics,thuspolarizingSpaininearlymid-1930sbetweentheleft-
wingandtheright-
wingpoliticalsides.BecauseofthispolarizationoftheSpanishpublic,therewereendlessclashes
orstrikesinthecountry.Forexample,duringthefirstmonthsof1936,morethantwohundredpart
ialstrikestookpeaceinSpain,whileonehundredandseventychurches,sixtynineclubsandoffice
sofnewspapersweresetonfirebyarsonists.Unfortunately,theSpanishliberalgovernmentfaile
dtostopthisinsecurityinthecountrywhichundermineditscredibility.Thisinspiredtheseniorarm
yofficersunderGeneralFrancotostageacoupattemptinJuly1936whicheventuallyresultedinto
acivilwar.
Theinfluenceoftheleft-wingPopularFrontPartycausedtheSpanishcivilwarof1936-
1939.InFebruary1936,newelectionswereorganizedandthePopularFront-
aleftwingpartygainedamajoritywinintheSpanishgovernment.ThisannoyedtheFascistandex
treme-
rightwingforcesandthereforetheybeganplottingtooverthrowthegovernmentunderthePopul
arFrontParty.Consequently,inJuly1936theright-
wingmilitaryleadersunderGeneralFrancorespondedwithanarmymutinyandcoupattemptag
ainsttheSpanishliberalgovernmentthateventuallyexpandedintoacivilwar.
Theanti-CatholicpoliciesoftheRepublicangovernmentcausedtheSpanishcivilwarof1936-
1939.In1936,thegovernmentpassedanumberofanti-
clericallawswhichalienateditfromtheCatholicChurch.Forexample,itintroducedlawswhichre
ducedthechurch’spowerovereducation.Thisthereforebroughtaboutthenegativeattitudeoft
heCatholicChurchagainstthegovernmentwhichinspiredthechurchtojointhelandownersandf
ascistelementsinSpaintolaunchacivilwarin1936undertheleadershipofGeneralFranco.
TheattemptstoreducetheinfluenceofthearmybytheSecondRepublicofSpaincausedthecivilw
ar.Forexample,in1936thegovernmentpassedanarmyreformbywhicheightthousandofficers
wereforcedintoretirementandthisoffendedthearmysomuch.Similarly,GeneralFrancoasenio
rarmyofficerandstrictmonarchist,wassenttoanobscurecommandintheCanaryIslandsoffAfri
ca.ThearmyofficersthereforedecidedtoformtherebelNationalistarmyledbyGeneralFrancow
hichlaunchedacivilwaragainsttherepublicangovernmentinJuly1936.

TheneedtoendtheseparatistmovementsofCataloniaandtheBasqueCountrycausedtheS
panishCivilWarof1936-
1939.In1922,anindependencemovementbeganintheSpanishregionofCataloniaaimedatbre
akingthisregionawayfromtherestofSpainandcreateaseparatestateofCataloniainNorth-
EasternSpainwithitscapitalatthetownofBarcelona.TherewasalsotheBasquecountrywhichw
asanautonomousprovincefortheBasquepeopleinNorthernSpain.In1932,theSecondSpanish
RepublicgrantedautonomytotheregionofCataloniafollowingnegotiationsbetweentheCatalo
nianseparatistsandtheleadersoftherepublic.GeneralFrancoandhiscolleagueshatedthisauto
nomygrantedtotheseregionsbecauseitunderminednationalunityinthecountry.Asaresult,the
ylaunchedacivilwarin1936againsttheliberalRepublicangovernmentsoastostoptheseseparat
istmovementsandmaintainaUnitedSpain.
ThenationalizationpoliciesoftheSecondRepubliccausedtheSpanishcivilwarof1936-
1939.Since1931,theRepublicangovernmenthadinstitutedseveralmeasuresaimedatestablis
hingstatescontroloverthemajormeansofproductioninSpainasasteptoendprivateownership.
Forexample,intheearly1930stherepublicangovernmentputinplacelandreformsthroughwhic
hlandinSpainwasnationalized.ThisgreatlyannoyedtheconservativelandownersinSpainwho
hadlosttheirlandinthisprocess.TheythereforejoinedtheCatholicChurchandfascistelementsu
nderGeneralFrancotostageacoupattemptagainsttherepublicangovernmentinJuly1936whic
hdeterioratedintoacivilwarinSpain.
TheimpactofurbanizationinSpaincausedthe1936-
1939civilwars.Spainwitnessedrapidurbanizationwhichsawtheemergenceofmajortownslike
MadridandBarcelona.Withintheseurbancenters,werelargenumbersofpeopleandthisresulte
dintoeconomichardshipslikewidespreadunemploymentandradicalizationoftheindustrialwor
kersduetothehighcostofliving.Theseproblemsincreasedtheunpopularityoftheliberalgovern
mentandGeneralFrancothereforeexploitedthissituationtostageacoupattemptinJuly1936wh
ichresultedintoacivilwarinSpain.
ThefearofcommunisminSpaincausedtheSpanishCivilWarof1936-
1939.Communismwasaneconomicsystemwhichadvocatedforthestatecontrolofbusinesses
andotherfactorsproductionlikelandaswellasgivingmuchpowertotheworkers.Thisideologyor
iginatedfromRussia,followingthesuccessofthe1917Russianrevolutionswhichoverthrewthe
Tsaristregimeandledtotheestablishmentofcommunism.FromRussia,communismspreadtot
heWesternEuropeancountriesincludingSpain,andsparkedoffinstabilitiesthatcreatedfearam
ongthebusinessmen,governmentofficialsandlandowners.Forexample,inOctober1934,agen
eralstrikeandarmedrisingofworkersorsocialistswasputdownbytheSpanisharmyunderGener
alFrancoonbehalfofthegovernment.Therefore,fearingthattheSpanishliberalgovernmentwo
uldgivewaytoacommunistorMarxistrevolution,thearmyofficersunderGeneralFrancoconspir
edtocapturepowerinJuly1936soastoridSpainofBolshevismorcommunism.Theseofficersalso
receivedsupportfromthechurchandlandownerswhowantedtoprotecttheirprivatepropertylik
eland.

TheweaknessoftheLeagueofNationscausedtheSpanishCivilWarof1936-
1939.Formedin1920,theLeagueofNationswasexpectedtoupholddemocracyinEuropebydef
endingdemocraticgovernmentsagainstanythreats.However,duetoitsmilitaryandeconomic
weaknesses,theLeagueofNationsfailedtodefendtheexistingliberaldemocraticgovernmentsi
nEuropefrombeingoverthrownbydictators.Forexample,itfailedtoprotecttheItalianliberalgo
vernmentunderKingVictorEmmanuelIIIfrombeingoverthrownin1922byBenitoMussolini.Ita
lsofailedtostopAdolfHitlerfromoverthrowingthedemocraticWeimarRepublicin1934whichha
dbeenestablishedin1919followingtheresignationofKaiserWilliamII.Suchweaknessestheref
oreinspiredGeneralFrancotolaunchacivilagainsttheliberalRepublicangovernmentofSpainin
1936.
Themilitaryuprisingof1936againsttheliberalgovernmentcausedtheSpanishCivilWarof1936-
1939.On17thJuly1936,agroupofthemostinfluentialgeneralsfromthepartoftheSpanisharmyb
asedinMoroccoorganizedamilitaryuprisingagainsttheSpanishliberalgovernment.Thisarmyr
ebellionwhichwastriggeredoffbytheeventsinMadridsoonspreadtomainlandSpainandexplod
edintoafullscalecivilwarthatlastedfrom1936upto1939.
Theimpactofthesuccessofthe1922FascistrevolutioninItalyalsocausedtheSpanishcivilwarof
1936-
1939.InOctober1922,BenitoMussoliniorganizedhisfasciststomarchtoRomeandcapturepow
erinacoupfromtheItalianliberalgovernmentunderKingVictorEmmanuelIII.TheKingrefusedt
oresistthemarcheventhoughtheItalianarmywaswellequippedtodisperseit.Instead,thekingi
nvitedMussolinitoentertheparliamentandtoldhimtoformanewgovernmentwhichmarkedthe
riseofFascisminItaly.ThissuccessinspiredGeneralFrancotolaunchacivilwarinSpainagainstth
eRepublicangovernmentin1936.
TheinspirationfromthesuccessofAdolfHitlerofGermanyin1934alsocausedtheSpanishcivilwa
rof1936-
1939.InAugust1934,AdolfHitlerrosetopowerinGermanyafteroverthrowingthedemocraticW
eimarrepublicwhichhadfailedtoaddressGermany’ssocial,politicalandeconomicproblems.Th
issuccessbyAdolfHitlerinspiredGeneralFranciscoFrancotoalsostageacoupattemptinJuly193
6againsttheSpanishliberalgovernmentandthiseventuallyexplodedintoacivilwarinSpain.
ThedesirebyBenitoMussolinitoextendtheFascistideologyinSpainalsocausedthecivilwar.He
wasanItalianpatriotwhofoundedtheFascistideologyinItalyinthe1920s.Thiswasadictatorials
ystemofgovernmentwhichaimedatdestroyingotherpoliticalideologiesinEuropeespeciallylik
eliberaldemocracy.ThisiswhatinspiredMussolinitojoinHitler-
afellowFascisttogotoSpainandassistGeneralFrancotooverthrowtheliberalSpanishgovernm
ent.ThiseventuallycausedthecivilwarinSpain.
EFFECTSOFTHESPANISHCIVILWAROF1936-1939

TheSpanishcivilwarledtothecollapseoftheRepublicangovernmentinSpain.TheSecondSpani
shRepublicwasdefeatedbytheNationalistarmyoftherebelsunderGeneralFrancoin1939beca
useitwasmilitarilyweakyettherebelswerebeingsupportedbystrongpowerslikeGermanyandI
taly.Asaresult,democracyinSpanwasdestroyedbythiscivilwar.
Itledtomassivelossoflivesonbothsidesoftheconflict.Uptoonemillionpeoplethatincludedcom
batantsandcivilianswerekilledinthisconflict,whichwasthemostdevastatingintheSpanishhist
ory.Forexample,over6,000priestsandmonkslosttheirlivesbecauseofthechurch’sinvolvemen
tinthiscivilwar.
Itincreasedthemediainvolvementinwarcoverage.BecausetheSpanishcivilwarwasamajorint
ernationaleventthateveninvolvedforeignpowers,itwasgivenwidespreadmediacoverage.Th
ewarwasthereforecoveredbywell-
knowninternationalreporterslikeErnestHemingway,GeorgeOrwellandRobertCapa.Someoft
hesereportersevenproducedinternationalawardwinningfilmsabouttheSpanishcivilwar.Fore
xample,ErnestHemingwayandLillianHelinaco-
producedthe“SpanishEarth“,afilmwhichwasusedtoadvertiseSpain’sneedformilitaryandmo
netaryaidduringthecivilwar.
Itattractedtheinterventionoftheforeignpowers.TheSpanishCivilWararousedwidespreadpas
sionacrossEuropeandtheworld,whichwasincreasedbytheeffortstobothsidestowininternatio
nalsupport.Asaresult,GermanyandItalyaidedGeneralFrancowithplanes,tanksandarmssoas
tostopthespreadofcommunisminSpainwhiletheSovietUnion(Russia)supportedtheRepublic
anside.Inaddition,thousandsofcommunistsandradicalsfromFrance,theUSSR,Americaandel
sewhereformedtheInternationalBrigadescomposedofforeignvolunteerstoaidtherepubli
cans.TheseforeignforcessuccessfullydefendedMadriduntiltheendofthecivilwar.
1939ledtothemassivedestructionofproperty.Duringthecourseofthisthreeyears’war,therew
aswidespreaddestructionofcitieslikeMadridandBarcelonaaswellaschurchesandhomesusing
modernweaponslikemortars,tanksandaircraftsthatweresuppliedbytheforeigncountries.As
aresult,alotofpropertywasdestroyedinSpainbythewarwhichleftthecountrydevastated.
1939madetheFascists(dictators)popularinEurope.TheSpanishCivilWarwasthefirstgreatclas
hofthe20thcenturyideologiesofdictatorshipanddemocracyastherebelNationalistarmyledbyG
eneralFrancowasaidedbyNaziGermanyandFascistItalywhiletheSpanishrepublicangovernm
entwassupportedbycommunistSovietUnion(Russia)andmanyvolunteersfromtheliberaldem
ocraticnations.Thesuccessofthecivilwarin1939markedthetriumphorsuccessofdictatorshipo
verwesterndemocracy.ThisthereforeboostedtheimageoftheFascistsorAxispowersinEurope
.
Thewarclearlypromotedtheappeasementpolicy.Theappeasementpolicywasapolicythatwas
followedbytheBritishandlaterFrenchofavoidingwarwithaggressivepowerssuchasGermanya

ndItalybygivingintotheirdemandsprovidedtheywerenottoounreasonable.DuringtheSpanis
hCivilWar,thewesterndemocraticpowerslikeBritain,France,SwedenandBelgiumpursuedap
olicyofnon-
interventionandthereforedidnotsupporttheliberaldemocraticgovernmentofSpain.Thiswasa
clearmanifestationoftheappeasementpolicyanditstoppedtheSpanishconflictfrombecoming
aglobalconflictasthesituationhadindicatedespeciallywiththeinterventionofsomeforeignpow
ers.
ThewarledtothedisplacementofmanySpanishpeople.Thecivilwarthatragedonforthreeyears
forcedmanypeopletomigratefromSpaintootherEuropeancountrieslikeFrance,RussiaandLat
inAmericawheretheybecamerefugees.Thisincreasedtheirsufferingwhilestayingintheseforei
gncountries.
ItledtotheestablishmentofFascismordictatorshipinSpainunderGeneralFranco.Aftertheirvict
oryin1939,theNationalistsinstalledadictatorialregimeinSpainunderGeneralFrancothatlaste
dforthirtysixyearsuntilGeneralFranco’sdeathinNovember1975.Therefore,theSpanishcivilw
arledtotheextensionoffascism(dictatorship)toSpainwhichmarkedtheendofliberaldemocrac
ythatSpainhadenjoyedsince1931whentheSecondSpanishRepublicwasestablished.
ItenabledtheGermansandtheRussianstousethewarasatestinggroundfortheirweapons.The
Spanishcivilwarinvolvedtheuseofmodernweaponsthatwereavailedtothetwowarringsidesby
GermanyandtheSovietUnion(Russia).Theseincludedsub-
machineguns,mortars(bombs),artillery,tanksandcombataircraftsamongothers.Thistheref
oreincreasedthearmsraceinEuropewhichthreatenedpeaceandstabilityandeventuallyledtot
heoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.
TheSpanishCivilWarconsolidatedthefriendshipbetweenAdolfHitlerofGermanyandBenitoMu
ssoliniofItaly.FollowingtheircommonforeignpolicyinSpainwheretheyjointlysupportedGener
alFrancoagainsttheRepublicangovernment,thetwofascistleadersbecamegreatallies.Thisth
ereforeledtoformationofanallianceofdictatorsknownastheBerlin-
RomeAxison25thOctober1936whichunitedthetwofasciststates.Thisalliancewaslaterjoine
dbyHirohitoofJapantoformtheBerlin-Rome-
TokyoAxisoranallianceoftheAxispowers.Theformationofthesealliancespartlycontributedtot
heoutbreakoftheWorldWarIIin1939.
ItincreasedtheRussianhostilitytowardstheGermansandItalians.BeforetheSpanishcivilwar,t
herelationsbetweencommunistRussiaandGermanytogetherwithItalyhadbeenhostilebecau
seAdolfHitlerandBenitoMussoliniwereanti-
communistsandyetRussiawasamajorcommunistcountryfollowingthesuccessofthe1917Bols
hevikrevolution.WhenRussiaclashedwithGermanyandItalyduringtheSpanishcivilwar,thisin
tensifiedtheRussianenemitytowardsGermanyandItalyespeciallyfollowingthevictoryofthefa
scistsinSpainby1939.ThisthereforedrewcommunistRussiatothewesterndemocraticorcapita
listpowersofBritainandFranceduringWorldWarIIof1939-1945.

ThecivilwarenabledtheSpanishtoovercometheGreatEconomicDepression.Thedepressionw
hichbrokeoutin1929hadresultedintoaperiodofeconomicstagnationcharacterizedbycollapse
ofindustries,increasedunemploymentandpovertyinSpain.Withtheeconomicassistancefrom
NaziGermanyandFascistItaly,Spainwasabletorecapitalizehereconomywhichhelpedhertore
coverfromtheeconomichardshipsthathadbeencausedbytheGreatEconomicDepression.
ItencouragedAdolfHitlerofGermanytopursuefurtheraggressivepoliciesinEurope.WhenAdol
fHitlersucceededininvadingSpainwiththesupportofItalysoastoinstallafascistregimeunderG
eneralFranco,thisencouragedhimtoconductfurtheractsofaggressioninEurope.Forexample,i
n1938HitlerinvadedAustria,inMarch1939healsoattackedandoccupiedCzechoslovakiaandfi
nallyinSeptember1939,heattackedPoland.SuchaggressiveforeignpoliciesofAdolfHitlerpartl
ycontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.
TheSpanishCivilWargeneratedanewwaveormethodofwarfarethathadneverbeentherebefor
e.Thiswascharacterizedbytheuseoftanksandaircraftsthatspreadterrorthroughthebombing
ofcities.Thiswasbecauseduringthewar,SpanishcitieslikeMadridandBarcelonawereheavilyb
ombardedbytheGermanandItalianaircrafts.SuchwarstrategieswereadoptedduringWorldW
arII.Forexample,USAbombedthetwoJapanesecitiesofHiroshimaandNagasakiinAugust1945
whichendedtheJapaneseresistanceinWorldWarII.
ItunearthedorexposedtheweaknessoftheLeagueofNations.DuringtheSpanishCivilWar,Rus
sia,GermanyandItalyignoredtheLeagueofNationscovenantonarmswhichhadlimitedtheman
ufactureanduseofdeadlyweaponsafterWorldWarI.Theyinsteadresortedtothemassiveexpor
tationofarmsliketanks,aircrafts,sub-
machinegunsandbombstoSpain.However,theLeagueofNationswasunabletostopthesepow
ersfromdoingsowhichthereforeexposeditsweaknessasaninternationalbodythatwascharge
dwiththeresponsibilityofmaintainingworldpeaceandstabilityafterWorldWarI.
TheSpanishcivilwarof1936-
1939contributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.TheSpanishcivilwarservedasamilitary
groundforWorldWarIIbecauseGermany,ItalyandRussiausedittotesttheirweaponsandtactic
s.ItwasalsoadressrehearsalofWorldWarIIasitsplittheworldintoforcesthateithersupportedd
emocracyordictatorshipinEurope.Thisdivisionoftheworldonideologicalgroundseventuallyle
dtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.
(a)Explainthecausesandconsequencesofthe1936-1939SpanishCivilWar.
(b)Explainthesignificanceofthe1936-
1939SpanishCivilWarintheHistoryofEurope.
WORLDWARII(1939-1945)
WorldWarIIwasadevastatingwarthatbefelltheworldduringtheperiodbetween1939and1945
.Itbrokeouton3rdSeptember1939followingtheGermaninvasionofPolandon1 stSeptember193
9andendedwithJapan’ssurrenderon15 thAugust1945.LikeWorldWarI,itwasfoughtbetweent

worivalcampsnamely;theAxisPowersandtheAlliedPowers.TheAxisPowerscomprisedGe
rmany,ItalyandJapanandthisconstituted theBerlin-Rome-
TokyoAxiswhiletheAlliedPowersincludedBritain,FranceandRussiaandlaterUSAandtheirAllie
swhichconstitutedthedemocraticpowers.
THECAUSESOFWORLDWARII
TheeffectsofWorldWarIof1914-
1918ledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.Thiswasoneoftheworld’sgreatestcatast
ropheseverfoughtbymananditoccurredintheperiodbetween1914and1918.Itwasfoughtbet
weentworivalcampsnamely;theTripleAllianceorcentralpowersofGermany,Austria-
HungaryandlateronjoinedbyBulgariaandTurkeyandTripleEntenteorAlliedPowersofFrance,
Britain,Russia,andSerbiaandlateronjoinedbyItalyandUSA.Thewarendedin1918withthedefe
atoftheCentralPowersbytheAlliedPowers.Thisdefeatcreatedaspiritofrevengeamongthedef
eatednationslikeGermanywhichbeganplanningforanotherwaragainsttheTripleEntentePow
ers.ThisfinallyculminatedintheoutbreakofWorldWarIIby1939.Tosomescholarstherefore,W
orldWarIwasacontinuationofWorldWarII.
TheweaknessesoftheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919ledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.
ThiswasatreatythatendedWorldWarIanditwassignedbetweenGermanyandtheAlliedPowers
on28thJune1919intheHallofMirrorsatVersaillesPalace.Thistreatywasconsideredtobeharsho
runfairbytheGermansandthisthereforesignificantlycontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII
in1939.Inthefirstplace,theGermansstatedthatthistreatywasdictatedonthembecausetheyw
erenotallowedtonegotiateit.Duringthecourseofthedeliberations,theGermandelegatesapart
frombeingdeniedtherighttoexpresstheirviews,theyweretreatedascriminals.Forexample,th
eywereescortedinandoutsidetheHallofMirrorstohumiliatethemasiftheywereundercriminalp
rosecution.ThiscreatedenemityorhatredamongtheGermansthateventuallyeruptedintoWorl
dWarIIby1939.
Secondly,theVersaillestreatyheldGermanysolelyorentirelyresponsibleforcausingWarWorld
IthroughtheWarGuiltClause.TheGermanstookthisasunfairsinceevenotherpowerslikeFra
nceandBritainhadsignificantlycontributedtotheoutbreakofthewar.Thebitternessarisingfro
mthisclauseamongtheGermansmadethemtostartpreparingforanotherWorldWarwhichcam
ein1939.
ThetreatyalsoimposedanunrealisticorunfairwarindemnityorfineonGermanywhichleftherlon
gingforrevenge.Thevictorpowersimposed6,600millionpoundsor6.6billiondollarsonGerman
yasafineforthedamages(materialandhuman)causedtotheAlliedPowersduringWorldWarI.T
hesereparationsstrainedthealreadydevastatedGermaneconomyandinsteadworsenedtheso
cial-
economiccrisisinGermany.WhenAdolfHitlercametopowerin1934,thispromptedhimtorenou
ncethesewarreparationsandbegantoprepareGermanyforapossiblewarofrevenge.Thisthere
foreledtotheoutbreakWorldWarIIin1939.

ItalsodeprivedGermanyofherterritoriesinEuropewhichalsomadeherbitter.UndertheTerrito
rialadjustmentClause,forexample,GermanylosttheprovincesofAlsaceandLorrainetoFra
ncewhichGermanyhadoccupiedforfourtyeightyearssince1871.Shealsolosthertwoterritories
ofEupenandMalmedytoBelgium.ThesetwoterritorieshadbeenimportanttoGermanyforagric
ulture.ShealsolosttheRhinelandsandtheRuhrindustrialregion.NorthernSchleswigwhichhad
beenunderGermancontrolsince1864wasalsogiventoDenmark.Therefore,thetreatyledtothe
collapseoftheGermanempireinEuropewhichgreatlyannoyedtheGermansandthiseventuallyl
edtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.
ThetreatyalsoignoredGermannationalismwhichlefttheGermansverybitter,hencepreparingt
hegroundfortheoutbreakofWorldWarII.BytheVersaillespeaceof1919,someGermansweregi
ventothenewlycreatedstatesinEuropeafterWorldWarIlikeCzechoslovakia,Yugoslavia,Polan
dandAustria.Germanythereforelostenormousresourcesanditsnationalswhichlatercompelle
dAdolfHitlertopursueanaggressiveforeignpolicysoastoliberatetheGermanpeoplefromforeig
ndomination.Consequently,in1939GermanyinvadedPolandwhichsparkedoffWorldWarII.
ItalsoimposedanunfairarmyofoccupationonGermanywhichprovokedherintoawarofrevenge
.AsguaranteethatthetermsofthetreatyshallbeimplementedandacceptedbyGermany,theAlli
edPowersoccupiedtheGermanterritorytotheWestoftheRhineforfifteenyears.Thiswasadenia
loffreedomandindependencetotheGermansthatlivedinthatarea,hencemakingthemverybitt
er.SuchwerethediscontentsthatAdolfHitlerexploitedtopursuemilitaryaggressionswhichend
edintheinvasionofPolandinSeptember1939whichsparkedoffWorldWarII.
TheVersaillespeacetreatyalsounfairlydisarmedGermanytherebyprovokingherintoanotherw
ar.Bythedisarmamentclause,Germanywasforcedtodestroyhernavy,airforceandtoreducehe
rarmytoonly100,000men.Nomorewasshetomanufacturemilitarytanks,aircraftsandheavyar
tillery.Whereastheclausewassetuptodisarmallpowersboththevictorsandthevanquishedtoth
elowestconsistentwithdomesticsafety,thevictorpowerslikeBritain,FranceandRussiainstead
continuedre-
armingthemselvesandthereforeescalatingthearmsrace.WhenAdolfHitlercametopower,this
gavehimeveryexcusetore-
armGermanyandpursueaggressiononcontinentalEuropewhichdeterioratedinWorldWarIIb
y1939.
TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919alsomadeGermanytolosehercoloniesinAfricawhichleftt
heGermansverybitter.Thesecolonieswereentrustedtothevictoriouspowerstoadministerthe
monbehalfoftheLeagueofNationswhichwasformedattheendofWorldWarI.Forexample,s
helostSouthWestAfrica(Namibia)toSouthAfrica,RwandatoBelgium,TanganyikaandpartofC
ameroontoBritainwhileTogowasgivenFrancerespectively.Thesepowersexploitedthenatural
resourcesinthesecolonieslikemineralsfortheireconomicbenefitwhichcreatedbitternessamo
ngtheGermans.ThiscreatedhatredandthedeterminationbytheGermanstowageawarofreven
gewhicheventuallyledtotheoutbreakWorldWarIIin1939.

