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REASONING and IMMEDIATE INFERENCE

MAIN TOPIC: Eduction and Equivalence

Introduction
In the two preceding modules, Modules 9 and 10, we have discussed the first type
of immediate inference, that is, the square of opposition. The square of opposition is very
important in our attempt to develop our mastery or skill of reasoning. But another
equally important type of immediate inference is eduction, which is the concern of the
present module. In eduction, the two propositions speak of the same truth that is why
they are called as equivalent propositions. The difference lies in their form and structure.
Eduction helps us to develop our reasoning power for in some cases a seeming denial
maybe shown to be an affirmation of the same thing. It can also serve as a direct
inference where unclear propositions become distinct and clearer.

Objectives
This module will help the students:
1. define eduction as a kind of immediate inference.
2. distinguish conversion from obversion.
3. know the rules in conversion and obversion.
4. convert and obvert as well as contrapose A, E, I and O propositions.

Topics for Study and Discussion

Eductive Inference
Eduction is an inferential process whereby we pass from one proposition to
another without changing the meaning of the original proposition. In eduction, the two
propositions speak of the same truth, and either one is directly inferred from the other.
This means that the two propositions imply each other and may replace each other in any
discourse. Thus, the propositions are called equivalent propositions.
Ex: All the allegations are true  No allegations are false.
Nothing is impossible with God  Everything is possible with God.
Some actors are drug addicts  Some drug addicts are actors.
The purpose of eduction is to derive from a given proposition a second
proposition, which is consistent in meaning with the original. The second proposition
will differ from the first in form and in expression but not essentially in meaning. Thus,
wherever, the first statement is true, the second must likewise be true.
The study of eduction makes for accuracy of thought; because a seeming denial
may be shown to be an affirmation of the same thing. It also affords a means of direct
inference, whereby vague propositions may be expressed in a more distinct form.
We have two basic types of eduction, conversion and obversion. We also tackle
one of its combined forms, contraposition. Combined forms are the various ways in
combining obversion and conversion.
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Types of Eduction
1. Conversion – is a kind of eduction in which the subject and predicate of a given
proposition are transposed without changing the quality and truth of the proposition.
The original proposition is called the convertend and the inferred or new proposition,
the converse.
Ex: All surgeons are doctors.  Therefore, some doctors are surgeons.
Convertend Converse

RULES of CONVERSION
a. Interchange the subject (S) and predicate (P)
b. Retain the quality of the proposition.
c. Do not overextend a term. If the term is undistributed in the convertend, it must
not be distributed in the converse. (Recall the topic on Distribution of Terms)
d. Simple Conversion – Retain the quantity of the proposition.
 E  E = No S are P  No P are S.
Ex: No cats are turtles.  No turtles are cats.
S P P S
No human being is an angel.  No angel is a human being.
S P P S
 I  I = Some S are P  Some P are S.
Ex: Some houses are blue.  Some blue (things) are houses.
S P P S
Some books are encyclopedias.  Some encyclopedias are books.
S P P S
 A  A = All S are P  All P are S / S is P  P is S.
N.B. A  A conversion is actually formally invalid but it is materially valid if and
only if it complies with the any of the following conditions.
 The proposition is a definition
Ex: All human beings are rational animals.  All rational animals are human beings.
S P P S
Logic is the science and art of correct thinking,  The science and art of correct thinking
S P P
is logic.
S
 The subject and predicate are interchangeable terms in a singular proposition.
Ex: Shakespeare is the writer of Hamlet.  The writer of Hamlet is Shakespeare.
S P P S
The first man who stepped on the moon is Neil Armstrong.  Neil Armstrong is the first
S P P

man who stepped on the moon.

S
e. Partial Conversion – Change the quantity of the proposition.
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 A  I = All S are P  Some P are S.

Ex: All lawyers are professionals.  Some professionals are lawyers.
S P P S

All metals are conductors.  Some conductors are metals.

S P P S
 E  O (seldom) = No S are P  Some P are no S.
No fish are mammals.  Some mammals are not fish.
S P P S
No man is an iron.  Some iron is not a man.
S P P S

f. O proposition cannot be converted. If an O proposition is converted, it

overextends a term, which is a violation of the rule.
N.B. It is advisable to reduce a proposition to logical form before attempting conversion.
Ex: The dog bit the man.  The man bit the dog.

The dog is the animal that bit the man.  The animal that bit the man is the dog.
S P P S
Ex: Martha rides on the horse.  The horse rides on Martha.

Martha is a rider of the horse.  A rider of the horse is Martha.

S P P S

Exercise 5.2.1
Give the converse of the following propositions.
1. No alien is a citizen.
2. Some men are cripples.
3. All vines are plants.
4. Some students are self-supporting.
5. The fastest runner alive is Carl Lewis.
6. All computers are electronic devices.
7. Some students are not academic performers.
8. Zoology is the branch of biology that deals with animals and animal life.