TheVersaillesPeaceTreatyalsocreatedveryweakstatesaroundGermanythatwerevulnerabl
etoaggressionwhicheventuallycausedWorldWarII.Forexample,therewasthecreationofCzec
hoslovakia,Romania,PolandandYugoslavia.Theseweresmallandweakstatesandthereforeth
eywereunabletodefendthemselvesagainstexternalaggressionyettheauthorsofthesettleme
ntdidnotprovidesecuritymeasurestothesenewstates.Thisiswhatlaterinspiredorencouraged
GermanyunderAdolfHitlertoinvadePolandin1939,aneventthatsparkedoffWorldWarII.
TheVersaillespeacetreatyalsodisappointedsomeoftheAlliedPowers,hencepromptingthemt
oallywithGermanytoorganizeWorldWarII.ItalyandJapan;membersofthevictorcampweredis
appointedattherewardstheyreceivedfromthetreatyascomparedtotheircounterparts.Forexa
mple,JapanregardedtherewardofthefewislandsandsomepartsofChinaastoolittlecompensat
ionforherrole.ShecomplainedofbeingtreatedasunequalatVersailles.Italytoocomplainedthat
therewardwasnotcommensuratewithherdefectiontotheTripleEntentein1915.Suchdisappoi
ntmentsmadeJapanandItalytopursuerecklesspolicieswhichmadethewarinevitable.Forexa
mple,JapanconqueredtheChineseterritoryofManchuriain1931andwithdrewfromtheLeague
in1933.ItalyunderMussoliniinvadedandoccupiedEthiopiain1935.By1939,thethreecountries
hadformedanallianceknownastheRome–Tokyo-
BerlinaxiswhichfoughttheAlliedPowersinWorldWarII.
ThetreatyalsogaverisetotheweakLeagueofNationsthatcouldnottobringaboutlastingpeacei
nEurope.Formedin1920,theLeagueofNationsneitherhadaninternationalarmynorapolicefor
cetoenableitmaintainworldpeace.BecauseofthisthereforetheLeagueremainedformostofitsl
ife,a“barkingdogthatcouldnotbite”.Itsuseofeconomicsanctionsasaweaponalsoprovedusele
ssinthefaceofthegrowingeraofdictatorshipinEurope.Thisiswhyby1939,worlddictatorslikeG
ermany’sHitler,Japan’sHirohitoandItaly’sMussolinihadwithdrawnfromtheleagueandpursue
daggression,whichculminatedintheoutbreakofWorldWarII.
TheriseofdictatorsinEuropeandAsiacreatedcircumstancesthatledtotheoutbreakofWor
ldWarIIin1939.TheinterwarperiodwitnessedtheriseofdictatorialregimesinbothEuropeandA
siawhounderminedWorldpeace.Forexample,therewasBenitoMussoliniwhocametopowerinI
talyin1922,AdolfHitleralsorosetopowerinGermanyin1934whileHirohitobecameEmperorin
Japanin1926.Similarly,GeneralFrancocametopowerinSpainin1939withthesupportofBenito
MussoliniandAdolfHitler.ThisallianceofdictatorsthreatenedtheWesterndemocraticpowersli
keBritainandFrancewhichwereadvocatingforthespreadofliberaldemocracyintheentireworld
.ThistensionandsuspicionbetweenthetwosideseventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIby
1939.
TherevivalorrenewalofthealliancesysteminEuropealsoledtotheoutbreakofWorldWar
II.Inthepost-
WorldWarIperiod,thealliancesystemwasinitiatedbyFranceandwasmeanttochecktheGerma
nthreat.Forexample,in1935Francesignedafiveyears’alliancewithRussiatoassisteachotherin
caseofattackbyanyEuropeancountry.ThisalliancewasformedafterrealizingthatGermanywa
sincreasingherre-
armament.InadditiontoheralliancesagainstGermany,FranceencouragedCzechoslovakia,Ro

maniaandYugoslaviatoformthelittleTripleEntente.ShealsosigneddefensivetreatieswithPola
ndandBelgium.
Inreaction,GermanyandItalyformedanallianceinOctober1936knownastheRome-
BerlinAxis.ItwasanunderstandingbetweenHitlerandMussolinitoworktogetherintheirforei
gnpoliciesasfascistsordictators.In1938,anotheraggressorintheFarEastknownasJapanjoine
dtheRome–BerlinAxis,thusleadingtotheformationoftheRome-Berlin-
TokyoAxiswhichmadethewesterndemocraticpowerssuspicious.Consequently,in1939Brit
ain,appealedtoFranceandRussiatoformanallianceagainstGermanyandherallies.Therefore,
by1939thealliancesystemhadputEuropebacktoadangeroussituationbecauseEuropewasag
aindividedintotwohostilecampsnamely;theAlliedPowersagainsttheAxisPowers.Thisincreas
edtensionandsuspicioninEuropewhichmadetheoutbreakofWorldWarIIinevitableby1939.
ThealliancesystemalsointensifiedthearmsraceinEuropewhichcontributedtotheoutbreakof
WorldWarIIin1939.Sincehostilecampshadbeencreated,itbecamenecessarytomanufacture
dangerousweaponsforpurposesofdefenceincaseofanywar.Thiseventuallyresultedintoadan
gerouscompetitioninthemanufactureofdeadlyweaponsamongtheGreatPowerswhichbroug
htaboutthere-
armamentofEuropethateventuallymadetheoutbreakofWorldWarIIinevitableby1939.
Similarly,likeinWorldWarI,thealliancesystemmadethelocalizationofconflictsdifficult.Thisco
nsequentlytransformedormagnifiedsmallconflictsintointernationaldisputesorconflictswhic
hfinallyexplodedintoWorldWarIIby1939.Forexample,whenAdolfHitlerinvadedPolandon1 stS
eptember1939whichhadsignedadefensivealliancewithFranceandBritaintofightagainstGer
many,thiseventuallysparkedoffthewaron3 rdSeptember1939asBritainandFrancedeclaredwa
ronGermanyinordertosavetheirallyPoland.
TheideologicalconflictsinEuropeledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.Intheinterwarperiodt
hereexistedideologicalconflictsinEuropeandthesewerebetweenthefascistordictatorialstate
slikeItalyandGermanyandthedemocraticstatesofBritainandFrancejoinedbyUSAwhichweret
ryingtodefendthespreadofdemocracyintheworld.Fascismwastodowithdictatorshipandther
eforethesetwoideologieswereconflicting.Therefore,thefascistshadtofightthedemocratswhi
chledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.TheconflictisdearlyillustratedbyMussolini’sstatem
entwhenhesaid;“Thestrugglebetweenthetwoworldscanpermitnocompromise,eitherweort
hey.”
NationalismledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.TheVersaillesPaceTreatyof1919didnotfulfillt
hepromiseofgrantingindependencetoallthenationalitiesinEuropeespeciallytheminorities.C
onsequently,inthepost-
WorldWarIperiod,theminoritiesinsistedthattheyareeithergivenfullindependenceorallowedt
ore–
unitewiththeirmothercountries.Forexample,theGermansinCzechoslovakiaandPolandwant
edtogobacktoGermanywhiletheGermanspeakingpeopleofAustriawantedtobere-
unitedwithGermany.WhenAdolfHitlercametopowerinGermany,heexploitedsuchnationalisti

cfeelingsanddemandedthatalltheGermanspeakingpeopleinothercountriesshouldbeannexe
dtoGermany.Asaresult,in1938HitleroccupiedAustriainordertofulfillthisdemand.Hitleralsoin
vadedandannexedCzechoslovakiaandPolandin1939yetthesecountrieshadbeencreatedasin
dependentstatesbytheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919.Thisaggressivenationalismincreasede
nemityinEuropewhicheventuallysparkedoffWorldWarIIby1939.
TheGreatEconomicDepressionof1929-
1935playedasignificantroleincausingWorldWarII.Between1929and1935,theworldwasexp
eriencingadevastatingeconomicdownturnorcollapse,knownastheGreatEconomicDepre
ssion.Thisdepressionbroughtabouteconomichardshipssuchasmassiveunemploymentand
povertyincountrieslikeGermanywhichprovokedconsiderableangeramongthecitizens.Thisg
averisetodictatorslikeAdolfHitlerastheyde-
campaignedtheexistinggovernmentswhichhadfailedtosolvetheproblemsoftheGreatEcono
micDepression.Whilethesedictatorswereinpower,theygotinvolvedinactsofaggressionwhich
eventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIby1939.
Therevivalofthearmsraceorre-
armamentofEuropeledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.ThisstartedwithGermanywhichreviv
editsnavyandalsoincreasedthenumberofsoldiers.MilitarycompetitionintensifiedasBritaininc
reaseditsarmedforcesanditsnavyanddeclaredthatthere-
armamentprogrammesweretochallengeGermany.FranceandRussiaalsointensifiedrecruitm
entofsoldiers.TheywerefollowedbyJapanandItalyandthesetwoincreasedthearmsrace.This
createdtension,suspicionandfearamongtheEuropeanpowerswhicheventuallyledtotheoutbr
eakofWorldWarIIin1939.
TheSpanishCivilWarof1936–
1939alsoledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.Thiscivilwartookplacebetween1936and1
939whenthearmyofficersinSpainrevoltedagainsttheliberalRepublicangovernment.Therebe
lforceschoseGeneralFranciscoFrancoastheirleader.Duringthiscivilwar,therebelswereaided
byAdolfHitlerofGermanyandBenitoMussoliniofItalywithweapons,aircraftsandadvisors.Russ
iaontheothersidesupportedtheRepublicanforcesofthethenliberaldemocraticgovernmentof
Spain.However,GeneralFrancoandhisallieswonthecivilwarin1939.TheSpanishcivilwarserve
dasamilitarygroundforWorldWarIIbecauseGermany,ItalyandRussiausedittotesttheirweap
onsandtactics.ItwasalsoadressrehearsalofWorldWarIIasitsplittheworldintoforcesthateithe
rsupporteddemocracyordictatorshipinEurope.Thisdivisionoftheworldonideologicalgrounds
eventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.
AggressionledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.Thisaggressionwaslargelypromotedby
AdolfHitlerofGermanyandBenitoMussoliniofItalyandtheiractsofaggressionledtotheoutbrea
kofWorldWarIIby1939.AdolfHitlerbecameaggressiveashedenouncedtheVersaillesPeaceTr
eatyof1919whichheregardedasaveryunfairtreatytoGermanyandthereforeheembarkedonr
eversingit.Forexample,on7thMarch1936,AdolfHitlersenttheGermantroopstooccupytheR
hinelandterritorywhichhadbeendemilitarizedbytheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919.Similar
ly,in1938HitlerannexedAustriaandin1939,theGermanarmyoccupiedCzechoslovakiaandth

eNaziPartytookoverpowerinCzechoslovakia.Inthesameyear,HitlerinvadedPolandwhichwhi
chmovemadeEuropeancountriesdeclarewaronGermanyhence,sparkingoffWorldWarII.
Similarly,Mussolini’sinvasionofEthiopiain1935ledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.Onthe3 rdofO
ctober1935,BenitoMussoliniofItalyinvadedEthiopiainordertoavengethedefeatofItalyintheb
attleofAdowaof1896bytheEthiopians.DuetotheweaknessoftheLeagueofNations,itfailedtof
orceItalyoutoftheindependentstateofEthiopia.ThesuccessfuloccupationofEthiopiabyItalyin
spiredAdolfHitlerofGermanytoinvadePolandin1939hopingforthesamesuccess.Thistherefo
resparkedoffWorldWarIIasBritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermanysoastoforceheroutofP
oland.
AggressionstrengthenedthealliancesysteminEuropewhichledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.
Forexample,EuropeancountriesespeciallyBritainandFrancedecidedtounitesoastoresistGer
managgressioninEurope.Therefore,whenHitlerinvadedPolandin1939,BritainandFrancejoin
tlydeclaredwaronGermanywhichsparkedoffWorldWarII.
ThepolicyofappeasementalsocontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.Thiswasapolicyt
hatwasfollowedbyBritainandlaterFranceofavoidingwarwiththeaggressivepowerslikeGerma
ny,ItalyandJapanbygivingintotheirdemandsprovidedtheywerenottoounreasonable.Undert
hispolicy,thetwoAlliedPowersofBritainandFrancedeliberatelyignoredthepoliciesoftheaggre
ssivepowerssoastosatisfytheirdemands.Thiswouldpleasethemandhencehelptoavoidamilit
aryconfrontationwiththeaggressivepowersofGermanyandItaly.Thiswouldthereforeprevent
theoutbreakofanotherWorldWar.ThispolicywasgivenanewdimensionwhenNevilleChamb
erlainbecamethePrimeMinisterofBritainin1937.HebelievedthatsincetheLeagueofNations
wasweak,theonlywaytoavoidwarwastoestablishadirectlinkorpersonalcontactwiththedictat
ors.ThedemocraticstatesfeltthatGermanyandItalyhadbeentreatedunfairlyatVersaillesin19
19andthereforetheyreactedtotheminsympathy.Thepolicyofappeasementhoweverfailedtos
atisfyatalltheneedsoftheEuropeandictatorslikeAdolfHitler.Instead,itwasmisinterpretedand
abusedsomuchthatitalsohadtofacilitatethecircumstancesthatledtotheoutbreakofWorldWar
IIinthefollowingways;
ThepolicyincreasedaggressionwhicheventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.This
wasbecauseitgaveAdolfHitlerandhisalliestheimpressionthatthewesternpowerswereweaka
ndthattheyhadfearedtheAxisPowers.ThisiswhatinspiredBenitoMussolinitoinvadeEthiopiain
1935yetshewasanindependentcountryandmemberoftheLeagueofNations.Similarly,inMarc
h1936,AdolfHitlersenttheGermantroopstooccupythedemilitarizedzoneintheRhinelandsthat
hadbeencreatedbytheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919.AdolfHitleralsoinvadedAustriain1938a
ndCzechoslovakiain1939.Outofthisrisingaggression,AdolfHitlerinvadedPolandon1 stSeptem
ber1939andevenrefusedtocomplytotheultimatumofwithdrawingfromPolandasissuedbythe
AlliedPowerswhicheventuallysparkedoffWorldWarII.
TheappeasementpolicyalsoledtotherenewalofthearmsraceinEuropewhichcontributedtothe
outbreakofWorldWarII.ThesilencefromthewesterndemocraticpowersofBritainandFranceh
elpedAdolfHitlertorearmGermany,recruitmoresoldiersandpursuerigoroustrainingaswellast

oinventnewweaponrywhiletestingthemthroughhisaggressiveforeignpolicy.Therefore,thep
olicymadetheEuropeanpowerstoignoretheDisarmamentClauseoftheVersaillestreatyof1
919asGermanydeclaredre–
armamentprogrammmeswithoutbeingchecked.ThiswasadoptedbyotherpowerslikeItaly.T
hiseventuallyledtotherevivalofthearmsraceinEuropewhichfinallysparkedoffWorldWarIIby1
939.
ThepolicyincreasedAdolfHitler’sprestigeandpopularityathomeashegainedsuccessincarryin
gouthiswarplanswithoutbeingopposedbyBritainandFrance.TheGermansathomethoughtth
atitwasbecauseofHitler’sstrengththathewassucceedinginallhisaggressiveactionsandtheref
oretheymassivelysupportedhim.ItwasbecauseofthisprestigeandsupportathomethatHitler
wasencouragedtoprovoketheworldintoWorldWarIIin1939byinvadingPoland.
ThepolicyunderminedtheVersaillesPeaceSettlementof1919whicheventuallyledtotheoutbre
akofWorldWarII.Forexample,itencouragedAdolfHitlertoinvadeAustriain1938andyettheVer
saillespeacesettlementhadforbiddenthetwocountriesfromre-
uniting.ThisinvasionwasbecauseAdolfHitlerexpectednoresistanceatallfromtheGreatpower
sofBritainandFrance.ThismadeGermanyandAustriatore-
uniteagain,henceenablingAdolfHitlertorecover3.5millionGermansandotherresources.With
suchresources,AdolfHitlergottheconfidencetoengageinWorldWarIIin1939.
ThepolicygaveGermanyandotheraggressorsachancetoformmilitaryallianceswhichledtothe
outbreakofWorldWarII.Thisthereforegaveroomfortherenewalofthealliancesystemandallits
evils.Forexample,therewastheRome-BerlinAxisformedinOctober1936aswellastheRome–
Berlin–
TokyoAxisformedin1938.ThesealliancesrevivedthealliancesysteminEuropewhichcreatedmi
strustandsuspicionthateventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIby1939.
TheappeasementpolicyweakenedtheLeagueofNationswhicheventuallyledtotheoutbreakof
WorldWarII.ThecontinuedsilenceoftheWesterndemocraticpowersofBritainandFrancetothe
aggressivepoliciesoftheEuropeandictatorslikeAdolfHitlerandBenitoMussolinigreatlyunder
minedtheeffortsoftheLeagueofNationsinachievingtheobjectivesofitsfounderslikemaintaini
ngpeaceaswellasstoppingaggressiononthememberstates.Thisthereforeexposedtheleague
asaweakorganizationwhichfurtherinspiredAdolfHitlertoinvadePolandin1939andthisevents
parkedoffWorldWarII.
ThepolicygaveroomfortheriseandspreadofthenewideologiesofFascismandNazisminItaly
andGermanyrespectivelywhichincreasedideologicaldifferencesinEurope.Thesewerefascist
ordictatorialideologieswhichweretotallyopposedtodemocracyasadvocatedforbytheWester
nEuropeanpowers.Therefore,BritainandFranceshouldhavestoppedtheemergencetheseide
ologiesbutthiswasnotpossiblebecauseoftheappeasementpolicy.Theresultantideologicaldiff
erencesinEuropearewhatcausedWorldWarIIby1939asthedemocraticstatesfoughtagainstt
hedictatorialpowers.

TheweaknessesoftheLeagueofNationscontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.Form
edin1920,theLeagueofNationswascharacterizedbymanyweaknesseswhichitunabletoactas
aninstrumentofpeace.Forexample,itlackedthegoodwillofsomeofthemajorstatesinEuropelik
eGermanyandRussiarightfrom1920.Shealsolackedeffectivemeansofrestrainingthestronga
ggressivestates.Between1920and1939theleaguewastestedandfoundincreasinglywantinga
saresultoftheseweaknesses.AcaseinpointwaswhenJapaninvadedtheChineseprovinceofMa
nchuriain1931buttheleaguefailedtopunishJapanoverthisincident.ItalsofailedtoforceMussol
initowithdrawhistroopsfromEthiopiaandGreece.ItalsofailedtocontrolGermanaggressionint
hedemilitarizedzoneoftheRhinelandsbetweenFranceandGermany,Austria,Czechoslovakiaa
swellasPoland.ThisaggressionthereforebecameamajorcauseofWorldWarIIby1939.
TheLeagueofNationsalsofailedtostoptheGerman’sre-
armamentprogrammeandmilitarismwhichledtowarby1939.ThiswasaviolationoftheDisarm
amentClauseoftheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919whichreducedGermany’smilitarystrength.
ThisthreatenedotherEuropeanpowerswhichalsoreactedbyre-
armingthemselves.ThiseventuallyledtotherevivalofthearmsraceinEuropewhichcontributed
totheoutbreakofWorldWarII.
ItfailedtostopBritainandFrancefromusingthepolicyofappeasementonItalyandGermany.Wh
entheLeagueofNationswassetupin1920,ithadclearmethodsormeasuresthatwererecognize
dbythememberstatestomaintainpeacewhichincludedtheuseofeconomicsanctions,forceand
expulsionamongothersbuttheappeasementpolicywasnotamongthem.However,Britainand
FranceemployedthispolicywhichencouragedmoreaggressiveactsinEuropeandeventuallyle
dtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.
ItfailedtomaintainthemembershipofGermanyandItalyintheLeague.AstheLeagueofNations
continuedwithitsoperations,GermanyandItalywithdrewfromitsmembership.Thiswasdange
rousbecausewhenthesetwocountriespulledoutoftheLeague,theiractionswerenolongerinlin
ewithobjectivesoftheLeagueofNations.Forexample,theybecameaggressiveastheyinvadeds
everalindependentstateslikeAustria,CzechoslovakiaandPolandwhicheventuallysparkedoff
WorldWarIIby1939.
Hitler’sinvasionofAustriain1938alsocontributedtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.In1938,
AdolfHitlerinvadedAustriaandputitundertheNazicontrol.Thepurposeoftheinvasionwastore-
uniteAustriawithGermany,revokeorreversetheVersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919andrevivetheG
ermanpowerinEurope.BritainandFrancetreatedthisasGermanaggressionwhichtheyhadtofi
ghtagainst,thuslaterinfluencingthemtodeclarewaronGermanywhichledtotheoutbreakofWo
rldWarIIin1939.
Secondly,theinvasionofAustriaanditsannexationtoGermanyencouragedAdolfHitlerintofurt
heractsofaggression.Forexample,afterthesuccessfulannexationofAustria,HitlerinvadedCze
choslovakiainMarch1939.HealsolaterinvadedPolandinSeptember1939andthissparkedoffW
orldWarII.

Thirdly,theoccupationofAustriabyHitlerencouragedaggressionbyItaly.AdolfHitlersetanexa
mplewhichmadeMussoliniofItalywhowashiscloseallytoalsoinvadetheindependentstateofAl
baniainApril1939.However,thereactionofBritainandFrancetothisItalianaggressionwastod
eclarewaronItalywhichthereforecausedWorldWarII.
Inaddition,Hitler’sinvasionofAustriaintensifiedthearmsraceinEurope.BritainandFrancefear
edthegrowingpowerofGermanyfollowingtheinvasionofAustriaandtheywantedtoprotectthe
mselvesfromanypossibleGermanaggression.Theythereforeincreasedthere-
armamentoftheircountries.By1939,thishadrevivedorrenewedthearmsraceinEuropewhiche
ventuallyledtotheoutbreakWorldWarII.
TheannexationofAustriabyHitleralsogaveGermanycontrolofanotherlargeareainEuropewith
abundantresourceslikemineralsandmanpower.WiththehelpoftheseresourcesofAustria,Ado
lfHitlerbecameconfidenttoleadGermanyintoanotherWorldWar.ThisinspiredhimtoinvadePol
andinSeptember1939whichsparkedoffWorldWarII.
ImperialismwasanotherfactorthatledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.Somemajorpowersha
dimperialambitionswhichmadethemtobecomeaggressive.Forexample,Japaninvadedandoc
cupiedtheChineseprovinceofManchuriain1931inordertoacquirerawmaterialslikeSilk.Italyw
hichdidnotgetmanycoloniesinAfricainvadedandoccupiedEthiopia.Theseimperialambitions
wereinterpretedbyBritainandFranceasactsofaggressionwhichtheyhadtofightagainstandthi
seventuallyledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIby1939.
TheroleofthepressledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.Thewarwassparkedoffpartlyduetothe
poisonousinfluenceofthepressinEurope.InGermany,forexample,theNazigovernmentunder
AdolfHitlerpopularizedanaggressiveprogramthroughthepresspropaganda.Thispolicyexten
dedtootherrivalstatesofEurope.Forexample,NevilleChamberlain’sappeasementpolicywasgl
orifiedbytheBritishpress.Thenewspapersalsoreportedeventslikethemilitarycompetitionsho
winghoweachcampwaspreparedtogoagainsteachotherandsometimeswithexaggeration.Th
esenewspapersthereforeputEuropeintoawarmoodandthuscontributedtothehostilityandten
sionbetweenthemembersoftheAxispowersandtheAlliedpowerswhicheventuallysparkedoff
WorldWarIIby1939.
ThepersecutionoftheJewsespeciallyinItalyandGermanyledtotheoutbreakofWorld
WarII.BothMussoliniandHitlerhatedtheJewsandthereforewhentheycametopower,theyemb
arkedonthesystematicpersecutionoftheJewsthroughdenyingthemcitizenshipandotherform
sofmistreatment.Forexample,attheheightofHitler’spower,theJewswerepersecutedforheav
ycrimessuchasfailuretoshowsolidaritywiththeGermanarmyinwareffort.Healsosetupconcen
trationcampswheremanyJewswereconfined.ThisencouragedtheAlliedPowerslikeBritainan
dFrancetodeclarewaronGermanyandItalysoastostopthepersecutionoftheJewswhichsparke
doffWorldWarII.
TheGermaninvasionofPolandin1939wastheimmediatecauseofWorldWarII.On1stSep
tember1939,GermanyunderAdolfHitlerinvadedPolandbecauseofthemistakesmadebythe

VersaillesPeaceTreatyof1919.Thetreatyforexample,hadlefttheGermanpopulationannexedt
oPolandthroughthecreationofthePolishCorridorandtherefore,AdolfHitlerwantedtoannexth
eGermansinPolandtohiscountry.
HitleralsoinvadedPolandbecausehewantedtorestoretheBalticSeaPortofDanzigthathadbe
entakenbyPolandfromGermany.ThisportorcityhadverymanyGermansbuttheVersaillesPeac
eTreatyof1919hadputitunderthecontrolofPoland.Consequently,HitlerdemandedfromPolan
dthePortorCityofDanzigtobegiventoGermanyandthoseareaswiththeGermanpopulationinP
olandandifthiswasnotdoneby1stSeptember1939,HitlerwouldattackPoland.Withthesupport
ofBritainandFrance,PolandrefusedtomeetAdolfHitler’sdemandsandthereforeon1stSeptem
ber1939,hesenttheGermanforcestoinvadePoland.ThismadetheBritishPrimeMinisterNevill
eChamberlaintogiveuphisappeasementpolicyandtherefore,on3rdSeptember1939,Britain
andFrancedeclaredwaronGermanysoastosavetheirallyPolandwhichthismarkedthebeginnin
gofWorldWarII.
WHYTHEAXISPOWERSWEREDEFEATEDORWHYTHEALLIEDPOWERSWEREVIC
TORIOUSINWORLDWARII
TheGermaninvasionofRussiainJune1941inthefamous“OperationBarbarossa”wasamisc
alculationonthesideoftheAxisPowersandthereforeledtotheirdefeat.ThiswasbecausetheGer
manforcesweredefeatedandtheyfailedtocaptureMoscowbecauseoftheseverewinterofNove
mbertoDecember1941.TheGermantroops,withinadequatewinterclothingwerefrozentodea
thbytheRussianwinter.Thewinteralsodisorganizedtheirmovementandasaresult,theywereh
eldbackbytheRussians.Inaddition,theGermansoldierssufferedfromtheeffectsoftheRussian
Scorchedearthpolicywhichweakenedthem,leadingtotheirdefeatbytheRussianstroops.
TheAxispowerswerealsodefeatedinWorldWarIIbecausetheywereoutnumberedinmilitarype
rsonnelandallies.Forexample,theAlliedPowerslikeBritainandFrancesecuredsupportfromthe
ircolonieslikeEastAfrica,Egypt,Sudan,theBritishSomaliland,Algeria,IndiaandIndo–
China(Vietnam).Thesecoloniescontributedmanpowertowhichthemilitarypersonnelfromoth
erallieslikeBelgium,Holland,SouthAfrica,CanadaandlaterUSAwereadded.Thisthereforegav
etheAlliedPowersnumericalstrengthovertheAxisPowerswhichcontributedtothedefeatofthe
AxisPowers.
TheAxispowersunderestimatedthemilitarystrengthoftheAlliedPowerswhichledtotheirdefea
t.Forexample,AdolfHitlerinvadedRussiathinkingthathisenemieswereweakbasingonhisearli
ersuccesswhenheannexedAustriaandCzechoslovakia.Instead,Russiadefeatedhim.Similarly
,HitlerdidnotbelievethatBritainwouldinvolveherentirecolonialempireinWorldWarII.WhenBr
itainfinallyinvolvedhercoloniesinthewar,thisledtothedefatoftheAxisPowersby1945.
ThenegativeattitudeofEuropetowardstheAxispowersledtotheirdefeat.TheAxisleaderswere
veryunpopularbothathomeandintheiroccupiedterritories.Theylookedattheaxisleadersassi
mplyaggressive,dictatorsandhadnosympathyforthem.Forexample,HitlerandhisNaziregime
wereunpopularbothinGermanyandintheconqueredareasduetotheNazibrutalityinEasternEu

rope.Similarly,therewastheincreasingunpopularityofMussoliniinItalyduetohisdictatorialreg
ime.Therefore,theseleadersdidnotreceiveinternationalsupportthatwouldhaveenabledthe
mtodefeattheAlliedPowers.
TheAlliedPowershadthehugeorvastresourcesofUSAandRussiawhichalsoenabledthemtodef
eattheAxisPowers.DuringWorldWarII,USAreachedaproductioncapacityof70,000tanksand1
20,000AircraftsayearandmosttheseresourceswereextendedtotheAlliedPowerstoboosttheir
militarycapacity.Forexample,by1945theAlliedPowershadfourtimesasmanymilitarytanksast
heGermanswhichthereforeexplainwhyGermanyandheralliesweredefeatedbytheAlliedPowe
rs.
TheprolongedRussianresistancecontributedtothevictoryoftheAlliedpowersagainsttheAxisP
owers.TherewasalotoffightingontheRussianterritorybecauseRussiahadaverylargeterritory.
UnlikeinWorldWarI,RussiadidnotwithdrawfromWorldWarIIandoneofthereasonswasthatith
adthelargestforce.Asaresult,RussiadefeatedGermanyatStalingradin1943whichdestroyed
themyththattheGermanscouldnotbedefeated.ItalsoboostedtheRussianmoraletocontinuefi
ghtingagainsttheAxisPowers,henceleadingtotheirdefeatbyAxisPowers.
TheeconomicsuperiorityoftheAlliedPowersledtothedefeatoftheAxisPowersinWorldWarII.D
uringWorldWarII,BritainandFranceusedtheircoloniestoobtainrawmaterialstoboosttheirind
ustrialcapacity.Ontheotherhand,theAxisPowerslikeItalyandJapanhadfewcolonies,whilethe
Germancolonieshadbeentakenawayin1919.Worsestill,duringthecourseofthewar,theAllied
PowersmanagedtocutoffsuppliestoJapan,GermanyandItaly,henceleadingtotheshortageofr
awmaterials.ThistogetherwiththedestructionoftheGermanindustrialareaoftheRuhrbytheA
lliedPowerslefttheAxisPowerseconomicallyinferiortotheAlliedPowers.
TheentryofUSAonthesideoftheAlliedpowersinDecember1941ledtothedefeatofAxispowers.
In1941,theJapanesenavyattackedtheUnitedStatesnavalbaseatPearlHarbouronHawaiiisl
andsinthePacificOcean.ThispromptedUSAtoenterWorldWarIIwhichstrengthenedtheAllied
Powers,henceleadingtothedefeatoftheAxispowers.Forexample,theAmericanairforcedestro
yedtheindustrialareasinGermany.ThesameforcebombardedtheGermantransportroutesesp
eciallytherailwaysandthisaffectedthemovementoftheGermantroops.ItwasalsothesameAm
ericanairforcethatthrewthefirstatomicbombsonthetownsofHiroshimaandNagasakiinAu
gust1945thatforcedJapantowithdrawfromWorldWarII.
Thesuccessofthe“BattleofElAlamein”inEgyptinOctober1942againsttheGermanandItal
ianforcesledtothevictoryoftheAlliedPowersinWorldWarII.ThiswasbecauseitpreventedEgyp
tandtheSuezCanalfromfallingintheGermanhands.ItalsobrokethelinkupbetweentheAxisforc
esintheMiddleEastandthoseinUkraine.ItalsoledtothecompleteexpulsionoftheAxisPowersfr
omNorthAfrica,thusenablingtheBritishtroopsinMoroccoandAlgeriatoforcetheGermanforces
inTunisiatosurrenderinMayin1943.ThisthereforeledtothedefeatoftheAxisPowersinNorth
Africa.

ThemilitarysuperiorityoftheAlliedPowersenabledthemtodefeattheAxisPowersinWorldWarI
I.Forexample,theAlliedaircraftshadimprovedRadarSystemsthatwereusedtodetectsubma
rinesinpoorvisibilityareasandatnight.Therefore,theirplaneswereusedtohitandfinishthesub
marinesorU-
boatsoftheAxisPowers.TheinitialsuccessoftheAxispowershaddependedontheU-
boatswhichweredestroyed.Aboveall,theAlliedPowersusedtheresourcesfromthecoloniestos
trengthentheirmilitarycapacity.
ThedynamicorableleadershipoftheAlliedPowersledtotheirsuccessinWorldWarII.Theableco
mmandofthemilitaryofficersofBritain,USA,FranceandRussiawasmoresuperiortothatoftheA
xisPowers.Besides,PresidentRooseveltofUSAinfluencedhiscountrytofightGermanyandJ
apanandhissuccessorHarryTrumanauthorizedtheuseofatomicbombsonJapan.EvenWins
tonChurchillofBritainandJosefStalinofRussiaweregoodleaderswhoinfluencedtheirpeopl
etofightagainsttheAxisPowers.ThisthereforeledtothedefeatoftheAxisPowers.
ThemanufactureoftheU-
boatsbytheAlliedPowersledtotheirsuccess.TheAxispowerswereinitiallysuperioronwaterwit
htheuseoftheirU-
boats.However,duringthecourseofthewar,BritainandUSAmanufacturedsuperiorU-
boats.Becauseofthistherefore,theAlliedPowerswereabletodefeatJapanandheralliesinWorld
WarII.
TherewerealsoserioustacticalmistakescommittedbytheAxisPowerswhichledtotheirdefeatb
ytheAlliedPowers.Forexample,JapanfailedtorecognizetheimportanceofAircraftCarriersw
hichwouldhavefacilitatedthetransportationofheraircraftstothebattlefronts.Similarly,Hitlerr
efusedtoallowastrategicretreatorwithdrawaloftheGermansoldiersfromRussiaandasares
ult,heledtothedeathof300,000menatthehandsoftheRussians.Hitleralsoconcentratedofthep
roductionofV–
RocketsinsteadofJetAircraftsthatwouldhavechallengedthemilitarysuperiorityoftheAllied
Powersespeciallyintheair.SuchmistakesthereforeenabledtheAlliedPowerstodefeattheAxisP
owers.
ThefallofMussoliniinItalydisabledtheAxispowers,thuscontributingtotheirdefeatbytheAllied
Powers.InSeptember1943,Mussoliniwasdrivenofffrompowerandeventuallyassassinated.T
henewgovernmentinItalyabandonedtheallianceofItalyandGermanyandthereforeby1944,It
alyhaddefectedtheAxisPowersandjoinedthealliedpowers.TheAlliedpowersnowusedItalyas
abasetofighttheAxisPowers.ThisdisorganizedGermanyandJapanandthereforestrengthene
dtheAlliedPowers,henceleadingtothedefeatofAxisPowers.
TheincreasingwarfrontsonthesideoftheAxisPowersby1944ledtotheirdefeatinWorldWarII.A
countrylikeGermanyhadmanywarfrontsatwhichtofightandthat’swhyshewasdefeated.Forex
ample,inEasternEuropeGermanywasfightingwithRussiayetinWesternEurope,therewasBrit
ainandFrancewhileintheairtherewastheAmericanairforceinCentralEurope.Therefore,becau

seofthesemanywarfrontstheAlliedPowerslostcommandandtheycouldnotbeeffectivewhich
weakenedthem,thusleadingtotheirdefeatbytheAlliedPowers.
ThefallofAdolfHitlerandhisNazigovernmentinGermanyledtothedefeatoftheAxispowers.Ado
lfHitlerwholedEuropeandtheentireworldintoWorldWarIIcommittedsuicidein1945andhedie
dwithmostofhisNazistaunchsupporters.WhenHitlerdied,hissuccessorDonitzacceptedtosur
renderandthereforeon8thMay1945,hesignedatreatyofpeacewiththeAlliedPowerswhichen
dedtheGermanresistanceinWorldWarII.
ThescientificadvancementandtheuseoftheatomicbombsonJapanledtothevictoryoftheAllied
PowersinWorldWarII.Attheheightofthefighting,theUSAwhileusingatomicbombsbombarde
dtheJapanesecitiesofHiroshimaandNagasakion6 thand9thAugust1945respectively.Thishighl
ydemoralizedJapansomuchthaton15 thAugust1945,Japanwhichapparentlyseemedtobethes
trongestaxismember,surrenderedunconditionallywhichofficiallymarkedthedefeatoftheAxis
Powers.
THEEFFECTSOFWORLDWARII
WorldWarIIhadbothpositiveandnegativeeffectsonEuropeasnotedbelow;
THEPOSITIVEEFFECTSOFWORLDWARII
WorldWarIIpromotedeconomicprosperityinsomestates.Forexample,somestateslikeSwitze
rland,Canada,SwedenandtheUnitedStatesAmericagainedfromthewarthroughsupplyingthe
warmaterialslikeweaponsandfoodstuffs.
Thewarledtotheadvancementinscienceandtechnology.ThedemandsofWorldWarIIpromote
dscientificinnovationsorresearchinscienceandtechnologyespeciallyinthemilitaryfield.Forex
ample,Germanydevelopedpilotrocketsthatcouldcarryrocketpropelledbombs,USAandUSSR
alsoventuredintotheproductionofsophisticatedoradvancedweaponsliketheIntercontinental
BallisticMissiles.USAalsomanufacturedtheJupiterandHydrogenbombsasknownasatomicor
nuclearbombswhichwerethemostpowerfulatthattime.Theseadvancedweaponshelpedtocr
eatemilitarybalanceofpowerintheworldafter1945andbecauseofthistherewaspeaceandstabi
lityintheworld.
WorldWarIIgavebirthtothespiritofco-
operationamongtheWesternEuropeancountries.Asaresultoftheeconomicdestructioncause
dbythewar,theWesternEuropeancountriessawtheneedofcooperatingcloselyamongthemsel
vesthaneverbefore.Consequently,in1952theEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunitywasse
tupanditexploitediron,steelandcoalinFrance,Britain,theNetherlandsandLuxemburg.Thisspi
ritofco-
operationalsoledtotheformationoftheWesternEuropeanUnioninOctober1954aswellas
theEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)in1957afterthesigningoftheTreatyofRome.T

heseregionalorganizationssawWesternEuropemovingclosertowardstheformationofaCom
monMarket,thuspromotingeconomicrecoveryintheregionafterWorldWarII.
WorldWarIIalsoledtothebirthoftheUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)in1945.Theoutbreakof
WorldWarIIin1939revealedtotheworldtheweaknessesoftheLeagueofNations.Itwastherefo
refeltthatamuchstrongerinternationalorganizationshouldbecreatediftheworldwastohavepe
ace.Thus,theUNOwasformedin1945atSanFrancisco,USAforthepurposeofmaintainingpeac
eandpromotinginternationaldiplomacyandalsotosolvetheimmediatesocialandeconomicpro
blemsacrosstheworld.TheUNOtriedtomaintainworldpeacebyresolvinginternationaldispute
sbetween1945and1970.
NEGATIVEEFFECTSOFWORLDWARII
GermanyandheralliesweredefeatedonebyonebytheAlliedPowers.ThiswasbecauseGermany
washighlyindebtedandweakenedwhichforcedtosurrenderon8thMay1945.Asaresult,Germ
anywasoccupiedbytheAlliedpowersin1945whichwentaheadanddividedherintofourmilitaryo
ccupationzoneswithFranceintheSouthwest,BritainintheNorthwest,theUnitedStatesintheSo
uthandtheSovietUnionintheEast.Laterin1949,theUSA,BritainandFranceunitedtheWesternz
onesandestablishedtheFederalRepublicofWestofGermanywithitscapitalatthetownofBon
n.TheSovietUnionrespondedbyformingtheDemocraticRepublicofGermanyinEastGerm
any.Thetwocountries(Germanys)wereseparatedbyastrongwallknownastheBerlinWallwh
ichwasconstructedin1961.
Itledtoshortageoffoodandaneconomiccrisis.Duringthecourseofthewar,bothagriculturaland
industrialproductionhadbeeninterruptedwhichcausedscarcityofgoodsandservices.Otherpr
oblemslikeinflationandhighratesofunemploymentamongothersalsoemergedwhichcontinu
edtoposegreatchallengestothepostwargovernmentsinEurope.
WorldWarIIledtoheavydeathrates.Between50and70millionpeoplelosttheirlivesduringthec
ourseofthewar.Forexample,Russialost15millionpeople,Germanylostabout3.7millionpeople
,thePoleslost2millionpeopleandtheJapaneselost1.2millionpeoplewhiletheItalianslostabout
1millionpeople.
Thewaralsoledtomassivedestructionofproperty.Infrastructureslikeroads,railwaysystems,b
uildings,factories,townsandcitiesineitherofthecampsweregreatlydestroyed.Forexample,in
August1945,theUSAbombardedthetwocitiesofHiroshimaandNagasakiinJapaninordertoforc
ehertoabandonherwarpolicy.Inaddition,almostalltheGermancitieswerebombarded,agricul
turewasdisruptedwhichledtofoodshortagesandfamineinGermany.
ItledtosocialproblemsinEurope.Forexample,therewaspopulationre-
organizationaswellastheproblemofrefugeesbecauseWorldWarIIledtothedisplacementofm
anypeople.Forexample,theJewsandotherpeopleweretakenasprisonersofwarandputinconc
entrationcampswhilemanyotherJewsfledGermanyandItalytoavoidpersecution.Thus,thewa
rresultedintohumanmiseryassuchpeoplelackedshelter,foodandfamilies.Theseweretobeco

methechallengesofthepostwarperiod.AcaseinpointwasthatafterWorldWarII,theAlliedPowe
rsfacedaproblemoftransferringthesepeopletotheirindividualcountries.
ItalsoledtoachangeinthebalanceofpowerinEuropeandintheworldatlarge.BecauseofWorld
WarII,BritainandFrancedeclinedasmajortraditionalpowersandinsteadRussia(USSR)andUS
AemergedintheEastandWestrespectivelyasthenewworldsuperpowers.ThiswasbecauseUS
AhadsufferedrelativelylittlefromthewarsinceitneverreachedtheAmericansoil.
ThewarledtothespreadofcommunismorsocialismtothecountriesofEasternEurope.Thesewe
recountrieswhichwereliberatedfromtheNaziorGermanoccupationbytheSovietUnion(Russia
)duringthecourseofWorldWarIIandthereforetheRussianstookadvantageofthistoconvertthe
mtothecommunistorEasternbloc.ThesecountriesincludedPoland,Czechoslovakia,Romania,
HungaryandYugoslaviaamongothers.CommunismwasalsospreadtotheLowDevelopedCoun
triesinAfrica.ThisincreasedtheideologicaldifferencesbetweentheWesternEuropeanpowers
andcommunistRussiaafterWorldWarII.
ItledtotherivalrybetweenUSSR(Russia)andUSAwhichgavebirthtothe“ColdWar”.DuringW
orldWarII,USSRandUSAhadbeencloseallies,forgettingtheirideologicaldifferencesofcapitalis
mandcommunism.However,whentheyemergedassuperpowersafterWorldWarII,thistempo
raryco-
operationwasreplacedbycompetitionorrivalryasthetwosuperpowersstruggledtoextendthei
rideologiestootherpartsoftheworld.Thisledtothedivisionoftheworldintotwohostileblocsnam
ely;thecapitalistandcommunistblocs.Thisthreatenedinternationalpeacebetween1945and1
970asitledtoconflictsinAfricaandAsialiketheKoreanwarof1950-
1953,theVietnameseWarofIndependence1948-1954andtheCongocrisis1960-
1963amongothers.
ItledtothedecolonizationofAsiaandAfrica.WorldWarIIweakenedthecolonialpowerslikeBri
tainandFranceandthereforeafterthewar,thesepowerscouldnolongersustaintheircolonialem
pires.Asaresult,anumberofcountriesinAfricaandAsiastartedsecuringtheirindependenceafte
rWorldWarII.Forexample,in1947IndiaandPakistangottheirindependencefromBritainandlat
erIndonesiafromtheDutchaswellasVietnamfromFrancein1954.Thesametrendwasexperien
cedinAfricawherecountrieslikeSudan,Egypt,Libya,GhanaandAlgeriaachievedindependence
.ThiscontributedtothelossofterritoriesbytheEuropeanpowerslikeBritain,France,Belgiuman
dPortugal.
ThewarledtothecreationoftheJewishstateofIsraelin1948.BothbeforeandduringWorldWarI
I,manyJewsweredisplacedorscatteredalloverEurope.Therefore,attheendofthewar,theAllie
dpowersthroughtheUNOdecidedtosetupthestateofIsraelsoastoresettlethoseJewswhohadb
eenscatteredandpersecutedinEurope.ThishoweverresultedintoenmitybetweenIsraelandth
eArabswhoselandhadbeenoccupiedbythenewlycreatedJewishstateofIsrael,leadingtothe“I
srael–Arab”conflictthatcontinuedtothreatenworldpeaceupto1970.

Thewarledtotheformationofnewmilitaryanddefensivealliances.Thesealliancesemergedasa
resultofthecontinuedtensionorColdWarbetweenthecommunistandcapitalistblocs.Forexa
mple,in1949thecapitalistcountriesintheNorthAtlanticregionledbyUSAformedtheNorth
AtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)todefendthemselvesagainsttheadvanceofcommuni
smintotheirregion.Inreaction,thecommunistcountriesledbyRussiaformedtheWarsawPac
tof1955.Similarly,in1955BritaininfluencedtheArabcountriesintheMiddleEastlikeIraq,Turke
yandPakistantosignamilitaryallianceknownastheBaghdadPactsoastocheckontheexpansi
onofRussiancommunismintotheMiddleEast.TherewasalsotheSouthEastAsianTreatyOr
ganization(SEATO).Thiswasant-
communistorganizationformedbyinSeptember1954byUSA,Britain,France,AustraliaandN
ewZealandtocountercommunistaggressionintheSouthWestPacificbelowLatitude21˚30΄.T
hesealliancesfurtherincreasedtheenmitybetweenthecapitalistandcommunistcountriesafter
WorldWarII.
THEWAR-TIMECONFERENCES
ThesewereregularmeetingsthatwereheldbytheleadersoftheAlliedpowersduringthecourseo
fWorldWarIItodiscusstheconductofthewaranditsaftermath.Theconferenceswereseveralan
dtheywereheldindifferentpartsoftheworldespeciallytowardstheendofthewarandthemajoro
nestookplaceatYaltaandPotsdamin1945.
THEYALTACONFERENCE,1945
TheYaltaConferencewasawar–
timeconferencethatwasheldbetween4thand11thFebruary1945attheRussianresorttowno
fYaltaintheCrimeanPeninsula.ItwasbetweenPresidentFranklinD.RooseveltofUSA,PrimeMin
isterWinstonChurchillofGreatBritainandPremierJosefStalinoftheSovietUnion(Russia).TheY
altaConferencewasheldtodiscussfuturearrangementsasregardspost-

warEuropeandastrategyagainstJapanintheFarEastorPacificregion.Itthereforebecamesignif
icantinthefollowingways;
WiththeAlliedvictoryagainstGermanylookinglikely,themainaimoftheYaltaconferencewasto
decidewhattodowithGermanyonceithadbeendefeated.Consequently,itwasagreedatYaltath
atpost-
warGermanywouldbedividedintofourAlliedzonesofmilitaryoccupationwiththeSovietUnion(
Russia),Britain,FranceandtheUSAeachcontrollingazone.ThisdivisionofGermanybecameap
otentialcauseofsuspicionandmistrustbetweentheWesterncapitalistpowersledbyUSAandco
mmunistSovietUnion(Russia)whichlaidafoundationfortheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
TheGermancapitalofBerlin,whichwaslocatedonehundredmilesinsidetheSoviet(Russian)zon
e,wasalsotobedividedintotwoi.e.theRussianzoneofEastBerlinandBritish,FrenchandAmeri
canzoneofWestBerlin.Aslatereventsshowed,Berlinwouldbecomeacontinuingsourceoften
sionbetweentheSovietUnion(Russia)andtheWesternAlliedpowersledbyUSAoncetheColdW
arbeganinthenearfutureandindeedservedtoincreasethisideologicalconflict.
Itwasalsoagreedthatalldisplacedciviliansandprisonersofwarwouldbereturnedtotheirmothe
rcountries.TheYaltaconferenceforexamplelaidafoundationfortherepatriationofPrisonersof
WartoPolandandEastGermany.
ItwasalsoagreedattheYaltaConferencethatmajorwarcriminalswouldbepursuedandtriedbyt
heAlliedPowers.ThisthereforeledtotheNurembergTrialsof1945–
1946afterWorldWarII.Duringthesetrials,theprominentmembersofthepolitical,military,judic
ialandeconomicleadershipofNaziGermanywhoplannedandcarriedoutorotherwiseparticipat
edintheHolocaustandotherwarcrimesweretriedbeforeanInternationalMilitaryTribunalorCo
urtatNurembergTown,Germanyandthosewhowereconvictedweresentencedtodeathasapu
nishment.
TheissueofhowtodealwiththeliberatedcountriesofEuropewasanotherpointofdiscussionatth
eYaltaConference.ItwasagreedbythethreeleadersthatallthecountriesliberatedfromtheNazi
controlshouldbehelpedtoestablishdemocraticgovernmentsthroughholdingfreedemocratic
elections.Inpractice,thisproposalwasneverimplemented.Moreover,JosefStalinwasgivensp
hereofinfluenceinEasternEuropewherecommunistidealswoulddominate.Thislaidafoundati
onforfutureconflictsbetweentheSovietUnion(Russia)andthewesternAlliedpowersthatdidno
twantthisgeographicalexpansionoftheSovietUnion.
ThefutureofPolandwasanothermajorissueofdiscussionattheYaltaConference.JosefStalincla
imedthathistoricallyPolandeitherattackedRussiaorhadbeenusedasacorridorthroughwhicho
therhostilestateslikeGermanyattackedher.Hethusreasonedthatonlyastrongpro-
communistgovernmentinPolandwouldensurethesecurityoftheSovietUnion.USAandBritaint
hereforegrudginglyagreedtoStalin’sproposalthatthereconstitutedstateofPolandshouldinclu
delargeterritorywhichwasformerlypartofGermanyuptothelineofOderandNeisseRivers.P
olandwasalsosupposedtogivesomeofitsformerterritoryintheEasttoRussia.Thereweregreatf

earsfromtheWesternpowersandUSAregardingStalin’sPolishagenda,leadingtosuspicionand
mistrustbetweenRussiaandherformerallieswhointerpretedtheagendaasaplanforRussiatoin
creaseherinfluenceinEasternEurope.ThistogetherwiththeincreasedRussianinfluenceinothe
rEasternEuropeancountriesby1945likeCzechoslovakia,Hungary,RomaniaandBulgariaincre
asedtherivalryorenmitybetweentheSovietUnionandtheWesternPowersafterWorldWarII.
TheconferencealsodealtwiththewarreparationstobepaidbyGermanyandthisissuegenerated
moredisagreements.JosefStalinwantedtheGermanstopaytwentybilliondollarsandhalfofwhi
chwouldgototheSovietUnion.WinstonChurchillofBritainontheotherhanddidnotwantanywar
reparations.HereasonedthatitwasthehighwarreparationsatVersaillesin1919thatledtotheris
eofAdolfHitler.EventuallytheissuewasabandonedandthethreeAlliedleadersagreedtoreferth
emattertoaReparationCommission.
AttheYaltaConference,theSovietUnionagreedtojointhewaragainstJapanintheFarEast,once
Germanyhadbeendefeated.ThiswasimportantfortheAmericanswhoweresufferingheavylos
sesfromtheJapaneseinthePacificRegion.InreturnasarewardforthisjoiningofthewaragainstJ
apan,theSovietUnionwouldobtainfromJapantheKurilIslandsandterritorieslikePortArthurl
ostintheRusso–JapaneseWarof1904–
1905aswellasOuterMongoliafromChina.Consequently,RussiadeclaredwaronJapaninAugus
t1945,threemonthsafterGermany’ssurrenderandtwodaysafterthefirstatomicbombwasdrop
pedonJapanbyUSA.ThenextdaythesecondatomicbombwasdroppedandJapansurrendered.
Thishowever,increasedRussianinfluenceintheworldwhichworriedtheWesternpowers.
Finally,itwasresolvedthatanewinternationalorganizationshouldbesetuptoreplacethedefunc
tLeagueofNations.ItwasonlyonthisissuethatallthethreeAlliedleaderswereincompleteagree
ment.FollowingthisresolutionattheYaltaConference,theUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)
wasformedon24thOctober1945atSanFrancisco,USAwithitsheadquartersinNewYorkasan
organizationdedicatedtointernationalco-
operationandthepreventionofwar.ThisbodyhadtheGeneralAssemblyrepresentingallnations
andtheSecurityCounciloffifteenmemberswhichwastheexecutiveorganandthereforeheldallt
herealauthority.Britain,China,Russia,FranceandUSAwerepermanentmembersoftheSecurit
yCouncilsincethetaskofstoppingaggressionlayinthehandsofthosegreatpowers.
ExplainthesignificanceoftheYaltaConferenceof1945inthehistoryofEurope.
THEPOTSDAMCONFERENCE,1945
ThePotsdamConferencewasawar–
timeconferencethatwasheldbetweenJuly17thandAugust2nd1945intheoldroyalsuburbof
Berlin.ItwasbetweenBritainrepresentedbyWinstonChurchillandClementAttlee,RussiabyJos
efStalinandUSAbyHarryTrumantodiscussthepost-
waradministrationofGermanywhichhadsurrenderedtotheAlliedforceson8thMay1945amon
gotherissues.ItwasacontinuationoftheYaltaConferenceheldinFebruary1945.

BythetimethePotsdamConferencewasheld,therelationshipsbetweenthewar–
timeAllieshadincreasinglybecomelessfriendlyfollowingtheuntimelydeathofPresidentFrankli
nD.Roosevelton12thApril1945andthesubsequentriseofHarryTrumantothePresidencyinUSA.
TheWesternAllieshadalsobecomehighlysuspiciousoftheRussianactivitiesinEasternEurope.
TheSovietUnionwasoccupyingCentralandEasternEuropewiththeRussianarmyeffectivelyco
ntrollingtheBalticstatesofPoland,Czechoslovakia,Hungary,BulgariaandRomaniaandmanyr
efugeeswerefleeingfromthesecountries.Stalinhadalsosetupapuppetorcommunistcontrolle
dgovernmentinPolandwhichworriedtheWesternAlliedPowers.Theconferencewastherefore
heldamidstastateofmistrustandsuspicionbetweentheWesternpowersandRussia.ThePotsda
mConferenceof1945was,however,significantinthefollowingways;
ThePotsdamConferencesettledfurtherdetailsconcerningGermany.Germanywhichwasbyth
enoccupiedbytheAlliedPowers,wasdisarmedanddemilitarized.Inaddition,Germanywastobe
denazifiedbytryingandhangingtheNaziwarcriminals.Similarly,Germanywasdividedintofou
rmilitaryoccupationzoneswithFranceintheSouthwest,BritainintheNorthwest,theUnitedStat
esintheSouthandtheSovietUnionintheEast.TheintendedgoverningbodyofGermanywasthe
AlliedControlCouncil.ThisdivisionofGermanybecameamajorsourceoftensionbetweenth
eWesternAlliedPowersandtheSovietUnionafterWorldWarII.Asaresult,in1949theUSA,Britai
nandFranceunitedtheWesternzonesandestablishedtheFederalRepublicofWestofGerman
ywithitscapitalatthetownofBonn.TheSovietUnionrespondedbyleavingtheAlliedControlCou
ncilandcreatedDemocraticRepublicofEastGermanywhichfurtherescalatedtherivalrybetw
eenthetwosides.
AtthePotsdamConference,theformercapitalofGermany,Berlin,whichlayintheSovietEastern
zone,wasalsodividedintothreeWesternsectorsandoneSovietsectorwiththeWesternsectorsl
aterbecomingWestBerlinandtheSovietsectorbecomingEastBerlin,thecapitalofEastGerm
any.WestBerlinwasthereforecompletelysurroundedbytheEastGermanterritory.Thisdivision
ofBerlinlatergeneratedenmitybetweentheWesternAlliedPowersandtheSovietUnion.
AtPotsdam,areparationsagreementwasdesignedtoreducetheSoviet’sclaimstotheGermany’
sindustries.EachoftheAlliedpowerswasallowedtotakereparationsfreelyfromitsownzoneofoc
cupation.InrecognitionofthehugelossesthattheRussianindustrieshadsufferedwhenGerman
yattackedher,theRussianswereallowedtogetadditionalreparationsof10%fromthewesternz
one.However,theWesternAlliesresistedtheRussiandemandstosharethecontroloftheRuhrin
dustrialarea.Asaresult,nomajoragreementwasreachedonreparationsbecauseUSAandBritai
nrefusedtobebulldozedbyRussia.GermanythereforesurvivedarepeatoftheVersaillessettlem
entof1919thatcrippledhereconomy.Thereparationissue,however,ledtoincreasedfrictionbet
weenRussiaandtheWesternAlliedpowerswhichcreatedmoreenemitybetweenthetwosidesin
thepost-WorldWarIIperiod.
ThePotsdamConferenceconcludedanagreementonjointeffortsagainstJapan.OnJuly26th1
945,Britain,USAandChinaissuedthe PotsdamDeclaration,adocumentwhichoutlinedthet
ermsofsurrenderforJapanduringWorldWarIIasagreeduponatthePotsdamConference.TheS
ovietUnionwasnotinvolvedinthisdeclarationasitwasstillneutralinthewaragainstJapan.Inadd

ition,tounconditionalsurrender,thedeclarationstatedthatJapanesesovereigntywastobelimit
edtothehomeislands,warcriminalswouldbeprosecuted,thedictatorialgovernmentwastoend
andJapanwouldbedisarmed.Consequently,whenJapanignoredtheseterms,RussiajoinedUS
AtodeclarewaronJapanon8thAugust1945.TheuseoftheatomicbombonHiroshimaonAugus
t6thandNagasakion9thAugust1945ledtotheunconditionalsurrenderofJapanon2 ndSeptember
1945whichmarkedtheendofWorldWarII.
ThePotsdamConferencealsore-affirmedtheOder-
NeisselineasthefutureWesternboundaryofPolandandthiswasacceptedbyUSAandBritain.It
wasalsoagreedthatEastPrussiashouldbedividedbetweenPolandandRussia.Becauseofthis,G
ermanylostalotofherpre-
warterritorywithmostofitgoingtoPolandandalargepartofEastPrussiawastransferredtotheSo
vietUnion(Russia).ThisarrangementincreasedRussianinfluenceinEasternEuropewhichlaterl
edtoconflictsbetweentheWesternpowersandRussia.
AtthePotsdamConference,theSovietUnionfurtherpromisedfreeelectionsinPoland.Ithadbee
nagreedbythethreealliedleadersattheYaltaConferenceofFebruary1945thatallthecountriesli
beratedfromtheNazicontrolincludingPoland,shouldbegiventhenighttoholdfreedemocraticel
ectionssoastochoosetheirowngovernments.Thisproposalwashowevernotimplemented,pro
mptingtheWesternAlliedPowerstorenewsuchdemandsatthePotsdamConference.TheSoviet
UnionhadnochoicebuttomakefurtherpromisesoffuturefreedemocraticelectionsinPoland.
TheconferenceledtothespreadofcommunisminEuropebyRussiaespeciallyinEasternEurope.
AtPotsdam,RussiaofficiallytookoverthezoneofEastGermanyastheWesternAlliedpowerstook
overtheWesternzone.ShealsousedtheconferencetoentrenchherinfluenceinPolandwheresh
ehadinstalledacommunistdominatedregime.AfterthePotsdamConference,Russiabasedinth
esetwoterritoriestoconvertothercountriesofEasternEuropeintosatellitestateswithintheCom
munistorEasternblocsuchasthePeople’sRepublicofBulgaria,People’sRepublicofHungary,Cz
echoslovakia,RomaniaandAlbania.ThiscreatedfrictionbetweenRussiaandtheWesternEurop
eanpowerswhichwerecapitalist.
ThePotsdamConferenceconcealedtemporarilythegrowingdivergencebetweentheEastand
West.BythetimethePotsdamconferencewasheld,theoldsuspicionandmistrustbetweencom
munistRussiaandtheWesterncapitalistpowershadstartedcomingtothesurfaceagainespecial
lyfollowingthedisagreementsattheYaltaConferenceofFebruary1945.However,thetwosides
buriedthesedifferencesandmanagedtositonthesameroundtabletodiscussthefutureadminist
rationofGermanyandotherissuesofthetime.ThisthereforehelpedtheseAlliedPowerstobuilds
omeconsensusthatenabledthemtofightanddefeattheremainingAxispowerofJapanbySepte
mber1945whichmarkedtheendofWorldWarII.
Finally,thePotsdamConferenceof1945sowedtheseedsfortheColdWarwhichbecamepromine
ntimmediatelyafterWorldWarII.Duringthisconference,disagreementsoverthefutureofPola
ndbetweenUSAandtheSovietUnion(Russia)featuredprominently,thusleadingtosuspicionan
dmistrustbetweenthetwosides.ThiswasbecauseRussiawasdeterminedtostrengthenitscom

munistideologyinPolandandEastGermanywhichwerecapitalist.Asaresult,USAandtheSoviet
Union(Russia)leftPotsdamun-
reconciled.Therefore,fromthePotsdamConference,theAlliedleadersdidnotmeetagaindueto
theincreasedenmitywhicheventuallycontributedtotheColdWarthataffectedinternationalrel
ationsinthepost-WorldWarIIperiodupto1970.
a)Explainthesignificanceofthe1945PotsdamConferenceinthehistoryofEurope.
b)TowhatextentweretheYaltaandPotsdamConferencesresponsiblefortheoutbr
eakoftheColdWar?
THEUNITEDNATIONSORGANISATION(UNO)1945-1970
TheUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)wasaninternationalorganizationthatwasestablishedo
n24thOctober1945atSanFrancisco,USAafterWorldWarIItoreplacethedefunctLeagueofNati
onsanditbroughttogetherthedifferentcountriesoftheworld.Itwasformedfollowingthesignin
gofthe1941AtlanticCharterbetweenPresidentFranklinD.RooseveltofUSAandPrimeMinister
WinstonChurchillofBritain.Itsformationwasconcludedafterthreemajorconferencesnamely;t
heYaltaConference(February1945)inCrimea,Russia,theDumbartonOaksConference(Augu
st–
October1945)inWashingtonD.C,USAandtheSanFranciscoConference(October1945)inUSA.
ThebigpowersbehinditsformationwereUSA,Britain,France,RussiaandChina.Initially,theUN
Ohad51membersanditsHeadquarterswereatNewYork-USA.
AIMSOFTHEUNITEDNATIONSORGANISATION(UNO)
 Itwasformedtomaintainworldpeaceandsecurityinthepost-
WorldWarIIperiodthroughcollectivesecurity.Therefore,itwasformedtopreventtheou
tbreakofanotherWorldWar.
 Toenforcedisarmamentandstopthemanufactureofdangerousweaponsi.e.toprevent
anarmsraceafterWorldWarII.
 Tosafeguardtheworldespeciallytheweakernationsfrommilitaryaggressors.
 Tofacilitatethedecolonizationofthosecountriesthosewerestillunderforeigndominatio
n.
 Topromoteinternationalco-operationafterWorldWarII
 TofindawayofbringingtojusticethosewhocommittedcrimesagainsthumanityduringW
orldWarIIliketheNazistsandFascists(warcriminals)whohadconductedmasskillingoft
heJews,communistsandotherinnocentcivilians.
 TopromoteeconomicdevelopmentintheworldespeciallyafterWorldWarII.Itwastomo
bilizefundsandhelptheThirdWorldCountriestodevelop.
 Toprotecttheenvironmentagainstpollutionanddesertification.
 Tofightagainstallformsofracialdiscriminationintheworld
 Toeliminateinternationalcrimeslikedrugtraffickingandtheconsumptionofnarcoticdru
gs.