2. Obversion – is a kind of eduction whereby an affirmative proposition is stated

negatively and a negative proposition may be stated affirmatively by addition or
subtraction of one or two negations. The original proposition is called the obvertend,
and the inferred or new proposition is called the obverse.
Ex: Some businesses are not legal  Some businesses are illegal.
Obvertend Obverse

RULES OF OBVERSION
a. Retain the subject of the obvertend in the obverse. Use the same subject as in the
original proposition.
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b. Retain the quantity of the proposition.

c. Change the quality of the proposition.
d. Use the predicate that is the contradictory of the predicate of the obvertend.
Contradict the predicate of the original proposition.
The contradictory of a noun is just its simple negation by adding the prefix
non- to it. For, adjectives, there are corresponding prefixes and suffixes to form
their contradictories: il-, un-,dis-, ir-, im-, in-, a-,-less, etc.
Ways of Obversion
 A  E = All S are P  No S are non-P.
Ex: All judges are fallible.  No judges are infallible.
S P S non-P
All angels are immortal.  No angels are mortal.
S P S non-P
 E  A = No S are P  All S are non-P.
Ex: No ideas are material.  All ideas are immaterial.
S P S non-P
No resources are unlimited.  All resources are limited.
S P S non-P
 I  O = Some S are P  Some S are not non-P.
Ex: Some students are good dancers.  Some students are not bad dancers.
S P S non-P
Some students are activists.  Some students are not non-activists.
S P S non-P
 O  I = Some S are not P  Some S are non-P.
Ex: Some lovers are not faithful.  Some lovers are unfaithful.
S P S non-P
Some contracts are not irrevocable.  Some contracts are revocable.
S P S non-P

Exercise 5.2.2
Give the obverse of the following propositions.
1. All politicians are nonpartisans.
2. Men are not all doctors.
3. Some tests are practical.
4. No mortal being is infinite.
5. Not all instructors are entertaining.
6. All Roman gods are powerful.
7. Some residents are persons who do not know how to relate with others.
8. Man is not irrational.

Combined Form: Contraposition

Contraposition is the formulation of a new proposition whose subject is the
contradictory of the original predicate. It is a combination of conversion and obversion.
Like conversion, it involves the interchange of the subject and the predicate; and like
obversion, it involves either the use or removal of negations affecting the copula and the
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terms. The original proposition is called the contraponend, and the new proposition is
the contraposit.
RULES OF CONTRAPOSITION
(A) Use the contradictory of the original predicate of the proposition as subject.
(B) Partial Contraposition
1. Change the quality of the
original proposition.
2. Use the original subject of
the proposition as predicate.
 A  E = All S are P.  No non-P are S.
All human beings are mortals.  No immortals are human beings.
S P non-P S
All crimes are immoral.  No moral acts are crimes.
S P non-P S
 E  I = No S are P.  Some non-P are S.
No smugglers are persons who respect the law.  Some persons who do not respect the law
S P non-P
are smugglers.
S
No cats are dogs.  Some non-dogs are cats.
S P non-P S
 O  I = Some S are not P.  Some non-P are S.
Some married couples are not contented.  Some uncontented persons are married couples.
S P non-P S
Some communists are not non-socialists.  Some socialists are communists.
S P non-P S

3. STEPS in Partial
Contraposition: O – C
(1) Obvert the original proposition.
Given the original proposition Some walls are not flammable, obvert it
following step no.1 to get its obverse Some walls are non-flammable.
(2) Convert the resulting obverse.
Following step no.2, convert the resulting obverse, which is Some walls
are non-flammable. And we get Some non-flammable things are walls.
The last resulting proposition is already the contraposit.

(C) Complete Contraposition

1. Retain the quality of the original
proposition.
2. Use the contradictory of the
original subject of the proposition as predicate.
 A  A = All S are P.  All non-P are non-S.
All citizens are voters.  All non-voters are non-citizens.
S P non-P non-S
All illegal businesses are irresponsible ventures.  All responsible ventures are
S P non-P
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legal businesses.
non-S
 E  O = No S are P.  Some non-P are not non-S.
No mysteries are comprehensible.  Some incomprehensible things are not non-mysteries.
S P non-P non-S
No atheists are Christians.  Some non-Christians are not theists.
S P non-P non-S
 O  O = Some S are not P.  Some non-P are not non-S.
Some parents are not responsible.  Some irresponsible persons are not non-parents.
S P non-P non-S
Some dogs are not tamed.  Some untamed animals are not non-dogs.
S P non-P non-S
3. STEPS in Complete
Contraposition: O –C – O
(1) Obvert the original proposition.
Given the original proposition All Muslims are theists, obvert it following
step no.1 and its obverse No Muslims are atheist is derived.
(2) Convert the resulting obverse.
Following step no.2, convert the resulting obverse from step no.1 No
Muslims are atheists, and its converse No atheists are Muslims is derived.
(3) Obvert the resulting converse of the obverse.
Finally, following step no.3, obvert the resulting converse from step no. 2
No atheists are Muslims, and derive All atheists are non-Muslims; thus the
contraposit of the original proposition.
(D) An I proposition cannot be contraposed.

Exercise 5.2.3
Give the partial and complete contraposits of the following propositions.
1. Some blackboards are not green.
2. All voters are citizens.
3. No monkeys are rational.
4. Some unrecovered artifacts are deemed
unimportant.
5. Some fashions are not conventional.
6. All angels are immortal.
7. Some animals with horns are not carnivores.
8. Some uranium isotopes are highly unstable
substances.
9. No malnourished children are children of
developed countries.
10. All beautiful sites are attractive spots.
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Activities
Recitation/Boardwork: After the discussion of each type of eduction, the
instructor asks the students to answer orally or go to the board and write their answers to
the given assignment. The instructor guides the students and discusses further the correct
answers when necessary.

Texts for Further Reading

Florentino Timbreza, Logic Made Simple for Filipinos (Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, Inc., 2000).
Andrew Bacchuber, Introduction to Logic (New York: Appleton Publishing Co., 1957).

Evaluation
After the recitation/boardwork, the students are asked to accomplish worksheet
p.13 of the LOGIC WORKBOOK.