Torehabilitateandresettletherefugeeswhohadbeendisplacedandprisonersofwar.Th
eUNOwastoprovidethemwithfood,water,shelterandmedicalcare.
THEORGANSOFTHEUNITEDNATIONSORGANISATION(UNO)
TheUNOhadsixprincipalormajororganstocarryoutitsfunctionsandtheseincluded;
a) TheGeneralAssembly
ThiswasthelargestorganoftheUNO.AllmemberstatesoftheUNOweremembersoftheGeneral
Assembly.Eachmemberstatecouldsenduptofiverepresentativesbutitwasentitledtoonevotei
ntheAssembly.Thisensuredthatallthemembershadequalstatus.TheGeneralAssemblymeton
ceayearbutspecialsessionswouldbeheldduringtimesofcrisis.Atthebeginningofeverysession
,theAssemblywouldelectanewpresident.TheGeneralAssemblywasresponsiblefordiscussing
anymatteraffectinginternationalpeaceandsecurityaswellasmakingrecommendationsforpe
acefulsettlementofdisputesamongotherfunctions.
b) TheSecurityCouncil
ThiswasthemostimportantandeffectiveorganoftheUNOanditwastheExecutivewingoftheUN
O.Itthereforealmostheldalltherealauthorityorpowers.Itconsistedoffifteenmembers,fiveoft
hempermanentmembersandthesewereBritain,China,France,RussiaandtheUSA.Thenon-
permanentmemberswereelectedbytheGeneralAssemblyforatermoftwoyears.
Thepermanentmembershadthepowerto‘veto’or‘reject’anyofthedecisionsbeingtakenbyth
eSecurityCouncil.Thismeansthateveniftheissuewasbeingsupportedbyamajority,itcouldnot
beimplemented.Itthereforeimpliedthattherehadtobeaconsensusofallthefivepermanentme
mbersforadecisiontobetaken.ThemainresponsibilityoftheSecurityCouncilwastomaintainpe
aceandsecurityintheworld.TheSecurityCouncilmetonceamonthbutintheeventofanemergen
cy,ameetingwouldbeheldtoresolvethecrisis.
c) TheInternationalCourtofJustice(ICJ)
TheInternationalCourtofJustice(ICJ),locatedinthecityofHague,Netherlands,wastheprincip
aljudicialorganoftheUNO.Thecourtconsistedoffifteenjudgesfromdifferentcountrieselected
bytheGeneralAssemblyandtheSecurityCouncil.Theywereelectedforanineyearterm.Thiscou
rtwasresponsibleforsettlingdisputesbroughttoitbythememberstatesaswellasprovidinglegal
advicetoanyorganoftheUNOonrequest.
d) TheTrusteeshipCouncil
TheTrusteeshipCouncilwassetupimmediatelyafterWorldWarII.Itwassetuptoensurethepro
peradministrationanddevelopmentofthoseareasoftheworldthatwereunderforeignruleespe
ciallytheMandatedStates.Thecouncilwasalsototakestepstohelpthemattainself-
governanceorindependence.

e) TheEconomicandSocialCouncil
ThiswaselectedbytheGeneralAssemblyforathreeyearterm.Thiscouncilgaveproposalsforsol
vinginternationaleconomic,social,cultural,educationalandhealthproblems.Thecouncilalsot
riedtirelesslytowipeoutpovertyintheworld.Itsresponsibilitywastoco-
ordinatethefunctionsofthespecializedagenciesoftheUNOliketheInternationalMonetaryFun
d(IMF),theInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO),theFoodandAgriculturalOrganization(FA
O),theWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),theUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCultura
lOrganisation(UNESCO)andtheUnitedNationsInternationalChildren’sEmergenceFund(UNI
CEF)amongothers.
f) TheSecretariat
ThiswastheprincipaladministrativeorganoftheUNOthatwaschargedwiththeresponsibilityofr
unningtheday-
dayactivitiesoftheUNOlikeorganizingconferencestosolveinternationalproblemsandgivingin
formationtothepressonbehalfoftheUNO.ItwasheadedbytheSecretaryGeneralwhowasappoi
ntedbytheGeneralAssemblyontherecommendationoftheSecurityCouncilforatermoffiveyea
rswhichwouldberenewed.ThestaffoftheSecretariatwasapprovedbytheSecretaryGeneralan
dwerechosenfromamongthemembercountries.
ACHIEVEMENTSOFTHEUNITEDNATIONSORGANISATION(UNO),1945-1970
TheUNOincreasedmembershipwhichwasanincredibleachievement.TheUNOwasformedin1
945with51membersbutby1970,themembershiphadincreasedtoabout150members.Thisstr
engthenedtheorganization,thusenablingtoachievetheobjectivesofitsfounders.
ItspeededupthedecolonizationprocessintheThirdWorldCountries,hencegrantingindepende
ncetomostcolonizedcountries.ManyThirdWorldCountriesinAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmericathat
werestillundercolonialismweresupportedfinanciallyandmilitarilyintheirstrugglesforindepen
dencebytheUNOespeciallythroughtheTrusteeshipCouncil.TheUNOalsocondemnedcolonial
ruleandpersuadedthecolonialpowerstograntindependencetotheircolonies.Asaresult,many
countriesattainedtheirindependenceby1970forexampleGhanain1957,Cameroonin1960,To
goin1960aswellasIndiaandPakistanin1947amongothers.
ItsucceededintheprotectionoftherightsofthechildrenthroughitsspecializedagenciesForexa
mple,itsetuptheUnitedNationsInternationalChildren’sEmergenceFund(UNICEF)in1946wh
ichhelpedtoproviderelief,healthcareandeducationtothechildrensufferingasaresultofdisas
ters.Italsowentaheadtodeclaretherightsofthechildrenin1959asasteptoguardagainstthemis
treatmentofthechildrenintheworldwhichwasanimportantachievement.
Ithelpedtomaintainworldpeaceandsecuritytotheextentthatnomajorwaronaworldscalebrok
eoutbetween1945and1970.ThroughtheSecurityCouncil,theUNOattemptedtoresolveanu

mberofinternationalconflictsthatbrokeoutbetween1945and1970.Amongthemajorconflicts
wheretheUNOintervenedwerethefollowing;
(a)THEBERLINBLOCKADEINCIDENTOF1948–1949
ThiswasanattemptbyRussiatoblockallroads,railwaysandcanallinkingWestBerlinandWes
tGermanywhichwasundertheAlliedPowersbetween1948and1949.DuringthePotsdamConfe
renceof1945thatwasheldfollowingtheAlliedvictoryoverGermanyon8thMay1945,Berlin,the
formercapitalofGermany,whichlayintheSovietEasternzone,wasdividedintothreeWesternse
ctorsandoneSovietsectorwiththeWesternsectorslaterbecoming WestBerlinandtheSoviets
ectorbecomingEastBerlin,thecapitalofEastGermany.WestBerlinwasthereforecompletelys
urroundedbytheEastGermanterritorywhichwasunderRussiancontrol.Withthecontinuationo
ftheColdWar,thisdivisionofBerlinincreasedtheenemitybetweentheWesternPowersandRuss
ia.ThisforcedRussiatocreateablockadeonthecityofWestBerlin.Thisblockadewasaimedatpre
ventingfoodandothersuppliesfromarrivinginWestBerlinsoastoforcetheAlliedPowersoutof
thecity.ThiscreatedscarcityofgoodsforthelocalpopulationandthearmedforcesoftheWestern
PowersthatwerestillstationedinWestBerlin.TheUnitedNationsOrganizationthroughtheUSA,
Britain,France,Canada,Australia,NewZealandandseveralothercountriesbeganamassive"B
erlinairlift",supplyingWestBerlinwithfoodandothernecessities.ThisthereforeforcedRussia
toabandonorlifttheblockadeinMay1949.Therefore,theUNOinfluencedthedestructionoftheB
erlinBlockadeby1949whichwasamajorachievement.
b)THEKASHMIRCRISISOF1948
After1947,KashmirlyingbetweenthenewlyindependentstatesofIndiaandPakistanwasclaime
dbybothstates.In1948,warbrokeoutbetweenthetwostates.TheUNOnegotiatedaceasefirea
ndIndiaoccupiedSouthernKashmirwhilePakistantookoverNorthernKashmir.TheUNOcontin
uedpolicingtheborderbetweenthetwocountries.WhenPakistaninvadedtheIndianzonelateri
n1965,ashortwarbrokeoutbetweenthetwocountries.However,onceagaintheUNOsuccessfu
llyintervenedandstoppedthehostility.
(c)THEKOREANCRISISORWAROF1950-1953
TheUNOachievedsomesuccessinrestoringpeaceinKoreaduringtheKoreanWarof1950-
1953.InJune1950,CommunistNorthKoreawiththesupportofRussiaattackedcapitalistSouthK
orea.TheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilsupportedthedefenceofSouthKoreaandthereforedir
ectedNorthKoreatowithdrawitstroops.WhenNorthKorearefusedtodoso,theUnitedNationsO
rganizationsentitstroopstofightNorthKoreaandstoptheinvasion.Theresultwasthatapeaceag
reementwassignedandthehostilitiesbetweenthetwocountriestemporarilyended.
(d) THESUEZCANALCRISISORWAROF1956
In1956,EgyptwasinvadedbyBritain,FranceandIsraeloverthecontroloftheSuezCanalinwhatc
ametobeknownastheSuezCanalCrisisorWar.TheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyconde

mnedtheinvasionandcalledforthewithdrawaloftheforeigntroopswhichwasdone,leadingtoth
eendofthecrisis.ItevensenttroopstosafeguardtheSuezCanal.
(e) THECONGOCRISISORCIVILWAROF1960-1963
TheRepublicofCongodissolvedintoacivilwarimmediatelyaftergettingindependencefromBel
giuminJune1960.ThiswasduetotheattemptedbreakawayfromtherestofCongo-
ZairebythediamondrichKatangaprovincelocatedinSouthEasternCongo.AUnitedNationsforc
ewassenttoCongowhichmanagedtodefeatthesecessionistforcesinKatangaunderMoiseTsho
mbeandrestoredlawandorderthereby1963.ThisthereforestoppedtheprovinceofKatangafro
mbreakingawayfromtherestofCongo.
(f)THECUBANMISSILECRISISOF1962
Cuba,locatedinLatinAmericaortheCaribbeanwasacommunistcountryandthereforeanallyof
Russia.InOctober1962,RussiasentnuclearmissilestoCubatoprotectherfromaplannedinva
sionbycapitalistUSAwhichwasherneighbour.ThismovebytheRussiansthreatenedUSAwhichr
espondedtotheinstallationofthemissilesbyimposinganavalblockadeonCuba.Thisincreasedt
heenemitybetweenUSAandRussiaandindeedbroughttheworldclosertoanuclearwarthaneve
rbefore.TheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilintervenedinthisCubanMissilecrisisandforcedRus
siatoremovethemissilesfromCubawhichendedthecrisisbyNovember1962.
(g)THETURKISH-GREEKCRISISORCIVILWAROF1963-1964
Cyprus,aBritishcolonysincetheBerlinCongressof1878wasgrantedindependencein1960.In1
963,acivilwarbrokeoutbetweentheGreekswhomadeupto80%ofthisMediterraneanSeaIslan
dpopulationandtheTurks.TheUnitedNationspeacekeepingforcearrivedinMarch1964andr
estoredsomepeaceinCyprus.
Itpromotedeconomicdevelopmentinthememberstates.TheUNOformedinternationalecono
micagenciesliketheInternationalMonetaryFundandtheWorldBank,whichextendedor
offeredalotoffinancialassistancetotheunderdevelopedorThirdWorldCountriesforeconomicd
evelopment.Thisassistancegreatlyhelpedsuchcountriestoraisetheirlevelsofinvestmentespe
ciallyafterWorldWarII.
TheUNOmadeeffortstoprotecttheenvironmentagainstdegradation.ThroughtheUnitedNat
ionsEnvironmentalProgramme(UNEP)basedinNairobi,theUNOtriedtocombatenvironm
entalproblemslikedesertificationandpollutioncausedbyindustrialization,technologicalprogr
essandnucleartestingamongothers.Italsocreatedawarenessamonggovernmentsonthedan
gersofenvironmentaldegradationandthepoliciestoreducesuchdegradation.
Itpromotedagriculturaldevelopmentasasteptowardsachievingfoodsecurityintheworld.Thro
ughtheFoodandAgriculturalOrganization(FAO),theUNOfundedresearchandtechnolog
icaldevelopmentintheagriculturalsector.Thishelpedtoincreasefoodproductionamongtheme
mbercountries,thusleadingtotheattainmentfoodsecurityintheworldbetween1945and1970.

Itimprovedonthewelfareoftheworkersintheworld.ThroughtheInternationalLabourOrga
nization(ILO),theUNOputinplacelabourlawsandalsolabourconditionsworldwideintermsof
wagesandretirementwerelookedintoseriouslybytheUNO.TheILOalsoencouragedtheformat
ionoftradeunionssoastoprotecttheinterestsoftheworkersintheworld.Allthesemeasuresledt
otheimprovementoftheworkers’conditionsbytheUNO.
TheUNOalsosucceededinpromotingculturaldevelopmentintheworld.TheUNOestablishedth
eUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation(UNESCO)whichh
elpedtopromoteeducationforall,pressfreedomandcommunication.The(UNESCO)alsohelpe
dtoprotecttheworld’snaturalandculturalheritagesitesintheworldwhichgreatlyhelpedtoprom
oteculturaldevelopment.
TheUNOattemptedtochecktheproblemofdrugtraffickingintheworld.Beforetheformationoft
heUNO,therewasrampantdrugabuseandaddictionthatbecameasocialevil.ThemembersofU
NOformedthedrugtraffickingcommitteetomonitorandfrustratetheproduction,sale,transpor
tationandconsumptionofintoxicatingdrugssuchasopium,marijuanaandcocaine.Italsocarrie
doutsensitizationprogrammesamongthememberstatesonthedangersofconsumingdrugs.B
y1970,thesemeasureshaddrasticallyreducedtheproduction,saleandconsumptionoftoxicdru
gs.Thisrestoredpeace,orderandmadetheworldabetterplacetolivein.
TheUNOpromotedhealthconditionsintheworldbetween1945and1970.ThroughtheWorldH
ealthOrganization(WHO),theUNOcarriedoutimmunizationprogrammesamongthememb
erstateswhichhelpedtofightagainstepidemicdiseaseslikesmallpox,sleepingsickness,measle
s,tetanus,polioandmalariaamongothers.TheUNOalsofinancedthebuildingandrenovationof
healthcentresinthememberstates,whichhelpedtoimprovethehealthconditionsintheworldup
to1970.
TheUNOalsotriedtosolvetherefugeeproblemafterWorldWarII.DuringthecourseofWorldWar
II,manypeopleweredisplacedfromtheirhomesandtheybecamerefugees.Forexample,thema
nyJewsandotherpeoplefledGermanyandItalytoavoidpersecutionandmassivekilling.Inthep
ost-
WorldWarIIperiodtherefore,therewasaproblemoftransferringthesepeopletotheirindividual
countries.Consequently,theUNOformedspecializedagenciesliketheUnitedNationsHighC
ommissionforRefugees(UNHCR)andtheUnitedNationsRefugeeandWorkAgency(
UNRWA),throughwhichitsucceededingivingreliefassistanceaswellasresettlingthesedisplac
edpersonsafterWorldWarII.Theseagenciesalsohelpedareasthatwereaffectedbywarsinthe
worldupto1970asasteptodealwiththerefugeeproblem.
TheUNOalsoencouragedthetrialandpunishmentofthosepeoplewhohadcommittedcrimesag
ainsthumanityduringthecourseofWorldWarII.Forexample,throughtheInternationalCourtof
Justice(ICJ)thatwasbasedinthecityofHague,intheNetherlands,theUNOtriedtheNazistsandF
ascists(warcriminals)whohadconductedmasskillingoftheJews,communistsandotherinnoce
ntciviliansduringthecourseofWorldWarII.Thishelpedtobringaboutjusticeintheworld.

TheUNOcampaignedagainstculturalandracialdiscriminationintheworld.Forexample,itsecur
edanagreementofthememberstatestoremoveallformsofsocialandeconomicdiscriminationa
gainstthechildrenaswellasthewomenthroughencouragingwomenemancipation.Itwasalsov
italinthefightagainstApartheidinSouthAfricaandNamibiabysupportingant-
ApartheidstrugglesthatwerecarriedoutbytheBlacksintheabovecountries.
ItestablishedtheJewishstateofIsraelin1948whichwasanotherachievement.Duringthecour
seofWorldWarII,manyJewsweremassacredbytheNazistsunderAdolfHitler.Asaresult,afterth
ewartheUNOcreatedthestateofIsraelintheMiddleEasttoaccommodateallthoseJewswhohad
beenscatteredalloverEurope.ThishelpedtoendthepersecutionoftheJewsandforthatmattert
herefore,theUNOwassuccessfulintheprotectionoftheminoritiesliketheJews.
TheUNOencouragedthedisarmamentprocesswhichhelpedtoregulatetheproductionanduse
oftheweaponsofmassdestructionafterWorldWarII.Forexample,itestablishedtheAtomicEn
ergyCommissionin1946andthisgreatlyhelpedtocheckontheproductionofdangerousweap
ons.ItalsoinfluencedthesigningoftheNuclearTestBanTreatyof1963bythememberstates.
ItalsoinitiateddisarmamentnegotiationsortalksbetweenUSAandUSSR–
theColdWarsuperpowersaimedatreducingthemanufactureofdangerousweaponsafterWorl
dWarII.ThesebilateraltalkscametobeknownastheStrategicArmsLimitationTalks(SAL
T).ThenegotiationscommencedinHelsinkiinFinlandinNovember1969andresultedintothesi
gningofinternationaltreatiesinvolvingthetwosuperpowersi.e.SALTIof26thMay1972andSAL
TIIof18thJune1974.
THEFAILURESOFTHEUNITEDNATIONSORGANISATION,1945-1970
TheUNOfailedtoendculturalintoleranceandracisminthewholeworld.WhentheUNOwasestab
lishedin1945,itdeclaredracismasacrimeagainsthumanityandthereforeitworkedhardtoelimi
natethisbadpractice,includingimposingeconomicsanctionsagainstracistregimesintheworld.
Despitethis,however,racismanddiscriminationcontinuedtoexistintheworldupto1970.Forex
ample,therewasApartheidinSouthAfricaby1970despitetheanti-
ApartheidcampaignsthatwerecarriedoutagainsttheApartheidregimeinSouthAfrica.Racialse
gregationalsoincreasedintheMiddleEastandAmericabetween1945and1970whichundermin
edthecredibilityoftheUNO.
TheUNOfailedtoeliminateorstoptheColdWar.Thiswasastateofglobalaffairscharacterizedbyt
ension,fear,suspicion,militaryskirmishesandconflictsbetweentheEasternorCommunistblocl
edbyUSSRandtheWesternorCapitalistblocledbyUSA.ItemergedaftertheendofWorldWarIIw
henUSAandUSSRemergedassuperpowerswithdivergentpoliticalandeconomicideologies,di
vidingtheworldintotwohostilecamps.TheUNOwasnotabletoconvincethetwoSuperpowersof
USSRandUSAtogiveupthisconflictwhichthreatenedinternationalpeacebetween1945and19
70.
TheUNOfailedtodisarmthebigpowersoftheworld.BothUSAandUSSRtogetherwithBritain,Chi
naandFrancecontinuedmanufacturingandtestingatomicornuclearweaponsdespitethebanni

ngbytheUNO.ThiseventuallyledtothespreadoftheweaponsofmassdestructiontotheThirdWo
rldCountries.Therefore,thedevelopmentandspreadofnuclearweaponscontinuedupto1970
whichwasabigfailure.
Itfailedtowipeoutorenddrugandhumantraffickingwhichweremajorproblemsbeforeandafter
WorldWarIIandwereindeedcrimesagainsthumanity.Worsestill,theseactivitieswerecarriedo
utbysomemembercountriesoftheUNO.
TheUNOfailedtocompletethedecolonizationprocessby1970.ManyThirdWorldCountriesrem
ainedundertheYokeorinfluenceofcolonialruleespeciallyinAfricalikeAngola,Mozambique,Na
mibiaandGuineaBissauamongothersby1970.Therefore,theUNOfailedtoenforcetotaldecolo
nizationintheworldwhichwasoneofthemajorobjectivesbehinditsformationin1945.
TheUNOfailedtomaintaincompleteortotalpeaceintheworld.Between1945and1970,therebr
okeoutanumberofconflictsindifferentpartsoftheworlddespitethepresenceoftheUNO.Forexa
mple,therewerewidespreadcivilwarsinAfricalikeCongoCrisisorcivilwarof1960-
1963,theSudanCivilWarssince1955andtheNigerianorBiafranCivilWarof1967-
1970.OtherconflictsincludedtheSuezCanalCrisis(war)of1956,theHungarianCrisisorrevoluti
onof1956,theCubanMissilecrisisof1962aswellastheKoreanwarof1953-
1955thatwasbetweenNorthandSouthKorea.Alltheseconflictsthatthreatenedworldpeaceyet
thiswasoneofthemajorobjectivesbehindtheformationoftheUNOin1945.
TheUNOfailedtopromoteeconomicdevelopmentintheworld.Despitetheenormousfinancialai
dthatwasofferedtothememberstatesbytheUNOthroughtheInternationalMonetaryFun
dandtheWorldBank,thesocio–
economicwelfareofmostpeopleintheworldremainedpoorby1970.Forexample,manypeople
worldwideespeciallyintheThirdWorldCountrieslivedbelowthepovertylineandalsotherefugee
problempersistedby1970.Therefore,theUNOwasnotsuccessfulasregardseconomicdevelop
ment.
TheUNOfailedtosolveconflictsintheworldby1970.Forexample,therewastheKashmirconflict
betweenIndiaandPakistanaswellastheNorth–
SouthKoreanconflictwhichcontinuedtocreatetensionontheKoreanPeninsulaupto1970.Inad
dition,theArab-
IsraelorPalestinianconflictintheMiddleEastwasnotresolvedbytheUNOduetotheineffectiveor
weakeconomicsanctionsimposedbytheUNOonIsrael.Theseconflictsfurtherthreatenedworl
dpeacebetween1945and1970,thusamajorfailurebytheUNOasregardsmattersconcerningw
orldpeaceandsecurity.
TheUNOalsofailedtoeradicatetendenciesofterrorismorviolenceintheworld.Internationalterr
orismbecameamajorprobleminthepost-
WorldWarIIperiodduetheColdWarrivalrybetweentheWesternorCapitalistandtheEasternorC
ommunistblocsaseachofthetwohostilecampssponsoredterroristactivitiesagainsteachotherl

ikesuicidebombings,hijackingofshipsandplanesaswellasassassinationofprominentleaders.
Thisalsothreatenedinternationalpeaceupto1970.
TheUNOfailedtocreateanarmyofitsown.Duetotheirideologicaldifferences,theUNmemberst
atesfailedtoestablishajointarmythatwasnecessarytomaintainworldpeaceafter1945.Becaus
eofthistherefore,theUNOlackedapermanentarmyofitsowntoenforceitsresolutionsespecially
inthefaceofglobalconflictsthatbrokeoutintheperiod1945to1970.ThisisperhapswhytheUNOf
ailedtoresolveinternationalconflictsliketheArab-
Israelconflict,theKashmircrisisaswellastheKoreanconflictupto1970.
Itfailedtostoptheemergenceofneo-
colonialismorforeigninfluenceinthenewlyindependentcountriesoftheThirdWorldregionsli
keAfrica.Asaresult,therewasforeignaidbeinggiventothedevelopingcountriesbytheUnitedNa
tionsEconomicagenciesliketheWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFundwithstringsatt
achedorinnon–
priorityareas.Thisthereforeunderminedtheirpolitical,socialandeconomicindependenceyeto
neoftheobjectivesbehindtheformationoftheUNOwastopromotetheself-
determinationanddecolonizationofallthosecountriesthatwerestillunderforeigndominationb
y1945.
Questions:
 TowhatextentdidtheUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)liveuptotheexpectationsofitsf
oundersbetween1945and1970?
 HowsuccessfulwastheUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)inthesearchforpeaceby197
0?
 TowhatextentdidtheUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)fulfillitsaimsbetween1945an
d1970?
THESTRENGTHSOFTHEUNITEDNATIONSORGANISATION(UNO)
 TheUNOhadawidermembership.Formedin1945withonly51members,by1970themembe
rshipoftheUNOhadincreasedtoabout150members.Thiswasamajorstrengththatenabled
theorganizationtoachievemostoftheobjectivesofitsfounders.
 ThemembershipofthetwoWorldsuperpowersintheUNOwasstrength.BothUSAandUSSR
–
thekeyworldsuperspowersofthetimewerefullandpermanentmembersofalltheUNagenci
es,includingtheSecurityCouncil.Thesewerepowerfulstateswithhugefinancial,humanan
dmilitaryresourceswhichstrengthenedtheUNOandthereforeenabledittodealwiththechal
lengesofthetime,henceachievingtheobjectivesofitsfounders.
 Itsearliersuccessesearneditapprovalandrespectintheworldasaviableinternationalorgani
zationthatwouldaddresstheglobalchallengesofthetime.Thispartlyexplainswhymanycou
ntriesjoinedtheUNOafter1945whichstrengthenedit,henceenablingittoachievetheobject
ivesofitsfoundersby1970.

 ThepreventionofaseriesofwarsbetweenIsraelandtheArabsstateswasstrengthoftheUNO
.AfterWorldWarII,theMiddleEastwasplungedintoinstabilityfollowingtheestablishmentof
theJewishstateofIsraelin1948onArabland.ThisresultedintoaseriesofwarsbetweenIsrael
andherArabneighbourslikeSyria,JordanandEgyptin1948–
1949,1956aswellas1967.Inallthesewars,theUNOintervenedandrestoredsomepeaceand
orderintheregion.
 TheUNOhadvariousspecializedagenciestohandlethedifferentchallengesofthetime.Thes
eincludedtheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO),theWorldHealthOrganiza
tion(WHO),theFoodandAgriculturalOrganization(FAO),theUnitedNationsInternat
ionalChildren’sEmergenceFund(UNICEF)andtheUnitedNationsHighCommissionforRefu
gees(UNHCR)amongothers.Throughthesevariousagencies,theUNOofferedalotofsocial
andeconomicsupporttotheworldnationswhichhelpedtodealwithmanyproblemsofthetim
eupto1970.
 TheDisarmamentpolicyoftheUNOwasstrength.Throughthispolicy,theUNOencouragedt
hedisarmamentprocessinthepost-
WorldWarIIperiodwhichhelpedtoaverttheoutbreakofaThirdWorldWar.Forexample,iten
couragedthememberstatestosigntheNuclearTestBanTreatyof1963.Italsoestablishe
dtheAtomicEnergyCommissionin1946whichhelpedtocheckontheproductionofdang
erousweapons.Italsoarrangeddisarmamenttalksfrom1969betweenUSAandUSSRtored
ucethemanufactureofdangerousweaponsafterWorldWarII.Thesebilateraltalkscameto
beknownastheStrategicArmsLimitationTalks(SALT).Thisdisarmamentpolicyenabl
edtheUNOtoachieveitsobjectiveofmaintainingworldpeaceupto1970.
 TheUNOhadastrongadministrativestructurewhichenabledittoachieveitsobjectives.Whe
ntheUNOwassetupin1945,itinheritedsomeoftheadministrativeorgansoftheLeagueofNa
tionsandevenwentaheadtoestablishnewones.TheseweretheGeneralAssembly,theSecu
rityCouncil,theSecretariat,theTrusteeshipCouncil,theEconomicandSocialCouncilaswell
astheInternationalCourtofJustice.Theseorgansandcommitteesfacilitatedtheimplement
ationoftheUnitedNationsresolutionsupto1970.
 TheUNOalsohadclearguidingprinciplesbasedontheUNCharterof1945whichallmemberco
untriessigned.Forexample,therewastheprincipleof“non-
interferenceintheinternalaffairsofthememberstates”.Suchclearguidingprinciplesstrengt
henedtheorganization,hencehelpingittoachievetheobjectivesofitsfoundersby1970.
 The‘Veto’powersofthefivepermanentmembersoftheUNSecurityCouncilenhancedjointd
ecisionmaking.TheSecurityCounciloftheUNOwasmadeupoffivepermanentmembersand
thesewerebasicallyWorldWarIIvictoriouspowerswhichincludedUSA,USSR,Britain,Franc
eandChina.Eachofthesepermanentmembershadthepowertovetoorrejectthecouncil’sde
cisionandthereforestopitfrombeingimplementedevenifalltheothermembersagreed.This
thereforeencouragedjointdecisionmakingbytheUNOwhichwasamajorstrengthoftheorg
anization.
 TheUNOhadthecapacitytomobilizeapeacekeepingforceincaseofneedandthiswasanothe
rsignofstrength.Wheneveradisputebrokeout,theUNOmobilizedajointforcethatinterven
edandrestoredpeaceinsuchareas.Forexample,whentheCongocrisisbrokeoutinJune196

0followingthedeclarationofKatanga’sindependencefromtherestofCongo,theUNOquickl
ymobilizedtroopsfrommembercountrieslikeNigeria,Ghana,IndiaandSweden.Thesetroo
pslaterlaunchedmilitaryoperationsagainstMoiseTshombe’sforcesintheKatangaregionus
ingmodernweapons.ThisweakenedgreatlyMoiseTshombeandhisforces,thuscontributin
gtothefailureofthesecessionby1963.
THEWEAKNESSESOFTHEUNITEDNATIONSORGANISATION(UNO)
Despiteitsmuchstrength,theUNOalsohadanumberofweaknesseswhichmadeithardtoachiev
eitsobjectivesby1970andtheseincludedthefollowing;
 Theorganisationlackedapermanentarmytoitsownby1970.Thismadeitdifficultforittoenfo
rceitsresolutions.Forexample,theIsrael-
ArabSixDaysof1967,whenthememberstateswithdrewtheirforcesfromtheEgyptianborde
rwithIsrael,theconflictescalated.
 TheideologicaldifferencesandinternaldivisionsespeciallyamongtheSecurityCouncilmem
bersorbigpowersalwaysdeterredthesuccessoftheUnitedNationsOrganisation.Forexamp
le,itwasideologicallydividedbetweenthecapitaliststatesledbyUSAandthecommunistcou
ntriesledbyUSSRandChina.Thisisperhapswhytheyfailedtoformapermanentforceaswella
stoenforcetheinternationallaw.
 ThedominationoftheUNObytheUSAandUSSRpromotedsuspicionandmistrustfromtheot
hermembers,whichdeterredtheorganisationfromachievingitsobjectives.
 TheorganisationembracedtheformationofregionalsecurityorganisationsliketheNATOto
whichsomemembercountriespaidmoreallegiancethantheUNO.
 Itlackedastrongfinancialbase.TheUNOlargelydependedonfinancialcontributionsfromm
embercountriestofinanceitsoperationsbutwhichcontributionswereirregular.Thislimited
ordeterredtheimplementationofitsactivities.
 TheorganisationgavethepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilvetopowersbutthe
sepowersweremanytimesabusedormisusedbythememberstofrustratetheimplementati
onoftheUNOresolutions.ThisaffecteddecisionmakingintheUnitedNationsOrganisation,t
husdeterringitssuccess.
 TheexistenceofallianceswithintheUnitedNationsmemberswasamajorweakness.Anumb
erofmilitaryallianceswereformedbythedifferentUNmemberstatesinthepost-
WorldWarIIperiod.TheseallianceswerearesultoftheColdWartensionandsuspicionbetwe
entheEasternblocledbyUSSRandtheWesternblocledbyUSAthatemergedaftertheendofW
orldWarII.Forexample,therewastheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)form
edinbythecapitalistcountriesintheNorthAtlanticregionledbyUSAaswellastheWarsa
wPactformedin1955bythecommunistcountriesledbyUSSR.Theexistenceofthesegreatl
yaffecteddecisionbytheUNO.
 Thetimingofitsinvolvementintheareasofdisputewasnotclear.Asapeacekeepingbody,the
UNOwasexpectedtotakeimmediateactionwheneveracrisisbrokeoutbutsometimesitdela
yedtointervenewhichescalatedsuchconflictsuptotheextentofthreateninginternationalpe
ace.Forexample,ittooklongtointerveneintheCongocrisisorcivilwarof1960-

1963aswellastheCubanMissileCrisisof1962.ItalsohesitantlyorreluctantlyhandledtheMid
dleEastcrisissince1948.Therefore,theUNOwasalwaysreluctanttotakedecisionsortookalo
ngtoimplementherdecisions.
 TheorganisationwasracistandisolatedtheThirdWorldStates.Itwaslargelydominatedbyth
edevelopedcountriesoftheworldwhichalwaysdominatedthediscussionsintheUNO.Thisal
ienatedtheorganisationfromtheThirdWorldStatesyettheywerethemajorityintheworld.
 Itlackedthepersonnelormanpowertohandlemostofthechallengesthatconfrontedtheorg
anisation.ThistheredeterredtheUNOfromimplementingitsdecisions.
 TheUNO’sdisarmamentpolicywasweakandselective.ThemajorworldpowerslikeUSA,USS
RandChinacontinuedmanufacturingweaponsofmassdestructioninthepost-
WorldWarIIperiodasUNjustlookedonyetthesmallcountrieswerealwaysdiscouragedfrom
doingso.
 TheUNOlackedeffectivepenaltiestodealwiththosecountrieswhichviolateditsobjectives.F
orexample,itplayeddoublestandardsinthedecolonisationprocessofAfricawhereitimpose
dweakeconomicsanctionsofthecolonialregimesliketheApartheidregimeinSouthAfrica.T
hesesanctionswereineffectiveandthereforeexplainwhysuchAfricancountriestooklongto
beliberatedfromcolonialdomination.
 TheUNOextendedfinancialaidtotheworldnationsthroughitsfinancialagenciesliketheInt
ernationalMonetaryFundandtheWorldBank,asasteptopromoteeconomicdevelop
ment.However,thisfinancialaidwasalwaysselectiveandwithconditionsattachedwhichwa
saweaknessandthereforecouldnotendpovertyintheworld.Thememberstatesevenwenta
headandsetuptheEconomicandSocialCounciloftheUNObutthiscouncilalsohadnofinancia
lfootingtoalleviatepovertyfromtheThirdWorldStates.
 TheInternationalCourtofJusticewhichwasthejudicialarmoftheUNObasedinthecityofHag
ue,inthNetherlandswasalwaysdeterminedbythewhitesonlyanditsdecisionswerealwayss
electivebecausetheyfavouredthemajorpowers.ThisalsomadetheUNOunabletofulfilitsob
jectives.
 TheUNOlackedfacilitiestoeffectitsdecisionsandroles.Forexample,itdidnothavelikejets,s
hips,andevenvehiclesofitsowntocarryoutpeaceoperationsintheworld.Thisexplainswhyit
wasalwaysreluctanttointerveneinareasofconflicts.
(a)ExaminethestrengthsandweaknessesoftheUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)by1970.
CHALLENGESFACEDBYTHEUNITEDNATIONSORGANIZATION(UNO)BETWEEN1
945AND1970:
 TheaimsandobjectivesoftheUNOarepartandparcelofthechallengesandthesewere;
 Tomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurity
 Tochecktheriseofaggressiveleaders
 Toensureequalrightstoself-determinationofallmemberstatesandnations
 Topromoteinternationaldiplomacy
 Itsleadershipinvolvedininternationalcontroversies
 Promotionofbetterhealthconditions
 TopunishthewarcriminalssuchastheNazisandFascists

 Rehabilitationofthewartorncountries–Japan,Germany,Italy
 Promoteeconomicco-operations
 Promotechildren’srightsandemancipationofwomen
 Toaddressrefugeecrisis
 Tocombatenvironmentalthreats
 EnforcingdisarmamentinthefaceoftheColdWar
 DemocratizationanddecolonizationespeciallyintheThirdWorldcountries
 LimitednumberofpermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilwhichwereonlyfivedeniedth
eUNOmorefinancialandmilitaryresources
 TheColdWarunderminedtheperformanceoftheUNObecauseitincreasedinternationalcon
flicts.
 DifferencesinideologybetweencommunistUSSRandcapitalistUSA
 InternationaltensionandcrisesliketheCongoCrisisof1960-
1963,theSuezCanalCrisisof1956,theHungarianCrisisof1956andtheKoreanCrisisof1953-
1955overstretchedtheresourcesoftheUNO
 ThepresenceorlocalorregionalorganizationswhichhadconflictingaimslikeNATO,WARSW
APACT,SEATO,BAGHDADPACT
 WidespreadcivilwarsinAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmerica
 IncreasedracialsegregationintheMiddleEast,SouthAfricaandtheAmerica
 Thecontinuedhumananddrugtraffickingamongthememberstates
 ContinuedIsraelaggressionagainstthePalestinians,leadingtoinstabilityintheMiddleEastf
rom1948to1970withoutviablesolutions
 Theincreasedtendenciesofterrorismintheworldcharacterizedbythehijackingofplanes,su
icidebombingsandassassinationsincreasedinstabilityintheworldwhichunderminedthepe
rformanceoftheUNO.
 Badgovernance,corruptionanddictatorship
 IneffectivenessoftheUNOpenaltieslikeeconomicsanctions
 TheriseofstrongernationsthantheUNOforexample,USA,USSRandChina
 Shortageoffunds
 Lackofpermanentpeacekeepingforceofitsown
 InfluenceofVetopowers
 Renewedimperialismandneocolonialism
 Renewedarmsrace

THECOLDWAR,(1945-1970)
The“ColdWar”wasaglobalconflictorthebadrelationsbetweentheWestern(Capitalist)
PowersthatbelievedinliberalismanddemocracylikeBritain,France,Canada,Belgium,Italy,S
weden,Switzerland,NorwayandDenmarkamongothersledbyUSAandtheEasternPowerst
hatbelievedinCommunismledbytheSovietUnion(Russia)andherallieslikeAlbania,Yugo
slavia,Poland,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia,HungaryandEastGermanyamongothers.Thisconflic
tdevelopedafterWorldWarIIbetweenthetwoSuperPowersandtheirrespectiveallies.Theconfl
ictisreferredtoasthe“ColdWar”becauseitdidnotinvolveactualfighting.Instead,therivalpow

ersattackedeachotherwithpropagandaorpsychologicalwarfareandeconomicmeasuresas
wellasageneralpolicyofnon–co-
operation.TheColdWarbecameamajorthreattoworldpeaceinthepost-
WorldWarIIperiodbecauseitwascharacterizedbytension,fear,suspicion,militaryskirmishesa
ndconflictsbetweentheEasternorCommunistblocledbytheSovietUnion(Russia)andtheWest
ernorCapitalistblocledbyUSA.
TheColdWaroriginatedfromtheideologicaldifferencesthatexistedbetweentheWesternPowe
rsandtheSovietUnion(Russia).WhiletheWesternpowersledbytheUSAwantedthespreadoflib
eraldemocracyandcapitalismthroughouttheworld,theSovietUnion(Russia)ontheother
handwantedcommunismtobespreadthroughouttheworld.Communismisthebeliefinthesy
stemofgovernmentownershipofresourceslikeland,factories,railwaysandbanksamongother
sandequaldistributionofwealth.Ontheotherhand,capitalismbelievesinprivateownershipofth
efactorsofproduction.
THECAUSESOFTHECOLDWAR
ThedifferencesinideologybetweenthecapitalistorliberaldemocraticstatesledbyUSAandthec
ommuniststatesledbytheSovietUnion(Russia)causedtheColdWar.BeforeWorldWarII,there
weremarkeddifferencesinideologiesinthattheWesternpowersledbyUSAwantedthespreadof
liberaldemocracyandcapitalismthroughouttheworld,whiletheSovietUnion(Russia)ont
heotherhandwantedcommunismtobespreadthroughouttheworld.AfterWorldWarII,these
differencesintensifiedwhenUSAandtheSovietUnionemergedastheleadingsuperpowersofth
eworld.ThiswasworsenedwhencommunistgovernmentswereestablishedbyRussiainmuchof
CentralandEasternEuropewhichdividedthecontinentbetweentwohostilecampsorblocsofthe
communistandnon-
communist(capitalist)nationswithprofoundpolitical,socialandeconomicdifferences.Thenon
-
communistnationsmadewhatcametobecalledWesternEuropeortheWesternblocledbyUSA.
ThecommunistcountriesmadeupEasternEuropeortheEasternbloc.ThesecountrieswereAlba
nia,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia,EastGermay,Hungary,PolandandRomaniaandtheSovietUnion
(Russia).Bothblocsgatheredalliesbetween1945and1948andthismarkedthebeginningofthe
ColdWarasitledtofearandsuspicionbetweenthecapitalistandcommuniststates.
ThedisagreementsintheYaltaandPotsdamConferencesofFebruary1945andJuly-
August1945respectivelyledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.Thesewar-
timeconferenceswereheldbetweenBritain,theSovietUnion(Russia)andUSAtodiscussthefut
ureadministrationofGermanyafterWorldWarIIamongotherissues.However,theAlliedPower
sfailedtoagreeonthefutureofGermany.TheWesternAlliedPowersledbyUSAwantedtocreatea

newGermanyunderaliberaldemocraticgovernmentwhiletheSovietUnion(Russia)wantedtot
akeoverthecontroloftheentireGermanyandputitundercommunism.Thisthereforesowedthe
seedsoftheColdWarsinceUSAandtheSovietUnion(Russia)lefttheYaltaandPotsdamConferen
cesof1945notreconciled.Consequently,Germanywasdividedintofourmilitaryoccupationzon
eswithFranceintheSouthwest,BritainintheNorthwest,theUnitedStatesintheSouthandtheSo
vietUnionintheEast.Later,theUSA,BritainandFranceunitedtheWesternzonesandestablished
theFederalRepublicofWestofGermany.TheSovietUnionrespondedbyformingtheDemocr
aticRepublicofGermanyinEastGermany.ThisdivisionofGermanybecameamajorsourceo
ftensionbetweentheWesternAlliedPowersandtheSovietUnionafterWorldWarII,henceleadin
gtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
TheRussianimperialismcausedaconflictwiththeWesternpowerswhichledtotheoccurrenceof
theColdWar.AfterWorldWarII,theWesternEuropeanpowersweregivingupcontrolovertheirc
olonies.However,theSovietUnion(Russia)tookafirmcontroloveranumberofcountrieslikePol
and,Bulgaria,EastGermany,HungaryandCzechoslovakiaanddominatedthempolitically,milit
arilyandalsoexploitedthemeconomically.Thiswasseenasaviolationofthefreedomofindividua
lswhichRussiahadpromisedWinstonChurchillofBritainandFranklinRooseveltofUSAattheYal
taConferenceofFebruary1945towardstheendofWorldWarII.Thisthereforeannoyedthe
Westernpowers,thuscausingaconflictthatledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
ThespreadofcommunismintoEasternEuropecausedtheColdWarbetweenRussiaandtheWest
ernpowers.DuringWorldWarII,RussialiberatedanumberofcountriesinEasternEuropefromth
eNaziorGermanoccupationlikePoland,Czechoslovakia,Hungary,Romania,BulgariaandAlba
nia.Consequently,afterWorldWarII,Russiaestablishedcommunistregimesinmostofthesesta
teswhichspreadcommunismintoEasternEurope.ThisthreatenedtheWesternpowersledbyUS
Awhichwerecapitalistandthereforetheyembarkedonthepolicyoftryingtocontainorstopthes
preadofRussiancommunism.ThisincreasedtensionbetweentheWesternPowersledbyUSAan
dtheSovietUnion(Russia)whichledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
The1946“IronCurtainSpeech”madebyWinstonChurchillledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.I
nMarch1946,theformerBritishPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchillvisitedUSAwheredelivered
whatcametobeknownasthe“IronCurtainSpeech”inwhichhecondemnedthepoliciesoftheSov
ietUnioninEasternEurope.Hestatedthatan“IronCurtain”haddescendedacrossEuropefromSt
ettinintheBalticSeaintheNorthtoTriesteintheAdriaticSeaintheSouth.Bythishemeanttheeffor
tsbytheSovietUniontoblockitselfanditssatellitestatesinEasternEuropefromopencontactwith
thewesternpowers.HethereforecalledforanalliancebetweenBritainandUSAagainsttheSovie
tUnionwhichheaccusedofestablishinganIronCurtainacrossEurope.ThisspeechannoyedtheS
ovietUnionandthereforewidenedthegapbetweentheSovietUnion(Russia)andtheWesternpo
wers,thusleadingtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.

TheTrumanDoctrineof1947alsoledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.TheTrumanDoctrinewas
anAmericanforeignpolicywhosepurposewastocounterorcontaintheSovietgeographicalexpa
nsionduringtheColdwar.ThispolicywasputinplaceinMarch1947byPresidentHarryTruman
whobecametheUSAPresidentafterthedeathofFranklinD.Roosevelt,thewar-
timepresident.Throughthispolicy,AmericagavefinancialsupporttotheGreekandTurkishgove
rnmentsagainstcommunistmovementsorthreatsinGreeceandTurkeysoastopreventthesetw
ostatesinEasternEuropefromfallingundertheSoviet“sphereofinfluence”.Trumanfurtherpled
gedAmericansupportforothernationsthatwerethreatenedbytheSovietaggressionorcommu
nism.ThisdoctrinethreatenedtheSovietUnion,andthereforecausedaconflictbetweenthetwo
superpowerswhichledtotheoccurrenceofteColdWar.
TheMarshallAidplanof1947alsoledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.TheMarshallAidplan,als
oknownastheEuropeanrecoveryprogramwasaUnitedStatesprogramprovidingeconomicaidt
oWesternEuropefollowingthedestructioncausedbyWorldWarII.ItwasinitiatedbytheAmeric
anSecretaryofStateGeorgeMarshallinJune1947anditwasintendedtohaltorblockthespre
adofcommunismontheEuropeancontinent.ItwasbelievedbyUSAthatthoseWesternEuropea
nnationsthatbenefitedfromthisAmericaneconomicaidwouldrejectcommunismandinsteadal
lywiththeUSA.WhatcausedtheColdWarwasthatRussiaunderPresidentJosefStalinreactedby
preventingthestatesofEasternEuropewhereshehadinfluencetogofortheMarshallAidPlanaid
evenwhentheywouldhavewishedtodoso.ThisgreatlyannoyedUSA,hencecausingtheColdWa
r.
TheMolotovplanof1947alsoledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.Thiswasthesystemcreatedb
ytheSovietUnionin1947inordertoprovideeconomicaidtorebuildthecountriesinEasternEurop
ethatwerepoliticallyandeconomicallyalignedtotheSovietUnion.Itwasacounterreactiontothe
MarshallAidplanof1947andthereforeitsymbolizedtheSovietUnion’srefusaltoaccepteconomi
caidfromtheMarshallAidplanorallowanyofhersatellitestatesinEasternEuropetodoso.Thiswa
sbecauseoftheirbeliefthattheMarshallAidplanwasanattempttoweakentheSovietinfluencein
hersatellitestatesbymakingthebeneficiarycountriestodependontheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
Throughthissystem,theSovietUnionevenencouragedandsponsoredtheeconomicintegratio
nofthecommuniststatesinEasternEuropeandelsewhereintheworldwhichlaterledtotheforma
tionofaneconomicorganizationknownastheCOMECON(TheCouncilforMutualEconomicAssi
stance)in1949.ThispromotedcooperationbetweentheSovietUnionandthecommuniststatesi
nEasternEurope.ThisfurtherannoyedUSAwhichtryingtocontaintheexpansionoftheSovietinfl
uenceinEasternEurope,thusleadingtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
TheColdWaralsointensifiedbytheconferencethatwasheldinWarsaw,thecapitalofPolandinSe
ptember1947.TheconferencewasacounterreactionoftheMarshallAidPlanitwasheldbytheco
mmunistcountriestoco-
ordinatecommunistactivitiesthatweredeterminedinMoscow,thecapitalofRussia.Thisconfer
enceresultedintotheformationoftheCommunistInformationBureauorofficeinWarsawt
ocoordinatecommunistpoliticalpartiesinEurope.Theconferencethereforeincreasedtheconfli

ctsbetweenthecapitalistpowersintheWestandthecommunistcountriesintheEastwhichledtot
heoccurrenceofteColdWar.
The“BerlinBlockade”incidentof1948to1949ledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.Thiswas
anattemptbyRussiatoblockallroads,railwaysandcanalslinkingWestBerlinandWestGermany
whichwasundertheAlliedPowers.DuringthePotsdamConferenceofJuly-
August1945,Berlin,theformercapitalofGermany,whichlayintheSovietEasternzone,wasdivid
edintothreeWesternsectorsandoneSovietsectorwiththeWesternsectorslaterbecoming Wes
tBerlinandtheSovietsectorbecomingEastBerlin,thecapitalofEastGermany.WestBerlinwa
sthereforecompletelysurroundedbytheEastGermanterritorywhichwasunderRussiancontrol
.ThisdivisionofBerlinlatergeneratedenemitybetweentheWesternAlliedPowersandtheSoviet
Union(Russia).ThisforcedRussiatocreateablockadeonthecityofWestBerlinin1948.Thiswasa
imedatpreventingfoodandothersuppliesfromarrivinginWestBerlinsoastoforcetheAlliedPo
wersoutofthecity.Thiscreatedscarcityofgoodsforthelocalpopulationandthearmedforcesoft
heWesternPowersthatwerestillstationedinWestBerlin.TheWesternpowersrespondedtothe
blockadebyorganizingthe“BerlinAirLift”ofJune1948–
May1949tocarrysuppliestothepeopleofWestBerlinwhichwasadifficulttask,giventhebigsizeo
fthecity’spopulation.TheSovietUniondidnotdisrupttheairliftforfearthatthismightleadtoopen
conflict.SheinsteaddecidedtolifttheblockadeofWestBerlinon12 thMay1949.Thisincidentincre
asedtheenemitybetweentheSovietUnion(Russia)andtheWesternAlliedPowerswhichledtoth
eoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
TherenewalofthealliancesystemalsoledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.InthepostWorldWar
IIperiod,anumberofdefensivemilitaryallianceswereformedbytherivalcamps.Forexample,in
1949theNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)wasformedbythecapitalistcountriesl
ikeUSA,Italy,Britain,France,CanadaandNorway-
theheadquartersofNATO.ThesemembersagreedtohelpeachotheragainstaggressioninEuro
peandthe“NorthAtlanticArea”anditalsomeantthatthisOrganization(NATO)stoodagainst
theaggressionbycommunistRussia.Inreaction,theSovietUnion(Russia)formedtheWarsaw
Pactin1955withhercommunistalliesthatincludedPoland,Bulgaria,Hungary,Romania,EastG
ermany,AlbaniaandCzechoslovakia.TheWarsawPactwasnottoallowtheinfluenceoftheWest
ernPowersinthemembercountries.Thesealliancesincreasedtensionandsuspicionbetweenth
ecapitalistandcommunistpowers,thusleadingtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
TherevivalofthearmsraceledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.AfterWorldWarII,therewasanu
cleararmsraceorcompetitioninthemanufactureofnuclearweaponsbetweenUSA,theSovietU
nion(Russia)andtheirrespectiveallies.Forexample,in1949RussiadevelopedanAtomicbom
bwhichshockedtheWesternPowers.ThiswasachallengeespeciallytothemonopolyoftheAmer

icansinthemanufacturetheatomicweaponsandtechnologicalwarfare.Thismarkedthebirthof
thecompetitionbetweenthetwosuperpowerstodevelopweaponscapableofdestroyingallthei
ropponentswithinthefewminutes.TheUnitedStatesreactedtothecompetitionbydeveloping“
nuclearbombs”aswellasthe“Hydrogenbomb”in1952.Russiaalsodidthesamein1953.Thi
sincreasedtensionbetweentheWesternandEasternblocs,thusleadingtotheoccurrenceofthe
ColdWar.
ThesuccessoftheChineseRevolutionof1949alsoledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.Thisrevol
utioninvolvedthedefeatoftheNationalistgovernmentofChiangKai-
ShekinChinawhichwasunderAmericansupport.Thegovernmentwasdefeatedbythecommuni
stsundertheleadershipofMAOTSE-
TUNGwhowassupportedbytheSovietUnion(Russia)andheestablishedanewgovernmenthec
alledthePeople’sCommunistRepublicofChinainOctober1949.TheNationalistswhoha
dbeendefeatedtookovertheneighbouringIslandofTaiwanandregardedthemselvesasthetru
eChineseandwereevenrecognizedbytheUNO.ThepresenceofacommunistregimeinChinasu
pportedbytheSovietUnion(Russia)increasedtheenemitybetweenRussiaandtheWesternpow
ersthatsupportedtheChineseinTaiwan,thusleadingtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
TheroleoftheinternationalpresspropagandacausedtheColdWar.ThenewspapersinUSAandB
ritainlikethe“NewYorkTimes”andthe“DailyTelegraph”respectivelyaswellasthoseinRus
siapublishedinformationabouttheirrivals,includingmilitarysecrets,sometimeswithexaggera
tion.Thisnegativepresspropagandapoisonedthemindsofthepoliticiansineithercamps.Thisin
creasedtensionbetweentheWesternAlliedPowersledbyUSAandtheSovietUnion(Russia)whi
chledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
ThedemiseofcompromisingleadersledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.BoththeWesternandE
asternblocswitnessedthedisappearanceofgoodandcompromisingleaderswhohadstruggled
topromotegoodinternationalrelations.Thesewereinsteadreplacedbyuncompromisingleade
rswhogotinvolvedinbitterexchangeofwordsthatbuilttensionandworsenedthealreadyfragile
relationshipbetweentheWestandEast.Forexample,therewasPresidentFranklinD.Roosevelt
ofUSAwhodiedon12thApril1945andwasreplacedbyHarryTruman.InBritain,therewasPrim
eMinisterNevilleChamberlainwhowasreplacedbyWinstonChurchillinOctober1940whileint
heSovietUnion(Russia),therewasVladimirLeninwhowasreplacedbyPremierJosefStalinin19
24.Thepresenceofsuchnewanduncompromisingleaders,thereforeincreasedthehostilitybet
weentheWesternpowersandtheSovietUnion(Russia)whichledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdW
ar.
TheimpactofthespyingnetworksystemalsocausedtheColdWar.Inthepost-
WorldWarIIperiod,anumberofspynetworksoragencieswereformedbythetworivalcampswhi
chsecretlycollectedbothmilitaryandintelligenceinformationfromtheirrivals.Thisinformation

wasthenpublishedinthedifferentnewspaperswhichworsenedtherelationsbetweentheWeste
rnandEasternblocs.Forexample,therewastheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)ofUSA,th
eFederalBureauofInvestigations(FBI)ofBritain,KGBoftheSovietUnion(Russia)aswella
stheMOSSADofIsrael.Thisincreasedfearandsuspicionthateventuallyledtotheoccurrenceof
theColdWar.
ThestruggletocontroltheworldeconomicresourcesalsoledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.Th
erewasabitterstrugglebetweentheWesternpowersledbyUSAandtheSovietUnion(Russia)int
hepost-
WorldWarIIperiodtoaccessanddominatetheeconomicresourcesoftheworldespeciallyminer
alslikeoil,diamondandgold.Thistogetherwiththedesiretocontrolthestrategicplacesofthewor
ldliketheSuezCanalinEgypt,ConstantinopleinTurkey,theMediterraneanandBlackSeasaswell
astheCapeofGoodHopeinSouthAfricamadethetwosuperpowersandtheiralliestoclashinthedi
fferentpartsoftheworld.Thisincreasedtensionbetweenthetworivalcampswhicheventuallybr
oughtabouttheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
TheKoreanWarorconflictof1950to1953alsocausedtheColdWarbetweentheWesternpowe
rsandtheSovietUnion(Russia).TheKoreanPeninsulahadbeenpartoftheJapaneseEmpirebuta
fterWorldWarII,Koreawassplitintotwodivisions(NorthandSouthKorea).However,inJune19
50,NorthKoreawhichwassupportedbycommunistRussiaunderJosefStalininvadedSouthK
oreawhichwascapitalistanddemocratic.TheUSAthroughtheUNOintervenedtostoptheinvasi
onbysupportingSouthKorea.Theresultwasthatapeaceagreementwassignedandthehostilitie
stemporarilyended.ThisconfrontationbetweenUSAandtheSovietUnion(Russia)increasedth
eenemitybetweenthetwosuperpowers,henceleadingtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
TheArab–
JewishconflictintheMiddleEastcausedtheColdWar.Thisconflictoriginatedfromthebadrela
tionsbetweenIsraelandherArabneighbourslikeSyria,JordanandEgyptsince1948whentheJe
wishstateofIsraelwasestablishedonwhattheArabscalledtheirland.BoththeSovietUnion(Rus
sia)andtheWesternpowersconflictedoverthisissuebecausethetworivalcampsgavearms,fun
dsandtechnicaladvicetothewarringparties.TheWesternpowerssupportedIsraelwhileRussia
supportedtheArabstates.Thisincreasedenemitybetweenthetwosideswhichledtotheoccurre
nceoftheColdWar.
ThestruggleforworldsupremacyordominancebetweenUSAandtheSovietUnion(Russia)alsol
edtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.Thesetwonationshademergdastheleadingsuperpowersaf
terWorldWarII,replacingBritainandFrancewhichwerethetraditionalsuperpowersintheworld
.Inthepost-
WorldWarIIperiod,eachofthesetwosuperpowerswantedtooutcompetetheother.Asaresultt

heytriedtogetasmanyalliesaspossibleespeciallyinAfrica,Asiaandotherstrategicareasofthew
orld,leadingtoclashesbetweenthetwosuperpowers.Theseclashesincreasedtheenemitybet
weentheUSAandRussiatogetherwiththeirrespectiveallieswhichledtotheColdWar.
TheCubanMissileCrisisof1962alsoledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.InOctober1962,th
eSovietUnion(Russia)sentnuclearmissilestoherLatinAmericancommunistally-
CubainordertoprotectherfromaplannedinvasionbycapitalistUSA.ThismovebytheRussiansth
reatenedUSAwhichrespondedtotheinstallationofthemissilesbyimposinganavalblockadeo
nCubathatlasteduntilNovember1962whenRussiaremovedthemissilesfollowingthepressu
refromtheUnitedNationsOrganisation(UNO).ThisconfrontationinCubaincreasedtheenemit
ybetweenUSAandRussiawhichledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
TheweaknessoftheUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)ledtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.Th
eUNOasaninternationalorganizationsetupin1945waschargedwiththeresponsibilityofmaint
ainingworldpeaceafterWorldWarII.TheUSAandtheSovietUnion(Russia)werepermanentme
mbersoftheSecurityCounciloftheUNO,buttheUNOfailedtostopthesetwosuperpowersfrompr
oducingweaponsofmassdestructioninthepost-
WorldWarIIperiod.Thisrevivedthearmsracenotonlybetweenthesetwosuperpowersbutalsoi
ntheentireworldwhicheventuallycontributedtotheoccurrenceoftheColdWar.
THEEFFECTSOFTHECOLDWARONEUROPE
TheColdWarhadbothpositiveandnegativeeffectsonEuropeasnotedbelow;
THEPOSITIVEEFFECTSOFTHECOLDWAR
TheColdWarledtothespreadofcapitalismandcommunismbythesuperpowers.AstheColdWar
ragedon,eachofthetwosuperpowersbecamedeterminedtospreadtheirideologiestootherpar
tsoftheworld.Forexample,communismwasspreadbytheSovietUnion(Russia)toEasternEuro
peespeciallyintheBalkanstatesandtheRussiansatellitestateslikePoland,Czechoslovakia,Bul
garia,AlbaniaandHungary.Ontheotherhand,capitalismwasextendedbytheUSAtomanycoun
triesinWesternEurope.Thispromotedfriendshiporco-
operationbetweenthosecountriestthatembracedthedifferentideologieswiththetwosuperpo
wers.
TheColdWarincreasedtheflowofcapitaloraidintothemembercountriesofthevarioushostileca
mps.Eachofthetwosuperpowersdecidedtoextendforeignaidtotheirrespectivealliesasawayo
fwinningthemontheirrespectivesides.Forexample,therewastheflowoftheMarshallAidfro
mtheUSAtoWesternEuropetoreconstructtheshatteredeconomiesofBritain,FranceandWest
Germany.Inreaction,theSovietUnion(Russia)gavefinancialaidtotheEasternEuropeancountr

iesthroughtheMolotovPlanof1947inordertocountertheMarshalAidPlan.Thisaidfromthet
wosuperpowesledtoeconomicrecoveryinEuropeafterthedestructiveWorldWarII.
TheColdWarpromotededucationinthesatellitestates.DuringtheColdWar,manyforeignstude
ntsintheAmericanandRussiansatellitestatesofEuropewereofferedscholarshipsbytheirrespe
ctiveSuperpowerstostudyabroadasawayofindoctrinatingthemintoeitherCapitalismorComm
unismbythetwosuperpowers.Thiswasbecausethestudentswhostudiedinthosecountriesbec
amemajorproponentsofthoseideologieswhenevertheyreturnedtotheirhomecountries.This
promotededucationaladvancementinmanycountries.
Itledtotheadvancementinscienceandtechnology.DuringtheColdWarera,therewasseriousco
mpetitioninscienceandtechnologybetweentheWesternpowersledbytheUSAandtheEastern
blocledbytheSovietUnion(Russia).Eachcamptriedtoimproveitspolitical,economicandmilitar
ycapabilitiesbycarryingoutintensivescientificresearchandinnovations.Thiseventuallybroug
htaboutmanyscientificdiscoverieslikeadvancedmilitaryweapons,computersandrobotswhic
hpromotedrapiddevelopmentinthetwocampsupto1970.
TheColdWarfurtherstrengthenedthealliancesinWesternEuropewithUSAandCanada.Thegro
wingthreatsfromCommunitstRussiaduringtheColdWareracreatedanurgentneedforunityan
dco-
operationbetweentheWesternEuropeannationsandUSAtogetherwithCanadawhichledtothe
formationofNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisation(NATO)in1949.Theformationofthisorganistio
nthereforehelpedtopromoteTrans-Atlanticco-
operationbetweenUSA,CanadaandtheWesternEuropeancountrieslikeBritain,France,Belgi
umandItalyamongothers.
TheColdWarledtotheproductionofmoreadvancedmilitaryhardwareorweaponsbythetwosup
erpowersandtheirallies.Thiswasdoneinpreparationforafullscalewarbetweenthetwohostilec
ampswhichwaslikeytohappenanytimegiventhehostilitythatwasgoingonbetweenthetwosup
erpowersandtheirrespectiveallies.Thishelpedtocreatemilitarybalanceofpowerbetweenthe
WesternandtheEasternpowers.Becauseofthistherefore,therewaspeacewithoutamajorwar
breakingoutintheworldintheperiod1945to1970.
TheColdWarledtothepresenceofUSAtroopsinEurope.ThesetroopswerebroughttoEuropeby
USAsoastoprotecttheWestencapitalistnationsfromapossibleRussianaggressionwhichwasv
eryeminentorlikelyasRussiawantedtospreadhercommunistideologyintheregionatallcosts.T
hisinvasionwaslikelytohappenanytimegiventhewaytheSovietUnionhadinvadedmanyEaster
nEuropeannationsimmediatelyafterWorldWarII.TheseAmericantroopshelpedtomaintainpe
aceandstabilityinEurope.

TheColdWarledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.TheWarsawPactwasamilitaryalli
anceestablishedin1955betweentheSovietUnionandnumerousEasternblocstateslikePoland,
Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia,EastGermany,Hungary,RomaniaandAlbania.Themajoraimsorobj
ectivesoftheWarsawPactof1955were;tocounterthespreadofcapitalism,promoteeconomicc
ooperationamongthecommuniststatesaswellastospreadcommunismamongothers.Itwasth
ereforeestablishedasadefensiveallianceagainstthethreatsfromtheNATOorWesternpowers.
TheWarsawPacthelpedtopromotecloseco-
operationbetweentheEasternEuropeannationsthatwerecommunistandtheSovietUnion(Ru
ssia)upto1970.
ItledtothecompetitioninspaceexplorationbetweenUSAandtheSovietUnion(Russia).Beca
useoftheColdWar,therewascompetitionforthedominanceofthespaceandtheMooninparticul
arbetweenUSAandtheSovietUnionusingrockets,satellitesandothertechniquesasawayofsho
wingwhichsuperpowerhadmoreknowledgeoftheuniverse.Forexample,1959theSovietUnion
sentarockettotheMoonwhichlandedon14thSeptember1959andthiswasthefirstman-
madeobjecttoreachtheMoon.InanefforttocompetewiththisSovietsuccess,USAembarkedon
aprojecttolaunchamanintotheEarthOrbitandalsotolandahumanbeingontheMoon.Buton12t
h
April1961,theSoviet(Russian)YuriGagarinbecamethefirsthumanbeinginthespaceandthe
firsttoorbittheEarth.Asaresult,on20thJuly1969,USAsentitsSpaceFlightorRocketwhichlanded
thefirsttwopeopleontheMoonandthesewereNeilArmstrongandBuzzAldrin.Thisraceinspace
explorationresultedintomorescientificdiscoveriesandinniovationsbymankind.
TheColdWarledtotheformationoftheNon-
AlignedMovement(NAM)in1961.ThismovementwasstartedbyNEHRU,thePrimeMinist
erofIndia,PresidentJosipTitoofYugoslaviaandPresidentSurkanoofIndonesiaamongother
s.TheNAMwasofficiallybornin1961duringtheBelgradeconferencethatwasheldinYugoslavia.
ThisorganizationwasformedtoencouragetheThirdWorldCountriestobeneutralbynottakingsi
desduringtheColdWareitherwiththeNATOortheWarsawPactmembers.Themovementtheref
orehelpedtounitethoseThirdWorldCountriesofAsiaandAfricathatchosetobeneutralintheCol
dWarandalsosafeguardedthemembercountriesfromthedirectconfrontationwiththeeitherth
eWestorEast.
TheColdWarledtoeconomicintegrationinEurope.Forexample,therewastheformationoftheW
esternEuropeanUnioninOctober1954andlatertheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EE
C)in1957bytheWesternEuropeannations.TheseorganizationsbeganasaresponsetotheAm
ericanofferoftheMarshallAidPlanastheWesternEuropeancountriesorganizedthemselvestod
rawupaplanforthebestuseoftheAmericanaid.TheseregionalorganizationssawWesternEuro
pemovingclosertowardstheformationofCommonMarket,thuspromotingeconomicrecoveryi
ntheregion.Similarly,becauseoftheColdWarRussiasponsoredtheeconomicintegrationofthe

communistcountriesinEasternEuropewhichlaterledtotheformationofaneconomicorganizati
onknownasCOMECON(TheCouncilforMutualEconomicAssistance)in1949.
NEGATIVEEFFECTSOFTHECOLDWAR
TheColdWarledtothepolarizationordivisionofEuropeintotwohostilecampsorblocs.Becauseo
ftheColdWar,Europewasdividedintotwoantagonisticcampswithdivergentpoliticalandecono
micideologies.TheseweretheWesternorCapitalistblocledbyUSAandtheEasternorCommunis
tblocledbyUSSR(Russia).Thisincreasedthetension,fear,suspicionandconflictsbetweentheE
uropeanpowerswhichthreatenedpeaceandsecurityupto1970.
TheColdWarincreasedthearmsracebetweenthetwosuperpowers.TheColdWarcontributedt
oacontinuousstateoftension,fearandsuspicionbetweentheEasternblocledbytheSovietUnio
nandtheWesternblocledbyUSAwhichcreatedadeiretomanufactureweaponsinpreparationfo
ranactualwarbetweenthetwosides.Thisledtothemanufactureofweaponsofmassdestruction
bythetwosuperpowersliketheAmericanThermalnuclearbombof1954to1953,theatomicbom
bof1945aswellastheRussianBallisticMissilesof1957amongothers.Thismanufactureofthesed
eadlyweaponsthreatenedworldpeaceupto1970.
TheColdWaralsoledtoconfrontationsorclashesbetweentheUSAandtheSovietUnion(Russia).
DuetotheColdWar,thetwosuperpowersfoundthemselvesclashingorconflictinginthedifferen
tpartsoftheworldespeciallyinthoseareasthatwerestrategicallylocated.Forexample,theyclas
hedintheKoreanCrisisof1950to1953aswellastheCubanMissileCrisisof1962.Theseconfrontat
ionsincreasedtheenemitybetweenUSAandRussia,thusunderminingworldpeaceupto1970.
TheColdWarpromotedthedecolonizationofAfricaandAsia,thusleadingtothelossofterritories
bytheEuropeanpowerslikeBritain,France,PortugalandBelgium.Thetwosuperpowers(USAan
dRussia)supportedindependencestrugglessoastoextendtheirideologies.Forexample,inAng
olaUSAsupportedapoliticalpartyknownasUNITA(theNationalUnionfortheTotalIndependenc
eofAngola)whileRussiasupportedMPLA(thePopularMovementfortheLiberationofAngola).T
hiseventuallyledtotheindependenceofAngolafromPortugalin1975.
TheColdWarledtotheformationofsecretinternationalspyingagencies.DuringtheColdWar,an
umberofantagonisticspynetworkswereformedbythetwoconflictingblocstospyandgathersec
retinformationabouttheirrivals.Forexample,therewastheCentralIntelligenceAgencyofUSA,t
heMOSADofIsrael,theFederalBureauofInvestigations(FBI)ofBritainaswellastheKGBofRussi
aamongothers.Astheseorganizationsspiedovertheiropponents,thisincreasedthetensionbet
weenthetwohostilecamps,thusthreateninginternationalpeaceupto1970.

TheColdWarledtothedivisionofGermanyintotwopartsandthesewereWestandEastGermany.
WestGermanywasundercapitalismandthereforefolloweddemocraticandcapitalistideaswhil
eEastGermanyundercommunism.ThisdivisionwaslaterstrengthenedwhentheSovietUnion(
Russia)constructedthe“BerlinWall”in1961.Whenthishugeandheavilyguardedwallwasbuil
t,iteffectivelydividedWestGermanyfromEastGermany.Asaresult,theGermansintheEastwou
ldnotbeallowedtocrosstotheWest.Theythereforebecameprisonerswithintheirowncountry.T
hecontinueddivisionofGermanyintotwopartsincreasedthetensionandenemitybetweenthe
WesternCapitalistPowersandtheSovietUnionupto1970,thusunderminingpeace.
TheColdWarledtopoliticalunrestorinstabilityinEuropencountrieslikeCzechoslovakiaandPola
nd.Thisissobecausethereexistedcommunistandcapitalistwings(politicalparties)inthesecou
ntriesandeachofthemstruggledtotakeoverpowerwiththesupportoftheEasternandtheWeste
rnpowers.
TheColdWarfacilitatedtheriseofdictatorshipinEasternEuropewhiledemocracyflourishedinW
esternEurope.Thecommunistideologywasassociatedwithdictatorshipwhilecapitalismwasas
sociatedwithliberaldemocracy.Asaresult,thoseEasternEuropeancountriesthatembracedRu
ssiancommunismlikeYugoslavia,RumaniaandPolandamongothersfellunderdictatorialregim
esthatweredirectlysupportedbytheSovietUnion.Thisincreasedtheenemitybetweentheseco
untriesandtheWesterndemocraticnationslikeBritain,FranceandUSAamongothers.
TheColdWarledthedivisionofBerlinintotworegions.Becauseofthecontinuousenemitybetwee
ntheWesternPowersandtheSovietUnionduringtheColdWarera,Berlin,theformercapitalofGe
rmanywassplitupintodifferentadministrativeregionsbytheWoldWarIIwiththeWesternPowe
rsofFrance,BritainandUSAtakingoverwhatlaterbecameWestBerlinwhiletheSovietUnion(R
ussia)tookoverEastBerlin.ThisdivisionofBerlinfurtherincreasedtheenemitybetweentheW
esternPowersandtheSovietUnion(Russia).Theclimaxofthisenemitywasin1948-
1949whenRussiaattemptedtotolimitorblocktheabilityofFrance,GreatBritainandtheUnitedst
atestotravelbyrailway,roadandcanaltotheirregionofWestBerlininwhatcametobeknownasth
e“BerlinBlockade”incidentof1948–
1949.ThoughRussialaterliftedtheblockdeon12thMay1949,theincidentincreasedtheenem
itybetweentheSovietUnionandtheWesternPowerswhichunderminedinternationalpeaceand
stability.
TheColdWarledtotheformationofantagonistichostilemilitaryalliancesbytherivalcamps.Thes
eincludedtheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)thatwasformedin1949aswellast
heWarsawPactformedin1955.TheNATOwascomposedoftheWesterncapitalistcountrieswhil
etheWarsawPacthadthemembershipofcountriesofEasternEuropethatbelievedincommun
ismledbyUSSR(Russia).Theformationofthesemilitaryalliancesincreasedtensionandsuspicio

nbetweenthecapitalistandcommunistpowers,thusundermininginternationalpeaceandstabil
ityupto1970.
TheColdWarunderminedtheoperationorperfomanceoftheUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO
),thusweakeningtheorganisation.Formedin1945withtheprimaryobjectiveofmantainingworl
dpeace,theUNOwasnotabletoconvincethesuperpowerstogiveupthisconflictwhichthreatene
dinternationalpeaceafterWorldWarII.Thisthereforeundermineditscredibilityandindeedexp
oseditasaweakorganization.
TheColdWarcontributedtotheAnglo-
FrenchinvasionofEgyptin1956whichcausedtheSuezCanalCrisisorwarof1956.In1956,Egypt
wasinvadedbyBritain,FranceandIsraeloverthecontroloftheSuezCanalinwhatcametobekno
wnastheSuezCanalCrisisorWar.BritanandFrancedecidedtojoinIsraelagainstEgyptbecau
seEgyptunderPresidentGamelAbdelNasserhadadoptedcommunismwhichdidnotpleasethea
bovetwocapitalistpowers.ThewarwasadiplomaticvictorybyEgyptbecauseBritainandFrance
wereforcedbythetheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblytoimmediatelywithdrawtheirtroopsfro
mtheSuezCanalzone,leadingtotheendofthecrisis.
TheColdWarledtointernationalterrorismandconflictssponsoredbytheWesternpowersledby
USAononesideandRussiaontheother.DuringtheColdWarera,thetwosuperpowessponsoredt
erroristactivitiesagainsteachotherinEuropeandotherpartsoftheworld.Forexample,therewer
efrequentsuicidebombings,hijackingofshipsandplanesaswellasassassinationofprominentle
aderswhodidnotsubscribetotheirrespectiveideologies.Theseterroristactivitiescontributedt
othemasslossoflivesintheregionandtheworldover.
TheColdWarledtothesigningoftheBaghdadPactin1955.BecauseoftheColdWar,Britaininflue
ncedtheArabcountriesintheMiddleEastlikeIraq,TurkeyandPakistantosignamilitaryalliancek
nownastheBaghdadPactof1955withhersoastocheckontheexpansionoftheRussianinfluen
ceorcommunismintotheMiddleEast.ThisallianceannoyedtheSovietUnion(Russia)whichincr
easedthetensionorenemitybetweenherandtheWesternEuropeanPowersespeciallyBritain.
TheColdWarpromotedtheRussianandAmericanimperialisminEurope.Europebecameabattle
groundfortheColdWarfromthelate1940sthroughtheearly1960saseachofthetwosuperpower
sstruggledtoextendherinfluenceintheregionbysecuringasmanyalliesandsatellitestatesaspo
ssible.Forexample,theSovietUnion(Russia)entrenchedhercontrolovermostCentralandEast
ernEuropeanstateslikePoland,Romania,Czechoslovakia,BulgariaandAlbaniawhileUSA’sdo
minancewasfeltmoreintheWesternEuropeannations.Thisimperialismunderminedthepolitic
al,socialandeconomicindependenceoftheEuropeannations.

Questions:
1. DescribethefeaturesoftheColdWarbetween1945and1970.
 TheColdWarwasanideologicalconflictbetweenthecapitalistWestledbyUSAandthecomm
unistEastledbyUSSRandtheirallies.
Features/characteristics/manifestationsoftheColdWar
 EstablishmentandconsolidationofcommunisminEasternEurope
 CommuniststatesweresetuplikePoland,Czechoslovakia,Bulgaria,Romania,AlbaniaandY
ugoslavia
 EscalationofpoliticalinstabilitiesliketheKoreanWarof1950-
1953,thecivilwarinChina,1946-1975
 IncreasedfinancialexpendituresorextensionofeconomicaidthroughtheMarshallAidPlanf
orthecapitalistcountriesandtheMolotovPlanforthecommunistcountries.
 InvolvementintheformationofrivalmilitaryallianceslikeNATOandWarsawPact.
 UnderminingtheworkoftheUNOthroughtheinterventionincivilwarsandtakingsideslikeint
heKoreanWarof1950-1953.
 GermanyremaineddividedbetweenWestGermanyfortheWesternAlliesandEastGermany
remainedcommunistunderRussiancontrol.
 Involvedsupporttopromotethecommunistandcapitalistideologiesinpower.
 Escalation/intensificationoftheMiddleEastconflictbetweenIsraelandPalestine.
 Maintainingofdictatorialregimes/
govermnentsinpowerlikeinCuba,ApartheidregimeinSouthAfrica.
 Promotionofeconomiccooperation/integration
 InvolvedespionageusingsecretintelligenceagencieslikeCIA,MOSSAD,KGBetc.
 Completionforthedominanceofthespace.Forexample,in1959USSRsentarockettotheMo
onandUSAalsosenttwohumanbeingsontheMoonin1969.
 Involvedseriouscompetitioninscienceandtechnology
 Establishmentofmilitarybasesanddominationofstrategicinternationalwaterslikeoceansa
ndseasaswellasdeserts.
 Characterizedbythearmsraceespeciallyinthemanufactureofnuclearweapons.
 InvolvedprovocativespeechesliketheIronCurtainSpeechmadebytheBritishPrimeMiniste
rWinstonChurchill.
 Itwascharacterizedbygivingscholarshipstothestudentsinthesatellitestatesbythetwosup
erpowerssoastoindoctrinatethemintotheirideologies.

2.“JosefStalin’spolicieswereprimarilyresponsiblefortheoutbreakoftheColdWar
.”Discuss
 TheColdWarwasaconflictbetweentheEasternblocandtheWesternbloc.TheEasternbl
ocwasledbycommunistRussia(SovietUnion)andWesternblocwasledbycapitalistUSA.
Thisconflicthoweverdidnotresultintoanopenwar.Itdevelopedafter1945dividingEuro
peintotwohostilecampswithdivergentpolitical,socialandeconomicideologiesofcomm
unismandcapitalism.
 JosefStalinsucceededVladimirLeninasleaderoftheSovietUnion(Russia)in1924andrul
edupto1953whenhedied.HewasprimarilyresponsiblefortheoccurrenceoftheColdWa
r.
 RoleofJosefStalinintheoutbreakoftheColdWar:
 Stalin`sforeignpolicyofSovietcontrolofEasternEurope(sovietisationofEasternEurope
)afterWorldWarIIincreasedconflictswiththeWesterncapitalistpowersledbyUSA.
 TheuncompromisingcharacterofJosefStalinsupportedbyhisForeignMinisterVyachesl
avMolotovledtoworseningrelationsbetweentheWestandEast.
 HisdisagreementswithUSAintheYaltaandPotsdamConferencesof1945overthefuture
ofGermanyandPolandsowedtheseedsoftheColdWar.
 StalinsupportedRussianimperialismandhewantedRussiatodominatetheworldannoy
edtheWesternpowersledbyUSA.
 StalinsupportedtheArabsagainsttheIsraelitesintheMiddleEastsince1948,leadingtote
nsionwithUSAandBritain.
 HesupportedthedivisionofGermanyintotwopartswhichincreasedconflictsbetweenth
eWestandtheEast.
 HesupportedthedivisionofBerlinintoWestBerlinandEastBerlin,leadingtotheBerlinBlo
ckadeof1948-
1949whichledtodisagreementswiththeWesternPowerslikeUSAandBritain.
 HisinterventionintheKoreanCrisisof1950–
1953increasedtensionwiththecapitalistpowers.HesupportedcommunistNorthKorea
againstcapitalistSouthKoreawhichwasbeingsupportedbytheWesternpowersledbyU
SA.
 Heescalatedthenucleararmsracebyventuringintothedevelopmentofatomicbombs,h
enceleadingtoconflictwiththeWest.
 HeissuedscholarshipstoforeignstudentsoftheSovietsatellitestatesforindoctrinationw
hichincreasedtensionbetweentheEastandWest.
 HesupportedtheestablishmentofcommunistregimesinEasternEuropeancountrieslik
ePolandin1947whenhereplacedthePolishPeople’sPartywiththePolishCommunistPar
ty.Healsosupportedacoupd’étatinCzechoslovakiain1948whichledtotheriseofacomm
unistregimetopower.SimilarregimeswereestablishedinHungary,RumaniaandBulgari
abetween1945and1950.ThisincreasedtensionbetweentheEastandtheWest.
 HesupportedtheestablishmentofcommunistpoliticalpartiesinWesternEuropeancoun
trieslikeItaly,France,SpainandpartsofEastGermany.Thesepoliticalpartiesspreadcom

munistideasinWesternEuropewhichannoyedtheWesternPowers,henceworseningth
erelationsbetweentheWestandtheEast.
 HesupportedthecommunistGreekrebelsin1946.Theserebelswantedtooverthrowthe
existingGreekgovernmentwhichwascapitalist.ThisannoyedtheWesterncapitalistpo
wers,henceincreasingthetensionbetweentheWestandEast.
 Heconcludedthe1950Sino-
SovietTreatyoralliancewithChinawhichworriedtheWesternpowersledbyUSAasitthr
eatenedtheirinterestsintheregion.Thisincreasedtensionbetweenthetwosides,hencel
eadingtotheColdWar.
 HesupportedtheformationofCommunistInformationBureau(COMINFORM)inOctobe
r1947.Thuswasanofficethatwassetuptoco-
ordinatetheactivitiesofthecommunistpoliticalpartiesintheregion.ThisworriedtheWes
ternpowers.
 HeinstitutedtheMolotovPlanof1947tocountertheMarshallAidPlanwhichannoyedUSA
somuch,henceleadingtotheColdWar.
 HesupportedthecommunistvictoryinChinain1949underMaoTsetungagainstthegov
ernmentofChiangKai–
ShekwhowasbeingsupportedbyUSA.ThisvictoryannoyedUSAsomuch,henceincreasi
ngtensionbetweenthetwosuperpowers.
 HemisusedRussia’sVetopowersintheUNOforexample,intheKoreancrisisof1950–
1953.ThisannoyedUSAwhichwassupportingSouthKoreaagainstaninvasionbycomm
unistNorthKoreasupportedbyRussia
 Othercauses
 TheemergenceoftwosuperpowerswithconflictingideologiesieRussiawithcommunis
mledtofearandsuspicion.
 ThearmsraceornuclearcompetitionbetweentheEastandWeste.g.ofthedevelopment
ofatomicbombs
 ThedemiseofcompromisingleaderslikePresidentFranklinD.RooseveltofUSA,NevilleC
hamberlainofBritainandVladimirLeninofRussiacausedtheColdWar.Thesewereinstea
dreplacedbyuncompromisingleaderslikeHarryTruman,WinstonChurchillandJosefSt
alin.
 TheKoreacrisisof1950–1953
 TheoccupationofBerlinbytheVictorpowersandthesubsequentBerlinBlockadeof1948
–1949
 TheformationofNATOandWarsawPactcreatedmoretensionbetweenthetwosuperpo
wers
 TheCubanMissilecrisisof1962
 ThepresspropagandabetweentheEastandthewest
 ThedifferencesarisingfromtheYALTAandPOTSDAMConferencesoverthefutureofGer
manyandPoland
 TheTrumanDoctrineof1947

 TheMarshallAidPlanof1947increasedtensionandsuspicionbetweentheEastandtheW
est.
 TheIronCurtainspeechofMarch1946inreactiontothespreadofcommunism
 Neo-colonialismorRussianimperialismagainstEuropeanimperialism
 TheweaknessoftheUNOegitwasdominatedbyUSAandUSSRwhichfailedtocompromis
etheirdifferences,thusleadingtotension.
 TheChineserevolutionof1949andthesubsequentcommunistvictory
 Theformationofspynetworksincreasedtensionbyleakingoutsecretsandtechnology.T
heseincludedtheMOSSADofIsrael,theKGBandtheCommunistInformationBureauofU
SSRwhileUSAhadtheCIA(CentralIntelligenceAgency)
3. HowdidtheTrumanDoctrineaffectEuropebetween1947and1970?
TrumanwastheUSAPresidentafterthedeathofFranklinD.RooseveltwhowasthewartimePresi
dent.TheTrumanDoctrinereferredtotheUSApolicyofcontainmentofCommunism.Theeffects
ofthepolicyincludedthefollowing;
 ItaffectedrelationsbetweentheEastandWest,thussparkingofftheColdWar.
 ItgaverisetotheMarshalAidPlanof1947torevivethewartorneconomiesofEuropewhichcou
ldhaveeasilysuccumbedtoCommunism.
 TheDoctrinesupportedtheanti-communistrhetoricinWesternEurope.
 ItresultedintoeconomicdevelopmentofEuropeancountrieslikeSwitzerland,Greece,Turk
eyandFrance.EventheformerenemiesofAustria,Italy,WestGermanyandTurkeywereassi
stedbyUSAthroughtheMarshalAidPlan.
 ItimprovedthestandardsoflivinginEurope.
 ItprotectedEuropefromRussiandominationofEurope.
 ItincreasedtheUSAinfluenceinEuropeanpolitics.
 ItledtotheformationofNATOin1949.
 ItincreasedUSA’sinfluenceintheMediterraneanregionandtheBalkans.
 ItsupportedWestGermanyanditsnationalism.
 ItincreasedscientificresearchandeducationamongEuropeanCountriesthroughtheMarsh
alAidandMoltovPlans.
 ItrenewedtheAllianceSystem(NATO–WARSAWPACT).
 Itpromotedthearmsrace.
 ItencouragedeconomicintegrationofEuropethroughtheformationofEECin1958.
 Itinstigatedthe1948-1949BerlinBlockadeincident.
 ItledtothedivisionofGermanyintoWestGermanyandEastGermany.
 ItledtotheHungariancrisisof1956.

 ItledtotheformationofspyingnetworksbetweentheEastandWesternEuropelikeKGB,CIAa
ndScotlandYard.
4. “WinstonChurchillwasprimarilyresponsiblefortheoutbreakoftheColdWar”.
Discuss.
 HewastheBritishPrimeMinisterfrom1940to1945andfrom1951upto1955.HealsoledBritai
ntofightagainstNaziGermanyduringWorldWarII.Between1945and1951,hewastheLead
eroftheOppositioninBritain.
RoleofWinstonChurchillintheoutbreakoftheColdWar
 HedisagreedwithJosefStalinandtheYaltaandPotsdamConferencesof1945.
 HisIronCurtainSpeechincreasedtensions.
 HesupportedtheideologyofcapitalismwhichworsenedtherelationswithCommunistRussi
a.
 HecalledfortheformationofNATOasamilitaryallianceagainsttheSovietaggressionwhichin
creasdtensionbetweenthetwosides
 HealliedwithotherwesternleaderslikeFranklinD.RooseveltandlaterSirHarryTrumanofUS
A,WestGermanyandFrancetofrustratethesovietexpansionandherinterestsinEurope.
 HispolicyoverGreececausedtheColdWar.Forexample,hesupportedtheGreekmonarchya
gainstthecommunistrebelsbackedbyRussiaorSovietUnionwhichincreasedtensionbetwe
entheWesternandEasternblocs.
 HesupportedtheTrumanDoctrineof1947tocontainthespreadofcommunism.
 Hisanti-communistspeechesinfluencedUSAtoprovidetheMarshallAidof1947.
 HepromotedaspecialrelationshipbetweenBritainandUSAwhichincreasedhostilitywithUS
SR.
 AsaPrimeMinisterinthe1950sworkedhardtorevivetheBritishglobalinfluencewhichclashe
dwithRussianinterests.
 Otherfactors
 Ideologicaldifferencesbetweenthecapitalistandcommunistcountries
 ThedisagreementsattheYaltaandPotsdamConferencesof1945
 Thefearofthespreadofcommunism
 Thenucleararmsrace
 JosefStalin’sforeignpolicies
 TheBerlinBlockadeof1948-1949
 TheTrumanDoctrineof1947

 TheroleoftheambassadorsofUSAandUSSR
 TheMolotovPlanof1947
 TheMarshallAidPlanof1947
 TheriseofcommunisminChinain1949
 TheKoreanWarof1950-1953
 USA’simperialism
 TheCubanMisilleCrisisof1962
 Theformationofmilitaryalliancesi.eNATOandWarsawPact
 Thepresspropaganda
 TheroleofspynetworkslikeCIA,KGB,MOSSADetc
 TheweaknessesoftheUNO
 ThequestionofPoland
 Thedesiretocontroltheworldresourcesandstrategicareas
 TheGermanquestion
4.ExaminethecausesandconsequencesoftheColdWarinEuropeupto1970.
5.AssesstheimpactoftheColdWaronEuropebetween1945and1970.
6.Howdidthe“IronCurtainSpeech”affectinternationalrelationsafter1945?
7.”USA’spolicieswereresponsiblefortheoutbreakoftheColdWar.”Discuss.
8.“RussiawasmainlyresponsiblefortheoutbreakoftheColdWar”.Discuss.
THENORTHATLANTICTREATYORGANISATION(NATO),1949-1970
TheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)wasadefensiveandmilitaryallianceoftheWeste
rnbloccountriesformedon4thApril1949inWashington,D.C.Thefoundingmembersweretwel
venationswhichincludedUSA,theUnitedKingdom,France,Belgium,Italy,Canada,theNetherl
ands,Luxemburg,Norway,Iceland,PortugalandDenmark.GreeceandTurkeyjoinedin1952a
ndWestGermanyin1955asthefifteenthmember.Itwasmainlyadefensiveallianceagainstthes
preadofRussiancommunismwhichwasathreattothecapitalistpowersledbyUSA.NATOwasthe
reforeformedasaresultoftheColdWar.
NATOoriginatedfromtheTreatyofBrusselssignedon17thMarch1948bytheWesternEuro
peancountrieswhichincludedBelgium,theNetherlands,Luxembourg,FranceandBritain.Thist
reatywasintendedtoprotectWesternEuropeagainstthecommunistthreatandtobringaboutgr
eatercollectivesecurity.

NATOhadapermanentheadquartersinParis,Franceandajointmilitarycommandknownasthe
SupremeHeadquartersAlliedPowersEurope(SHAPE)initiallycommandedbyaUS.Army
GeneralDwightDavidEisenhower.
REASONSTHEFORMATIONOFTHENORTHATLANTICORGANISATION(NATO)IN1
949
AccordingtoitsCharter,NATOwasformedtoachievethefollowingaims;
TheburningdesirebytheWesternpowerstopreventthespreadofSovietorRussiancommunism
afterWorldWarIIledtotheformationofNATOin1949.
Thedesiretomaintainpeaceandstabilityintheregionofalliance(theNorthAtlanticarea)ledtoth
eformationofNATO.ItwasforthisreasonthatthememberstatesofNATOlaterestablishedajoint
militarycommand(SHAPE)in1950.
Theneedtoprotectthememberstatesagainstauthoritarianordictatorialruleledtotheformatio
nofNATO.Therefore,NATOwastopromotefreedomanddemocracyamongthememberstates.
Thedesiretodefendtheindependenceandterritorialintegrityofthememberstateswhichwasbe
ingthreatenedbyRussianaggressionalsoledtotheformationofNATOin1949.Therefore,NATO
wasformedasabullworkorprotectionagainstSovietorRussianaggressionespeciallyinWestern
Europe.
Theneedforunityandco-
operationamongthememberstatesledtotheformationofNATO.ItwasformedtopromoteTran
s-Atlanticco-
operationbetweenUSA,CanadaandtheWesternEuropeancountrieslikeBritain,France,Belgi
umandItalyamongothers.
BesidestheaboveaimsintheCharter,theformationofNATOin1949waspromptedbytheprevaili
ngcircumstanceswhichincludedthefollowing;
TheriseofHarryTrumaninUSAledtotheformationofNATOin1949.HarryTrumantookoverPresi
dencyintheUSAfollowingthedeathofFranklinD.RooseveltwhowasthewartimePresidenton12
th
April1945.HarryTrumanformedtheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisation(NATO)in1949soasto
keepworldpeaceandalsoprotectWesternEuropefromcommunistRussia.
TheeffectoftheMarch1946“IronCurtainSpeech”ofWinstonChurchillledtotheformation
ofNATO.ThisspeechwarnedtheWesternCapitalistpowersagainstthespreadofRussiancomm

unismandthereforeitcalledforastrongerallianceamongsttheWesternpowerswhichwouldsta
ndagainsttheagainstcommunistRussia.ThisthereforeinfluencedtheWesternpowerstoform
NATOin1949.
TheTrumanDoctrineofMarch1947ledtotheformationofNATO.Bythispolicy,USAgavefina
ncialassistancetotheGreekandTurkishgovernmentstosuppresscommunistmovementsinthe
ircountriessoastopreventthemfromfallingunderRussianinfluence.Americaalsopromisedassi
stancetoanycountryinEuropethatwasthreatenedbyRussianaggression.Thispromotedfriend
shipbetweenUSAandtheWesternEuropeanpowerswhichfacilitatedtheformationofNATOin1
949.
TheMarshallAidPlanofJune1947alsoledtotheformationofNATO.Bythisplan,theAmerica
nsgaveeconomicaidtoboththedefeatedandvictoriousnationsofEuropeforthepostWorldWarI
Irecoveryprogrammes.Thisalsopromotedfriendshipandco-
operationbetweenUSAandthosecountriesinEuropethatreceivedtheaid.Thisco-
operationeventuallyledtotheformationofNATOin1949.
TheBerlinBlockadeincidentof1948to1949byRussialedtotheformationofNATO.Thethr
eatoftheSovietorRussianblockadeofWestBerlinCityin1948to1949andtheinconvenienceitcre
atedtotheWesternpowersthroughtheBerlinAirLiftmadethemtoformNATOsoascounteract
suchthreatsinfuture.ThiswasbecausetheWesternpowersinterpretedthisasaclearevidencet
hatRussiawouldaggressextensivelyinfuture.
TheideologicaldifferencesbetweenRussiaandtheWesterndemocraticpowersi.ecommunism
versuscapitalismalsoledtotheformationofNATO.Thiswasbecauseitcreatedfear,mistrustand
suspicionbetweenRussiaandtheWesternpowers.
TheRussianimperialismorexpansioninEasternEuropethreatenedtheWesterncapitalistpowe
rs.RussiahadtakenoveranumberofcountriesinEasternEuropelikePoland,Czechoslovakia,Hu
ngary,BulgariaandEastGermanywhichdominatedbothpoliticallyandeconomically.Thisthrea
tenedtheWesternpowerswhichthereforedecidedtoformadefensiveallianceagainstRussiani
mperialismin1949.
TheimperialinterestsofthesuperpowersledtotheformationofNATO.Therewasastrugglebetw
eenUSAandRussiatocontroltheworld’sresourceslikemineralsandstrategicareas.Asaresult,U
SAinfluencedtheWesternEuropeanpowerstojoinherandformNATOsoastoprotecttheAmeric
anpolitical,economicandstrategicinterestsintheNorth-Atlanticarea.
ThespyingnetworksystemalsoledtotheformationofNATO.Anumberofsecretagencieswerefo
rmedinthepost-

WorldWarIIperiodbytheWesternpowerstospyonRussia.Forexample,therewastheCentralI
ntelligenceAgency(CIA)ofUSA,theFederalBureauofInvestigations(FBI)ofBritainan
dtheMOSSADofIsrael.TheseagenciesexaggeratedtheRussianthreattowardstheWesternca
pitalistpowerswhichinfluencedthemtoformadefensiveallianceagainstRussiain1949.
ThearmsraceledtotheformationofNATOin1949.AfterWorldWarII,therewasanucleararmsra
cebetweenUSAandRussiaasbothsuperpowerscompetedinthemanufactureofnuclearandoth
erweaponsofmassdestruction.TherewasthereforeafearamongtheWesternEuropeanpower
sthatRussiawoulduseherweaponstoattackthem.Asaresult,theydecidedtoformNATOin1949
soastodefendthemselvesagainstanypossibleRussianaggression.
TheTreatyofBrusselssignedon17thMarch1948bytheWesternEuropeancountrieswhichinclud
edBelgium,theNetherlands,Luxembourg,FranceandBritainledtotheformationofNATO.Thist
reatywasintendedtoprotectWesternEuropeagainstthecommunistthreatandtobringaboutgr
eatercollectivesecurity.ThiseventuallyledtotheformationofNATO.
ACHIEVEMENTSOFTHENORTHATLANTICTREATYORGANISATION(NATO)
Itledtotheunionorintegrationoftheforcesofthememberstatesintoajointcommandforceorar
myin1950whichtheynamed“TheSupremeHeadquartersAlliedPowersEurope”(SHAP
E).ItsfirstmilitarybasewasinParis,thecapitalofFranceanditwasinitiallycommandedbyaUS.Ar
myGeneralDwightDavidEisenhower.Itwasthisforcethatwasusedtomaintainpeaceanda
mongthememberstates.
NATOmaintaineditspresenceinEuropeasasecuritybodyupto1970whichwasitselfanincredibl
eachievement.Therefore,despitethechallengesthattheorganizationfaced,itmanagedtosurv
iveupto1970.
ItcreatedbalanceofpowerinEurope.TheformationofNATOcreatedtensionandfearinEasternE
urope,thusleadingtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955bythecommunistcountriesled
bytheSovietUnion(Russia)asareactiontoNATO.Therefore,despitetheColdWarbalanceofpo
werwasrelativelyachievedbetweentheWesternandEasterncountries.Thisalsohelpedtocreat
estabilityintheregion.
Itstrengthenedunityandeconomicco-
operationamongthememberstateswhichwasvitalinmaintainingpeaceintheWorld.Variousec
onomicorganizationswereestablishedinWesternEuropealongtheNATOprinciples.Amongthe
sebodiesincludedtheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity(ECSC)formedin1952aswell
astheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)whichwasformedin1957bytheWesternEur

opeannations.TheseregionalorganisationshelpedtobringWesternEuropeclosertoaCommon
Marketwhichwasamajorachievement.
Itmodernizedandincreasedthenavalandmilitarystructuresofthememberstates.Itcalledupon
thememberstatestocontributeforcesandmilitaryequipmentstotheNATOmemberswhichthe
ydidforexampleUSAtoBritain.Thisalsohelpedtomaintainpeaceandsecurityintheregionasitst
rengthenedthemilitarycapacityofsuchpowerslikeBritain.
NATOextendedfinancialassistancetothememberstateslikeBelgium,NorwayandDenmark.T
hismoneycamemostlyfromUSAanditmadethemfinanciallystable.Thisthereforecontributedt
otheeconomicrecoveryofsuchcountriesafterWorldWarII.ForexampletherewastheMarshall
AidfromUSAtoanumberofEuropeancountries.
Itdefendedtheindependenceandterritorialintegrityofthememberstatesagainstexternalaggr
essionespeciallyfromtheSovietUnion(Russia).ThesmallmembercountrieslikeGreece,Turke
y,BelgiumandHollandamongothershadtheirindependenceprotectedfromtheRussianaggres
sionbytheNATOjointcommandorarmy.
NATOcontainedorcheckedtheextensionofRussiancommunismintoWesternEuropebetween
1949and1970.Thiswasthroughthecreationofcloserpoliticalunionamongthememberstateso
rtheWesterncapitalistpowers.Thisstrengthenedthemagainsttheexpansionofcommunismup
to1970.
Itprotectedthememberstatesbyratifyingorsigningtreatiesaimedatlimitingtheproductionan
dtestingofdeadlyarmsornuclearweaponsafterWorldWarII.Forexample,theNATOmemberst
ateswereinstrumentalinthesigningoftheNuclearTestBanTreatyof1963.Thistreatywhic
hwassignedon5thAugust1963inMoscowbytheUnitedStates,theSovietUnion(Russia)andt
heUnitedKingdom(GreatBritain)bannedalltestsofnuclearweaponsintheAtmosphere,inOute
rSpaceandunderwater.
AsaresultofNATO’Sefforts,theoccupationofWestGermanybytheAlliedpowerssinceWorldWa
rIIwasendedandshewasrecognizedasanequalpower.AfterWorldWarII,theAlliedPowersocc
upiedwiththeWesternPowersoccupyingWestGermanywhiletheSovietUnionoccupiedtheEas
tGermany.WhenNATOwasformedin1949bythecapitalistpowers,WestGermanywasconsequ
entlyadmittedintothisorganization(NATO)in1955.Thisincreasedthemembershipoftheorga
nizationwhichhelpedtostrengthenher.
NATOsucceededinkeepingwarsawayfromtheEuropeancontinentbetween1949and1970des
pitethethreatsfromtheColdWar.Itsjointmilitarycommandorarmyworkedhardtopreventtheo

utbreakofanotherdestructivewarinEurope,thuscreatingpeaceandstabilityintheregionupto1
970.
FAILURESOFTHENORTHATLANTICTREATYORGANISATION(NATO)
NATOfailedtostoptheexistenceofcommunistactivitiesinWesternEuropebetween1949and19
70.Asacapitalistorganization,NATOwasformedwithaprimaryobjectiveofcheckihgthespread
ofcommunismfromRussiatoWesternEuropebutthiswasnotfullyachieved.Forexample,there
existedcommunistpoliticalpartiesespeciallyinFrance,ItalyandWestGermanyandthisposedat
hreattothesurvivalofNATOandpeaceintheregion.
NATOfailedtopunishsomeofthememberstatesthatabuseditscharterorconstitution.Forexam
ple,someNATOmemberstatesgotinvolvedintheaffairsofthestatesoutsideitsareaofoperation
likeinAfricaespeciallyduringthestrugglesagainsttheApartheidregimeinSouthAfricaandinthe
MiddleEastconflictbetweenIsraelandherArabneighbourswhereUSAandBritainchosetotakes
ides.Thisthereforecausedconflictsamongthememberstatesbecauseitwasagainsttheprincipl
esofNATOasanorganization.
NATOfailedtoensureabsoluteortotalunityandco-
operationamongthememberstates.Therewerealwaysconflictsamongthememberstatesove
rsomeissueslikethehatredofAmericandominanceofNATO.ItwasbecauseofthisthatFranc
ewithdrewallherforcesfromtheNATOmilitarycommandin1966andallNATOtroopsandSHAP
EwereaskedtoleaveParis,Francewhichhadservedastheirheadquarters.Shethereforeadopte
daneutralpositionbetweentheSovietUnion(Russia)andAmerica.Therewerealsodisagreeme
ntsbetweenGreeceandTurkeywhichforcedGreecetowithdrawfromtheorganization.
Italsofailedtostoptheemergenceofsmallgroupsoralliancesamongitsmemberstates.Forexa
mple,therewastheAnglo-
AmericanAllianceof1962.Bythisalliance,Britainwassupposedtobesuppliedwithadvance
dnuclearweaponsandsub-
marinesbyUSA.Thiscausedsuspicionamongthememberstates.FranceandWestGermanyals
oreachedanagreementtoassistoneanotherintimesofproblems.Thesesmallalliancesundermi
nedtheperformanceofNATO,thusthreateningworldpeaceandorder.
NATOmembersinEuropefailedtoliveuptotheirpromisesoftheirdefencespendingby3%ofthei
rnationalbudgets.Thiseventuallyledtothemanufactureofdangerousweaponslikenuclearwe
aponswhichthreatenedworldpeaceandorderupto1970.
NATOfailedtocheckonthedominantpositionandattitudeofUSAandBritainwhichbroughtabou
tdivisionsamongtheNATOmemberstates.Asaresult,therewasanti-

AmericanismamongtheEuropeanpublicopinionasfarastheleadershipofNATOwasconcern
ed.
ThecreationofNATOincreasedinternationaltensionbetweentheSovietUnion(Russia)andUSA
.ThisledtotheColdWarwhichthreatenedworldpeacebetween1949and1970.Forexample,itl
edtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955bythecommunistcountriesledbytheSovietUnio
n(Russia)toopposeNATO.TherewasalwaysapossibilityofwarastheNATOpowersweredeter
minedtostoptheSovietexpansionatallcoststoplacesinthe“NorthAtlanticarea”.
ReferenceQuestions:
 TowhatextentwasNATOsuccessfulinmaintainingpeaceinEuropebetween19
49and1970?
 HowsuccessfulwastheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisation(NATO)successfuli
nachievingtheobjectivesofitsfoundersupto1970?
 “TheformationoftheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisation(NATO)in1949wasin
evitable”.Discuss.
 ExaminethechallengesfacedbytheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisation(NATO)
between1949and1970.
THEWARSAWPACT,1955-1970
TheWarsawPactwasapoliticalandmilitaryallianceofthecommuniststatesinEasternEuropean
dtheSovietUnion.Itwasestablishedon14thMay1955,duringtheColdWarwithitsheadquarter
sandcommandinMoscow.ItwasbornoutoftreatythatwassignedinWarsaw,Polandanditwasof
ficiallycalledthe“TreatyofFriendship,CooperationandMutualAssistance”,withtheirmotto“uni
onofpeaceandsocialism”.TheoriginalmemberstatesincludedtheSovietUnion,Bulgaria,Czec
hoslovakia,EastGermany,Hungry,Poland,RomaniaandAlbania.
EVENTSTHATLEDTOTHEFORMATIONOFTHEWARSAWPACT

TheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955waspromptedbytheprevailingeventswhichincludedt
hefollowing;
WorldWarIIof1939–
1945ledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.FollowingWorldWarII,theSovietUnionhad
concludedbilateraltreatieswithseveralEasternEuropeanstates.Thesetreatiespromotedfrien
dshipbetweentheEasternEuropeanstatesthatwerecommunistandtheSovietUnionwhicheve
ntuallyledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactby1955.
The1946“IronCurtainSpeech”madebyWinstonChurchillledtotheformationoftheWarsawPac
tin1955.InMarch1946,theformerBritishPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchillvisitedUSAwhered
eliveredwhatcametobeknownasthe“IronCurtainSpeech”inwhichhecondemnedthepolicieso
ftheSovietUnioninEasternEurope.Hestatedthatan“IronCurtain”haddescendedacrossEurop
efromStettinintheBalticSeaintheNorthtoTriesteintheAdriaticSeaintheSouth.Bythishemeant
theeffortsbytheSovietUniontoblockitselfanditssatellitestatesfromopencontactwiththewest
ernpowers.HethereforecalledforanalliancebetweenBritainandUSAagainsttheSovietUnionw
hichheaccusedofestablishinganIronCurtainacrossEurope.ThisspeechannoyedtheSovietUni
on,hencepromptinghertoestablishtheWarsawPactin1955.
TheTrumanDoctrineof1947alsoledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.TheTrumanDo
ctrinewasanAmericanforeignpolicywhosepurposewastocounterorcontaintheSovietgeogra
phicalexpansionduringtheColdwar.ThispolicywasputinplaceinMarch1947byPresidentHar
ryTrumanwhobecametheUSAPresidentafterthedeathofFranklinRoosevelt,thewar-
timepresident.Throughthispolicy,AmericagavefinancialsupporttotheGreekandTurkishgove
rnmentsagainstcommunistmovementsorthreatsinGreeceandTurkeysoastopreventthesetw
ostatesinEasternEuropefromfallingundertheSoviet“sphereofinfluence”.Trumanfurtherpled
gedAmericansupportforothernationsthatwerethreatenedbytheSovietcommunism.Thisdoc
trinethreatenedtheSovietUnion,thuspromptinghertoformtheWarsawPactin1955.
TheMarshallAidplanof1947alsoledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.TheMarshallAi
dplan,alsoknownastheEuropeanrecoveryprogramwasaUnitedStatesprogramprovidingeco
nomicaidtoWesternEuropefollowingthedestructionofWorldWarII.ItwasinitiatedbytheAmer
icanSecretaryofStateGeorgeMarshallinJune1947anditwasintendedtohaltorblockthespr
eadofcommunismontheEuropeancontinent.ItwasbelievedbyUSAthatthoseWesternEurope
annationsthatbenefitedfromthisAmericaneconomicaidwouldrejectcommunismandinstead
allywiththeUSA.ThisthreatenedtheSovietUnion,thuspromptinghertoformtheWarsawPactin
1955.
TheMolotovplanof1947alsoledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.Thiswasthesystem
createdbytheSovietUnionin1947inordertoprovideeconomicaidtorebuildthecountriesinEast
ernEuropethatwerepoliticallyandeconomicallyalignedtotheSovietUnion.Itwasacounterreac
tiontotheMarshallAidplanof1947andthereforeitsymbolizedtheSovietUnion’srefusaltoaccep
teconomicaidfromtheMarshallAidplanorallowanyofhersatellitestatesinEasternEuropetodos
o.ThiswasbecauseoftheirbeliefthattheMarshallAidplanwasanattempttoweakentheSovietinf

luenceinhersatellitestatesbymakingthebeneficiarycountriestodependontheUnitedStatesof
America.Throughthissystem,theSovietUnionevenencouragedandsponsoredtheeconomicin
tegrationofthecommuniststatesinEasternEuropeandelsewhereintheworldwhichlaterledtot
heformationofaneconomicorganizationknownastheCOMECON(TheCouncilforMutualEcon
omicAssistance)in1949.ThispromotedcooperationbetweentheSovietUnionandthecommun
iststatesinEasternEuropewhichlaterledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.
TheformationoftheCOMINFORM(theCommunistInformationBureau)in1947wasanothere
ventthatledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.Thiswasaninformationbureauorofficet
hatwassetupbytheSovietUnionunderJosefStalinon5thOct1947.Itwasanorganizationsetup
torepresentcommunistpartiesallacrossEuropeandbringthemunderthedirectionoftheSoviet
Union.ItthereforepromotedcooperationbetweenthecommuniststatesinEasternEuropeandt
heSovietUnionandthiseventuallygavebirthtotheWarsawPactin1955.
The“BerlinBlockade”of1948–
1949alsoledtotheformationoftheWarsawPact.TheBerlinBlockadewasanattemptin1948-
1949bytheSovietUniontolimittheabilityofFrance,GreatBritainandtheUnitedstatestotravelby
railway,roadandcanaltotheirsectorsofBerlin,thecapitalcityofGermanywhichlaywithintheRu
ssian–
occupiedEastGermany.ThiswasaimedatforcingtheWesternpowersoutofBerlin,theGermanc
apital.TheWesternpowersrespondedtotheblockadebyorganizingthe“BerlinAirLift”ofJune19
48-
1949tocarrysuppliestothepeopleofWestBerlinwhichwasadifficulttask,giventhebigsizeofthe
city’spopulation.TheSovietUniondidnotdisrupttheairliftforfearthatthismightleadtoopencon
flict.SheinsteaddecidedtolifttheblockadeofWestBerlinon12thMay1949.Thisincidentincrease
dtheenmitybetweentheSovietUnionandtheWesternPowerswhichpromptedtheSovietUnion
toformtheWarsawPactin1955.
TheformationoftheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)in1949ledtotheformationofthe
WarsawPact.WhenUSAandotherWesternnationsformedNATOin1949,theSovietUnionandit
saffiliatedcommunistnationsinEasternEuropedecidedtoestablisharivalorcounteralliancekn
ownastheWarsawPactin1955.Throughthisalliance,thememberstatespromisedtodefendany
memberthatmaybeattackedbyanoutsideforce.TheWarsawPactwasthereforeformedasadef
ensiveallianceagainstthethreatsfromtheNATOpowers.
Thesuccessofthecommunistrevolutionof1949inChinaalsoledtotheformationoftheWarsaw
Pactin1955.ThisrevolutioninvolvedthedefeatofthenationalistgovernmentinChinaunderChia
ngKai-
shekwhichwassupportedbyAmerica.Thegovernmentwasdefeatedbythecommunistsundert
heleadershipofMaoTsetungwhowassupportedbytheSovietUnionandheestablishedagovern
menthecalledthePeople’sCommunistRepublicofChinaon1stOctober1949.Thenationalists
whohadbeendefeatedfledtotheneighboringIslandofTaiwanwheretheyestablishedagovern
mentandregardedthemselvesasthetrueChineseandwereevenrecognizedbytheUnitedState
saswellastheUnitedNationsOrganization.Thesuccessofthisrevolutionworsenedthealreadyfr

agilerelationsbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.ThisthereforepromptedtheSovi
etUnion,thuspromptinghertosetuptheWarsawPactin1955.
TheformationSHAPE(theSupremeHeadquartersAlliedPowersEurope)alsoledtotheformatio
noftheWarsawPactin1955.Thiswasajointarmy(force)oftheNATOmemberstatesthatwasset
upin1950todefendthememberstatesagainstanypossibleaggressionfromtheSovietUniondur
ingtheColdWar.ItsfirstmilitarybasewasinParis,thecapitalofFranceanditwasinitiallycomman
dedbyanAmericanArmyGeneralknownasDwightDavidEisenhower.Theformationofthisj
ointforcethreatenedtheSovietUnion,thuspromptinghertoestablishtheWarsawPactin1955.
TheKoreanCrisisorWarof1950-
1953wasanothereventthatledtotheformationoftheWarsawPact.ThiswasawarbetweenNort
hKorea(withthesupportofChinaandtheSovietUnion)andSouthKorea(withthesupportoftheU
nitedStates).Itbrokeouton25thJune1950whencommunistNorthKoreainvadedSouthKoreaw
hichwascapitalist.ThisinvasionwasthefirstmilitaryactionoftheColdWar.AlthoughtheKorean
WarfinallycametoanendinJuly1953,itincreasedtheenmitybetweentheSovietUnionandtheU
nitedStates.ThisthereforepromptedtheSovietUniontoestablishadefensivemilitaryalliancek
nownastheWarsawPactin1955.
TheformationoftheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity(ECSC)in1951wasanotherevent.Thi
swasanorganizationofsixEuropeancountriescreatedafterWorldWarIItoregulatetheirindustr
ialproductionthroughacentralizedauthority.Itwasformallyestablishedinon18 thApril1951byt
heTreatyofParis,signedbyBelgium,theNetherlands,LuxembourgplusFrance,WestGermany
andItalyasthemembers.Thistreatyofficiallycameintoforceon23 rdJuly1952.TheECSCwasthef
irstinternationalorganizationtobringaboutformalintegrationinWesternEuropewhichstrengt
henedtheregion.ThisthreatenedtheSovietUnionwhichpromptedhertoestablishtheWarsawP
actin1955withseveralEasternEuropeanstates.
TheentryofGreeceandTurkeyintoNATOledtotheformationoftheWarsawPact.GreeceandTur
keywerelocatedinEasternEuropeneartheSovietorRussianinfluence.InApril1952theWeste
rnpowersagreedtoadmitGreeceandTurkeytoNATOsoastopreventtheabovetwostatesfromf
allingunderthe“SovietSphereofinfluence”.ThisthereforeledtotheexpansionofNATO’sstrate
gicfrontiersorboundarieswhichtroubledtheSovietleaderssomuchasitwasathreattothesprea
dofcommunisminEasternEurope.TheSovietUnionthereforerespondedtothisthreatbyfoundi
ngtheWarsawPactin1955.
ThedeathofJosefStalinin1953ledtotheformationoftheWarsawPact.InMarch1953,JosefSt
alin,whohadruledtheSovietUnionsince1928,diedattheageof73yearsandwasreplacedbyNiki
taKruschchev.AsanewleaderoftheSovietUnion,NikitaKruschchevwantedtoprojecthisinfluen
ceontheinternationalsceneandchallengetheAmericandominanceespeciallyinEurope.Hethe
reforeinfluencedtheSovietUnionjointheothercommuniststatesinEasternEuropesoastoform
theWarsawPactin1955.

The1953EastGermanuprisingsledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.Theseuprisings
brokeoutinJune1953afterthecommunistauthoritiesinEastGermanyattemptedtoincreasew
orkinghourswithoutraisingwages.Theybeganon16thJune1953whenstrikesandriotsbrokeou
tinEastBerlinandothercitieswhicheventuallyturnedintoawidespreaduprisingagainstthecom
munistGermanDemocraticGovernmentthatwassupportedbytheSovietUnion.Theseanti–
communistuprisingsthereforethreatenedthesurvivalofcommunisminEasternEuropewhichp
romptedtheSovietUniontoestablishtheWarsawPactin1955.
TheformationoftheSouthEastAsiaTreatyOrganization(SEATO)in1954wasanothereventtha
tledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.InSeptember1954,theUnitedStates,France,Gr
eatBritain,NewZealand,Australia,thePhilippines,ThailandandPakistanformedtheSouthEast
AsiaTreatyOrganizationorSEATO.Thepurposeofthisorganizationwastopreventcommunism
fromgaininggroundintheregion(South-
EastAsia).ThisalsothreatenedtheinterestsoftheSovietUnionintheregion,thuspromptinghert
oestablishtheWarsawPactin1955.
TheformationoftheWesternEuropeanUnioninOctober1954ledtotheformationoftheWarsa
wPactin1955.ThiswastheinternationalorganizationandmilitaryalliancethatsucceededtheW
esternUnionthathadbeensetupin1948immediatelyafterWorldWarII.Thisorganizationwasc
apitalistandthereforeitsmemberstateswerealsoalliesoftheWesternblocledbytheUnitedStat
esduringtheColdWarthroughtheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO).Thisthreatenedt
heSovietUnion,hencepromptinghertosetuptheWarsawPactin1955.
TheentryofWestGermanyintoNATOinMay1955wasanothereventthatledtotheformationoft
heWarsawPact.WhentheFederalRepublicofGermany(WestGermany)enteredNATOinearly
May1955,theSovietUnionfearedaverypowerfulNATOandare-
armedWestGermany.ThiswasbecauseNATOallowedWestGermanytostartasmallarmyagain
whichannoyedtheSovietleadersespeciallywithWorldWarIIstillfreshintheirminds.Theytheref
oredecidedtoputsecuritymeasuresinplaceintheshapeofapoliticalandmilitaryallianceknowna
stheWarsawPactin1955.
TheBaghdadPactin1955alsoledtotheformationoftheWarsawPact.Thiswasadefensivemilitar
yorganizationfoundedin1955byIran,Iraq,PakistanandGreatBritain.Themainpurposeofthiso
rganizationwastopreventthespreadofcommunismandfosterpeaceintheMiddleEast.Thisor
ganizationwasanti-
communistandstronglylinkedtotheNATOwhichthereforethreatenedtheSovietUnion.Thisth
ereforepromptedhertoestablishtheWarsawPactin1955.
ThespreadofcommunismintoEasternEuropeledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.Be
tween1945and1955,theSovietUnionspreadcommunismtoseveralEasternEuropeanstateslik
eCzechoslovakia,Poland,Hungary,Romania,BulgariaandAlbania.Insuchcountries,theSoviet
Unionsetuplocalcommunistpoliticalpartiesthatwereintendedtopromotecommunismanddes
troycapitalism.ThisthereforebroughttheSovietUnionclosertotheseEasternEuropeanstatesa
ndin1955,thesestatesacceptedtojointheSovietUnionsoastoestablishtheWarsawPact.

ACHIEVEMENTSOFTHEWARSAWPACT,1955–1970
TheWarsawPactwasamilitaryallianceestablishedin1955betweentheSovietUnionandnumer
ousEasternblocstateslikePoland,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia,EastGermany,Hungary,Romania
andAlbania.ThemajoraimsorobjectivesoftheWarsawPactof1955were;tocounterthespread
ofcapitalism,promoteeconomiccooperationamongthecommuniststatesaswellastospreadco
mmunismamongothers.Itscoredaseveralachievementsbetween1955and1970asnotedbelo
w;
 ItreducedandinsomecaseseliminatedcapitalisttendenciesespeciallyinEasternEurope
.
 Itstrengthenedeconomicco-
operationintheregionamongthecommunistcountries.Thisco-
operationhadbegunwiththeformationofaneconomicorganizationknownastheCOME
CON(TheCouncilforMutualEconomicAssistance)in1949bythecommunistcountriesle
bytheSovietUnion.
 ItcontrolledEastGermanywhichwasundertheSovietcontrol.Thishelpedtoavoidthisre
gionofGermanyfromfallingundercapitalistsphereofinfluence.
 ItprotectedtheindependenceofthememberstatesespeciallyfromaggressionbytheWe
sterncapitalistpowersledbyUSA.
 ItsuccessfullyspreadcommunismtoEasternEuropeandevenwhenit’ssurvivalwasthre
atenedinsomeEasternEuropeannations,theWarsawPactintervenedandmaintainedc
ommunistregimesinpowerasthecasewasinCzechoslovakiain1968.
 Itmaintainedpeaceintheregion,hencesupplementingtheeffortsoftheUnitedNationsO
rganization(UNO)upto1970.
 ItcontrolledorcheckedthespreadofAmerica’simperialisminEuropeespeciallyinEaster
nEurope.
 ItcontributedtothedecolonizationofAfrica.
FAILURESOFTHEWARSAWPACTBETWEEN1955AND1970
 ItfailedtowinWestGermanyonthesideoftheEasternorcommunistbloc.Upto1970,Wes
tGermanyremainedacapitalistcountryandafullmemberoftheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrg
anization(NATO)thathadbeenformedbytheWesternpowersledbyUSAis1949.
 ItfailedtofullyrehabilitateEastGermanyafterWorldWarII.Asaresult,thisregionlagged
behindintermsofeconomicdevelopmentascomparedtoWestGermanywhichregistere
drapidprogressineconomicdevelopmentbecauseofthefinancialassistancefromtheW
esternPowersledbyUSA.
 Itfailedtoincreaseitsmembershipfromtheoriginaleightmembers.Asaresult,theWarsa
wfacthadlimitedmembershipby1970andthisunderminedherabilitytoachievetheobje
ctivesofitsfounders.
 Itfailedtostopthemistrust,suspicionandtensionbetweentheWesternandEasternpow
ers,thusleadingtoColdWarwhichthreatenedinternationalpeaceupto1970.

 ItinterferedwithworkoftheUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)thathadbeensetupin19
45tomaintainworldpeaceandsecurity.
 Itledtoinstabilitythroughcreatingproxywars.
 ItledtotheCubanMissileCrisisof1962
Questions:
a) DiscusstheeventsthatledtotheformationoftheWarsawPactin1955.
b) AssesstheachievementsoftheWarsawPactbetween1955and1970.
THEEUROPEANECONOMICCOMMUNITY(EEC),1957–1970
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)alsocalledtheEuropeanCommonMarketwasar
egionalorganizationorassociationofEuropeancountriesthatwassetuptopromoteeconomicin
tegration(unity)amongthememberstates.Itwasestablishedin1957bytheTreatyofRomew
ithitsheadquartersbasedintheBelgiancapitalofBrusselsanditbecameoperationalon1stJanu
ary1958.TheoriginalmembersweresixWesternEuropeancountriesthatincludedFrance,We
stGermany,Italy,Belgium,theNetherlandsandLuxemburg.TheformationoftheEuropeanEco
nomicCommunity(EEC)waspartofawiderefforttoeconomicallyintegrateWesternEuropeafte
rWorldWarIIwhichhadstartedwiththeestablishmentoftheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunit
y(ECSC)in1952.
OBJECTIVESOFTHEEUROPEANECONOMICCOMMUNITY(EEC)
ThemajorobjectivesbehindtheformationoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)include
dthefollowing;
 TocreateasingleorcommonmarketamongtheWesternEuropeannations.
 TopromotepeaceandlibertyamongtheEuropeanpeople.
 TobuildapoliticalunionofthestatesofWesternEurope.
 Toupliftthesocio-economicconditionsamongthememberstates.
 ToeconomicallyresistthespreadofcommunisminEurope.
ACHIEVEMENTSOFTHEEUROPEANECONOMICCOMMUNITY(EEC)
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunitypromotedtradeamongthemembercountries.Themembe
rsoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)abolishedalltariffsaffectingtradeamongthemse
lves.Theyalsosetupacommontariffongoodsimportedfromothercountriesintoanycommunity
member.ThisthereforeencouragedsmoothtraderelationsamongtheWesternEuropeannatio

nswhichwasanincredibleachievement.Forexample,between1960and1961,tradeincreasedi
ntheregionby29%.Thisthereforeboostedeconomicdevelopmentintheregion.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)increasedproductivityintheregion.Thiswasduet
otheexpansionofthemarket.TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)broughttogethersixW
esternEuropeannationswithtotalpopulationofaboutonehundredandseventymillionpeopleb
ythen.Thisthereforecreatedalargemarketthatstimulatedtheproductionofbothindustrialand
agriculturalgoodsintheregionwhichwasanotherincredibleachievementofthecommunity.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)influencedtheestablishmentofcommonpricelevels
fortheagriculturalproductsby1962whichwasanotherimportantachievementofthecommunit
y.TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)wascomposedofleadingagriculturalnationsinEur
opelikeNetherlandsandFranceandthereforethecommunityembracedagricultureasoneofits
pillarsforthedevelopmentoftheregion.Asaresult,in1962thecommunitysetupcommonpricesf
oragriculturalproductslikewheat.Thishelpedtoprotectthefarmersintheregionfromexploitati
on,thusimprovingtheagriculturalsector.
SimilarlytheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)establishedaCommonAgriculturePolicy(C
AP)fortheregiontosupportagriculturalprogrammesamongthememberstates.TheCAPsetupa
freemarketsystemforagriculturalproductsinsidetheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)an
dalsoestablishedprotectionistpoliciesthatreducedcompetitionfromtheagriculturalproducts
ofothercountriesoutsidethecommunity.ThisenabledtheEuropeanfarmerstoearnsufficientre
venuefromtheirproductswhichwasamajorachievementofthecommunity.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)encouragedtheformationofsimilartradinggroupsin
EuropeliketheEuropeanFreeTradeAssociation(EFTA).TheEFTAwasestablishedon3rdM
ay1960toserveasanalternativetradingblocforthoseEuropeanstatesthatwereunableorunwi
llingtojointheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)andthememberstatesincludedAustria,D
enmark,Norway,Portugal,Sweden,SwitzerlandandtheUnitedKingdom(Britain).Itwassetup
bytheStockholmConventionthatwassignedon4thJanuary1960intheSwedishcapitalbyt
heabovesevencountries.ThisfurtherpromotedeconomicintegrationinEurope.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)helpedtoincreasetheeconomicwelfareofthecitizen
sofitsmembers.Sincethelate1950’supto1970,theEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)mem
berstateslikeFrance,Belgium,WestGermanyandLuxembourgexperiencedrapideconomicgr
owthcharacterizedbyindustrialandagriculturalexpansion.Thisresultedintomoreemploymen
topportunitiesintheregionwhichincreasedthepercapitaincome(incomeperperson).Thisther
eforecontributedtotheimprovedstandardsoflivingamongthecitizensofthememberstatesoft
heEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)whichwasamajorachievementupto1970.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)promoteddemocracyinEurope.TheEuropeancoun
triesthatwereundemocraticwereforcedtocarryoutpoliticalreformsasarequirementtogainme
mbershiptotheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)whichwasmadeupofdemocraticnations
.Forexample,in1962SpainrequestedtojointheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC).Howev

er,becauseSpainunderGeneralFrancowasnotademocraticcountry,allthememberstatesreje
ctedthisrequestin1964.ThisforcedtheSpainandotherundemocraticcountriesofEuropelikePo
rtugalandGreecetoembarkonthedemocraticprocessassteptogainaccesstotheEuropeanEco
nomicCommunity.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)encouragedthefreemovementofpersons(labour),
capitalandservicesamongthememberstates.Thisthereforeenabledpeoplefromonemember
statetoliveandworkinothermembercountries.Forexample,manyItalianswenttoWestGerma
nywheretheysecuredemploymentopportunities.Similarly,inthesportsfieldtherewasfreemo
vementoftalentedplayersfromonememberstatetogoandplayinothermembercountries.The
EuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)wentaheadtoprotecttherightsoftheworkersofthemem
berstateswhotookjobsinthememberstates.Allthisbroughtabouteconomicdevelopmentinth
eregion.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)passedregulationswhichtriedtoharmonizesafetyst
andardsintheregion.Asaresult,therewerecommonsafetystandardsforthingslikefood,transp
ort,tradeandagriculturethroughlabelingandpackaging.Forexample,thecommunityintroduc
edthe“CE”markingstandardsforcomplianceamongallthememberstates.The“CE”wasacertifi
cationmarkthatindicatedcompliancewithhealth,safetyandenvironmentalprotectionstandar
dsoftheproductssoldwithintheEuropeanEconomicCommunityarea.Itwasthereforeamanufa
cturer’sdeclarationthattheproductmettherequiredstandardsandhencewasfitforconsumptio
nintheregion.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)successfullymergeditsgoverningbodiesintothe Eur
opeanCommitteesby1970.In1965,themembercountriesoftheEuropeanEconomicCommuni
ty(EEC)signedatreatyinBrussels,Belgiumsoastobringtogetherthegoverninginstitutionsofth
eEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC),theEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity(ECSC)andth
eEuropeanAtomicEnergyCommunity(EURATOM).TheECSChadbeensetupin1952bytheWes
ternEuropeancountriestoexploitiron,steelandcoalinEuropewhiletheEURATOMhadbeenfor
medin1957bythesametreatyofRomethatestablishedtheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(E
EC)topromotecooperationamongtheWesternEuropeancountriesinthefieldofnuclearpower.
On1stJuly1967thegoverningbodiesofthesethreeregionalorganizationswereofficiallymerg
edandthereforetheECSC,EURATOMandEECstartedoperatingunderasingleorcommonadmin
istrativesystem.ThissystemhadfourbrancheswhichwerecollectivelyknownasEuropeanCo
mmittees.Thereincludedtheexecutive(theCommission),thelegislative(theCouncilofminist
ers),theadvisory(theEuropeanparliament),andthejudicial(theCourtofjustice).Thismergert
hereforestrengthenedtheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC).
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)resistedthespreadofcommunismfromtheSovietUn
ion(Russia)totherestofEurope.ThecommunitywassetupduringthetimeoftheColdWarbetwe
entheWesternpowersledbyUSAandtheEasternpowersledbytheSovietUnion(Russia).During
thisColdWarera,RussiawasdeterminedtoextendherideologyofcommunismtotherestofEuro
pe,includingWesternEuropesoastoexpandhergeographicalsphereofinfluence.Theformatio
noftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)in1957,however,createdasingletradingblocinW

esternEurope.Thisthereforeeconomicallyandpoliticallystrengthenedtheregion,thusenablin
gittoresistthespreadofcommunismfromRussiaupto1970,whichwasoneofthemajorobjective
sbehindtheformationofthecommunityin1957.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)promotedunityamongthememberstates.Thecom
munitywassetupin1957topromoteEuropeaneconomicunityintoasinglecommonmarketandl
ateronbringaboutpoliticalunityintheregion.BybringingtogethersixWesternEuropeannation
sthatincludedFrance,WestGermany,Italy,Belgium,theNetherlandsandLuxemburg,theEuro
peanEconomicCommunity(EEC)thereforesucceededinachievingthisobjectiveofpromotingu
nityintheregionby1970especiallyintheeconomicfield.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)promotedreconciliationamongtheWesternEurope
annationsafterWorldWarII.Politically,theEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)aimedatredu
cingtensionsintheregionintheaftermathofWorldWarII.Inparticular,itwashopedthattheinteg
rationofWesternEuropewouldpromotealastingreconciliationofFranceandGermany,thereby
reducingthepotentialforwarinthepost-
WorldWarIIperiod.Indeed,whenGermany(WestGermany)becameoneofthefoundingmemb
ersoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC),thisassistedhertoreconcilewiththecountriesit
hadfoughtwithduringWorldWarIIespeciallyFrance.Thecommunityalsopromotedreconciliati
onbetweenFranceandthemembersofNATOwhowereintheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(E
EC)likeBelgium,Italy,theNetherlandsandLuxemburgforsometime.Thisthereforehelpedtocr
eatestabilityintheregion.
Thecommunityalsofacilitatedthere-
constructionofEuropeafterWorldWarIIwhichwasanotherincredibleachievement.WorldWar
IIhadcausedmassivedestructionofinfrastructureslikeroads,railwaysystemsandindustriesa
mongothersinEurope,thusposingachallengeofrecoveryinthepost-
warperiod.Inordertodealwiththischallenge,theEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)setupt
heEuropeanInvestmentBankin1968whichprovidedcapitaltothememberstatestorecons
tructtheireconomies.Forexample,suchmoneywasusedtoreconstructroads,railwaysandindu
striesthathadbeendestroyedduringthewar,thusbringingaboutrapideconomicrecoveryinWe
sternEurope.
FAILURESOFTHEEUROPEANECONOMICCOMMUNITY(EEC)
Despiteaboveachievements,theEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)registeredanumberof
failuresby1970whichincludedthefollowing;
TheCommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP)failedinsomeareasofWesternEurope.Thiswasapolicyth
athadbeenputinplacebytheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)memberstatestoestablish
acommonsystemofmarketandpricecontrolsforagriculturalgoodsinWesternEurope.Howeve
r,insomecountrieslikeWestGermany,Holland(theNetherlands)andFrancethefarmersusedp
oliticalinfluencetogethighpricesfortheirproductsinsteadofsellingthematthecommonpricest

hatweresetbytheEuropeanEconomicCommunity.ThiswasamajorfailureonthepartoftheEuro
peanEconomicCommunity.
Itfailedtoregulatetheproductivitylevels,thusresultingintooverproductionintheregion.When
theEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)widenedthemarket,thisincreasedtheproductionof
boththeindustrialandagriculturalgoodswhichsoonsurpassed(exceeded)thedemandinthere
gion.Thiseventuallyresultedintosurplusesofproductslikemeat,milk,butterandwines.Thisled
tolossesthatpartlyunderminedeconomicdevelopmentintheregion.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)failedtoachievepoliticalunityintheregionby1970.B
esidesfosteringeconomicunity,theEuropeanEconomicCommunitywassetupin1957tobuilda
politicalunionofthestatesofWesternEurope.Unfortunately,duetothefearbythemembercoun
triestolosetheirsovereignity(independence)powers,thecommunitywasunabletobringabout
thispoliticalunityintheregionby1970.Forexample,theEuropeanparliamentwasameredebati
ngforumratherthanastrongpoliticalinstitutiontounitethememberstatesintoapoliticalunion.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)alsofailedtoresolvedifferencesamongthemember
statesby1970.Majordifferencesexistedamongthememberstateswhichunderminedtheireffo
rtstobringabouteconomicandpoliticalco-
operation.Forexample,Francewasactingaloneindefensematters.Similarly,therewaseconom
icrivalryintheregionwhichmadeFrancetorejectthecheapimportsofwinefromItaly.Thistheref
oreunderminedtheprogressofeconomicintegrationintheregion.
ThecommunityalsofailedtoacceptthemembershipofsomeWesternEuropeancountriesby197
0.AlthoughtheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)wasmeanttoincludeallthecountriesofW
esternEuropeasasteptoeconomicallyandpoliticallyintegratetheregion,thiswasnotthecaseas
manyotherWesternEuropeannationswereunabletojointhisorganization.Asaresult,thecom
munitywaslimitedtotheoriginalfoundingmembersby1970yetthesewerefew.Forexample,in1
961BritainappliedtojointheEuropeanEconomicCommunitybutherapplicationwasrejectedby
membercountrieslikeFrancebecauseofherstrongmilitaryandfinancialtieswiththeUSAwhich
wouldbringtheAmericandominanceintheregion.Eventhemembershipapplicationofothercou
ntrieslikeDenmark,IrelandandNorwayweresuspended.Theabsenceofsuchcountriesintheco
mmunitypartlyweakeneditby1970.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)failedtostopthewithdrawalofsomememberstatesa
ndthisgreatlyundermineditsoperations.Becauseofthedisagreementsamongthememberstat
esoverissueslikeinfringementofsorereignityandfinancingoftheCommonAgriculturalPolicy(C
AP),itbecameinevitableforsomeofthefoundingmemberstowithdrawtheirmembershipfromt
hecommunity.Forexample,in1967,theFrenchtemporarilywithdrewtheirmembershipfromth
eorganizationwhichwasamajorsetback.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)failedtostopeconomicsabotagebytheUnitedStates
ofAmerica(USA).Whenthecommunitywasformed,theUnitedStatesofAmerica(USA)becamei
tschieftradepartnerwherethemembercountriesimportedandexportedmoregoodsthananyot

hercountryintheworld.GiventheeconomicstrengthoftheUSA,thisgaveherthechancetosabot
agetheeconomiesofWesternEuropethroughexportinghercheapproductstotheregion.These
productsoutcompetedthelocallyproducedgoodsinregionwhichthereforeunderminedecono
micdevelopmentinWesternEurope.
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)failedtostopcompletelythepresenceofcommunista
ctivitiesinWesternEuropeyetthiswasoneofthemajoraimsbehinditsformationin1957.Thecom
munitywasformedbythecapitalistcountriesofWesternEuropeandtherefore,itwasstronglyag
ainstthespreadofRussiancommunismtotheregion.Despitethishowever,communistactivities
existedinsomemembercountriesofthecommunitylikeFrance,ItalyandWestGermanywherec
ommunistpoliticalpartiesweresetupandthesespreadcommunistideasintheregion.
Questions:
a) AssesstheachievementsoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)between1957an
d1970.
b) AssesstheimpactoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)onEuropeupto1970.
c) ExaminethechallengesfacedbytheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)between195
7and1970.

EVALUATIONORMARKINGOFHISTORYATA’LEVEL
HistoryatA’LevelismarkedthroughIMPRESSION.Itisnotthemereaccumulationofpointsorf
actsthatmattersbutthetotalpresentationoftheworkbythestudentthatmatters.Therefore,the
students’workismarkedasawhole.
Theimpression,whetherastudentis;
 Excellent,
 VeryGood,
 Good,
 FairlyGood
 O’LevelType,
 JusttothePointorAlmostirrelevant,isgotthroughlookingatthefollowingtwoaspectsinthes
tudent’swork.
a) PresentationoftheAnswer:
Manystudentsfailtoscoremarksbecauseofthenatureoftheirpresentations.AHistoryansweris
presentedinessayformsoastocreateagoodimpression.WhilepresentingagoodHistoryessa
y,thefollowingaremajoraspectsthatmustbeemphasizedbythestudent;
i) Introduction:
Thisshouldbeclearandrelevantorlimitedtothequestionandnotthewholetopicwherethequesti
onwherethequestionfrom.Thestudentshouldthereforeavoid“Topical”introductions.Inthei
ntroduction,thestudentshouldshowawarenessofthequestioninterpretation.
ii) AstandPoint:
Aclearstandpointmustalsobegivenaftertheintroductionoftheessayincasethequestiondema
ndsforit.Astandpointisapositiontakenbythestudentinadoubleortwosidedquestion.Itmustbe
statedaftertheintroduction,bodyandconclusion.Itmustbestatedinmeasurabletermsandt
hefollowingareexamplesofcommonstandpoints;
 Toagreaterextent,  Vital,
 Toabiggerextent,  Paramount,
 Toasmallerextent,  Influential,
 Toalargerextent,  Primarily,
 Largely,  Significant,

 Landmark,
 Etc

Thefollowingarenotstandpoints;
 Toacertainextent
 Toasmallerextent
NOTE:
Thestudentshouldalwaysavoidcontradictingthestandpointalreadytakenintheessay.
iii) Body:
Thisisthecentreoftheessayanditmustbeinparagraphs.Aparagraphismadeupofseveralsente
nces.Thefirstsentenceshouldcorrectlyidentifythepointinrelationtothequestion.Avoidp
araphrasingi.e.completesentencesmustbewritten.Thesentencesthatfollowmustexplaini
ndepththepointaswellasgiveexamples.Thelastsentencemustgivetheanalysisorlogicalc
onclusionofthepointinrelationtothequestion.
NOTE:
(i) Makesurethattheanswerstoquestionslikewhat,when,where,howetcareprovidedf
orintheparagraph.
(ii) Thebodymusthaveatransitionalstatement.Thismustbepresentedwhilechanging
overtothesecondpartoftheessayforquestionsthatdemandfortwosides.
iv) Conclusion:
Theessaymusthaveaconclusionandthismustbemadeinlinewiththestandpointalreadytake
nintheintroductionespeciallyforquestionswhichdemandfortwosides.
b) Questioninterpretation:
Thisreferstotheabilityofthestudenttounderstandwhatthequestiondemandsfor.Itinvolvestw
othingsi.e.understandingtheexaminer’sinstructionsaswellasthescopeofcoverageandtimefr
ame.
Dependingoninstructions,therearefour(4)majortypesofquestionsinHistoryatA’Level.
1. AnalysisQuestions:
Thesequestionsdemandforanelaborateordetailedexplanationofonesideoftheargumenti.e.t
heyaresinglesided.
452 | P a g e
Examples:
a) ExplainthecontributionofMarieAntoinettetotheoutbreakofthe1789FrenchRevolu
tion.
b) AccountfortheriseofNapoleonBonapartetopowerinFrance.
c) WhydidtheAncientRegimecollapsein1793?
d) HowdidKingLouisXVIcontributetotheoutbreakofthe1789FrenchRevolution?
e) Examinethecausesofthe“ReignofTerror”inFrance.
f) Discussionthecausesofthe1789FrenchRevolution.
2. SynthesisQuestions:
Tosynthesizemeanscombingseparatepartsintoonewhole.Therefore,thesearequestionsthat
demandforatwosidedanswerbutwithnostandpoint.
Examples:
a) Explainthecausesandeffectsofthe1789FrenchRevolution.
b) Discussthecausesandeffectsofthe“ReignofTerror”inFrance.
c) Accountfortheoutbreakandsuccessofthe1789FrenchRevolution.
d) AccountfortheriseandfallofMaximillienRobespierre.
e) AccountfortheriseandconsolidationofNapoleonBonaparteinFrance.
f) Examinethecausesandeffectsofthe1789FrenchRevolution.
3. EvaluationQuestions:
Toevaluateistoassesorjudgetheamount,qualityorvalueofsomething.Therefore,theseque
stionsdemandforatwosidedanswerwithastandpoint.Thisstandpointmustbepresentedcon
sistentlywithoutanycontradiction.
Examples:
a) TowhateventdidtheCatholicChurchleadtotheoutbreakofthe1789FrenchRevolution?
b) Howfardidbankruptcycontributetotheoutbreakofthe1789FrenchRevolution?
c) Examinetheimpactofthe1789FrenchRevolution.
d) AssesstheroleorcontributionoftheAmericanWaroftheIndependenceintheoutbreakof
the1789FrenchRevolution.
453 | P a g e
e) “LouisXVIwasprimarilyresponsiblefortheoutbreakofthe1789FrenchRevolution.”Disc
uss.
f) Assess/ExamineachievementsoftheNationalAssemblyinFranceupto1791.
g) HowsuccessfulwasDirectoryGovernmentbetween1795and1799?
NOTE:
Mostofthequestionsinthiscategoryhaveastem.Therefore,regardlessofthenatureofthestan
dpointtaken,thestemofthequestionmustbeexhaustedbythestudentbeforelookingatotheriss
ues.
4. UniqueQuestions:
Thesequestionsthatdonotfollowintheanyoftheabovecategoriesandthereforetheycallforspe
cialhandling.
Examples:
a) “TheReignofTerrorof1792-1794wasinevitable.”Discuss.
b) “ThecollapseoftheAncientRegimein1793wasinevitable.”Discuss.
Inevitablemeansunavoidable.Questionsinthiscategorydemandforaone-
sidedanswerbutwithastandpoint.However,thestandpointmustbestatedas;“………………
wasinevitablebecauseofthefollowingreasons”.
NOTE:
Thiscategorization,however,doesnottellthescopeofcoveragewhichisanothercrucialelement
indeterminingagoodimpression.Thisreferstohowmuchastudentissupposedtopresentonagi
venquestion(Contentscope)orthetimeperiodinwhichthestudentissupposedtooperate(Time
scopeorframe).
Examples:
 Howdidthe1789FrenchRevolutionaffectEurope?
 Howdidthe1789FrenchRevolutionaffectFrance?
 Examinetheimpactofthe1789FrenchRevolutiononEuropeupto1848.
 Examinetheimpactofthe1789FrenchRevolutiononEurope.(Notimeframe).
454 | P a g e
Basingonpresentationandquestioninterpretation,therearesevencategoriesofessaysthatstu
dentsmaypresent;
MARKRANGES CATEGORYOFTHEESSAY
VeryPoorEssay(Hopeless)
00–05  Thisisalmostirrelevant.
 Thestudentdoesnotunderstandthequestionbeinganswered.
Justtothepointessay
 Studentshowslittleunderstandingofthequestion.
 Studentsworkissketchingormereoutlineofpoints.
 Noanalysis.
 Fewpointsaregiven.
 Essayhasmisplacedpoints.
06–09  Paraphrasingofpoints.
Generalized/O’Levelessay
 Nostandpointwhererequired.
 Mixeduppointswithouthistoricalexamples.
 Essayisnotbalancedi.e.oversideisgiveninsteadoftwo.
10–12  Essaydoesnotshowthecorrectframe.
FairlyGoodEssay
 Correctinterpretationofthequestion.
 Limitedexamplesgiven.
 Faircoverageofthepointsexpectedbothinlengthanddepth.
13–15  Reasoningisfairlygood.
 Nologicalsequenceorpresentationoffacts.
 Essayreflectscorrecttimeframe.
 Aclearstandpointisgivenwhererequired.
16–18 Goodessay
 Correctinterpretationofthequestion.
 Welldevelopedargumentswithexamples.
455 | P a g e
MARKRANGES CATEGORYOFTHEESSAY
 Essayhasacorrecttimeframe.
 Widecoverageofthepointsexpected.
 Aclearstandpointisgiven.
 Logicalsequenceorpresentationofthefacts.
 Goodstyleofcommunication.
19–21 Averygoodessay
 Thereisaccuracyoffacts.
 Reflectscorrecttimeframe.
 Aclearstandpointwhererequired.
 Goodflowofideas.
 Verygoodcoverageinbothdepthandlengthoftheexpectedpoints.
22-25 ExcellentEssay
 Workwellanalyzedbythecandidate
 Workpresentedinasystematicandchronologicalorder
 Highleveloforiginalityandcreativitybythecandidate
 Widecoverageoftheexpectedideas
 Veryclearstandpoint
 Timeframeishighlyrespected
Insummary,thefollowingaretheexaminer’sexpectationsfromanA’Levelstudent;
 Correctquestioninterpretation
 Clearpointidentification
 Indepthorelaborateexplanations
 Widecoverageorscope
 Analysisorconclusionofthepoint
 Aclearstandpointwhererequired
AgoodA’LevelHistorystudentshouldalsobeequippedwiththemeaningofthefollowingterms;
 Achievements
456 | P a g e
 Weaknesses
 Failure
 Strengths
 Survival
 Triumph
 Crisis
 Conflict
 War
 Rebellion
 Revolt
 Revolution
 Shortcomings
 Cause
 Event
 Nationalism
 Liberalism
 Policy
 Character
 Significance
457 | P a g e

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EUROPEANHISTORY,1789-1970

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