11/1/2016

Critical Thinking
Chapter 9
A Little Categorical Logic

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 1

Education

Categorical Statements
 A Categorical Statement makes a claim about the
relationship between two or more categories or classes of
things.
 Standard-Form Categorical Statements
 All S are P (e.g., All Democrats are liberals).
 No S are P (e.g., No Democrats are liberals).
 Some S are P (e.g., Some Democrats are liberals).
 Some S are not P (e.g., Some Democrats are not liberals).

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 2

Education

1
 11/1/2016

Venn diagrams
 Venn diagrams are ways to represent categorical
statements (or test categorical arguments) with a
series of overlapping circles that represent the
suggested groups and their relations.
 Open circles represent groups.
 Overlapping circles suggests that that there are things
which are members of both groups.
 An “X” is a portion of a circle entails that there is at
least one thing within that portion
 Coloring (shading) in a portion entails that there is
nothing within that portion.
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 3
Education

Standard-Form Examples
All S are P. Some S are P.

No S are P. Some S are not P.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 4

Education

2
 11/1/2016

Four Basic Parts of Categorical

Statements

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 5

Education

Translating into Standard

Categorical Form

 Tip 1: Rephrase all nonstandard subject and predicate

terms so that they refer to classes.
 e.g., “All actors are vain” becomes “All actors are
vain people.”

 Tip 2: Rephrase all nonstandard verbs.

 e.g., “Some students walk to school” becomes
“Some students are persons who walk to school.”

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 6

Education

3
 11/1/2016

Translating into Standard

Categorical Form

 Tip 3: Fill in any unexpressed quantifiers.

 Examples:
 “Koalas are marsupials” becomes “All Koalas are
marsupials.”

 “Californians are health nuts” becomes “Some

Californians are health nuts.” (Be charitable.)

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 7

Education

Translating into Standard

Categorical Form

 Tip 4: Translate singular statement as all or no

statements : Singular statement refers to a particular
person or thing.
 e.g., “This flower is blooming” becomes “All things
identical with (that are) this (particular) flower are
things that are blooming.”
 This may seem silly, but if we do this Venn
Diagrams can be used on more arguments.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 8

Education

4
 11/1/2016

Translating into Standard

Categorical Form

 Tip 5: Translate stylistic variants into the appropriate

categorical form.
 e.g., “Only if something is a fish is it a salmon”
becomes “All salmon are fish.”
 See lists on p.234-235 (textbook).

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 9

Education

Translating into Standard

Categorical Form
Common Stylistic Variants of “No S are P”
 No P are S. Example: No vegetables are fruits.
 S are not P. Example: Oaks are not conifers.
 Nothing that is an S is a P. Example: Nothing that is a
known fact is a mere opinion.
 No one who is an S is a P. Example: No one who is a
Democrat is a Republican.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 10

Education

5
 11/1/2016

Translating into Standard

Categorical Form
Common Stylistic Variants of “No S are P”
 None of the S is a P. Example: None of the students
is a registered Independent.
 Not a single S is P. Example: Not a single U.S.
president is a woman.
 If anything is an S, then it is not a P. Example: If
anything is a plant, then it is not a mineral.
 All S are non-P. Example: All robots are nonhumans.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 11

Education

Translating into Standard

Categorical Form
Common Stylistic Variants of “Some S are P”
Some P are S. Example: Some Democrats are women.
A few S are P. Example: A few mathematicians are
poets.
There are S that are P. Example: There are monkeys
that are carnivores.
Several S are P. Example: Several planets in the solar
system are gas giants.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 12

Education

6
 11/1/2016

Translating into Standard

Categorical Form
Common Stylistic Variants of “Some S are P”
Many S are P. Example: Many billionaires are Internet
tycoons.
Most S are P. Example: Most high school principals are
men.
Nearly all S are P. Example: Nearly all Hollywood
producers are liberals.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 13

Education

Translating into Standard

Categorical Form
Common Stylistic Variants of “Some S are not P”
 Not all S are P. Example: Not all mammals are
quadrupeds.
 Not everyone who is an S is a P. Example: Not
everyone who is a used-car dealer is a crook.
 S are not always P. Example: Sailors are not always
swimmers.
 Some S are non-P. Example: Some theologians are
nonbelievers.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 14

Education

7
 11/1/2016

Translating into Standard

Categorical Form
Common Stylistic Variants of “Some S are not P”
 There are S that are not P. Example: There are bears that
are not carnivores.
 A few S are not P. Example: A few logicians are not
eccentrics.
 Several S are not P. Example: Several of the world’s most
famous sports celebrities are not good role models.
 Most S are not P. Example: Most students are not binge
drinkers.
 Nearly all S are not P. Example: Nearly all physicists are
not sharp dressers. Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 15
Education

Categorical Syllogisms
 Syllogism: three-lined deductive argument.
 Categorical Syllogism: syllogism made of all categorical
statements.
 Example:
1. No doctors are professional wrestlers.
2. All cardiologists are doctors
3. So, no cardiologists are professional wrestlers.

Let’s look at how to evaluate this argument with a Venn

Diagram.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 16

Education

8
 11/1/2016

Using Venn Diagrams to Test

Validity
 Since it has three
category terms
(Doctor, Cardiologist,
and Pro Wrestler) we
need three interlocking
circles.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 17

Education

Take it one statement at a

time.
1. No doctors are
professional wrestlers.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 18

Education

9
 11/1/2016

Take it one statement at a

time.
1. No doctors are
professional
wrestlers.
2. All cardiologists are
doctors (i.e., there
are no non-doctor
cardiologists).

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 19

Education

Take it one statement at a

time.
1. No doctors are
professional
wrestlers.
2. All cardiologists are
doctors (i.e., there
are no non-doctor
cardiologists).
3. So, no cardiologists
are professional Since the conclusion suggests the shared
area between Cardiologists and Pro
wrestlers. Wrestlers is empty (shaded), and the first two
premises already shaded that area, the
20
argument is valid.

10
 11/1/2016

Take it one statement at a

time.
1. No doctors are
professional
wrestlers.
2. All cardiologists are
doctors (i.e., there
are no non-doctor
cardiologists).
3. So, no cardiologists
are professional We look at the diagram to see if this area is
shaded, and we see that it is indeed shaded.
wrestlers. That means that the conclusion is implicitly
“contained in” (i.e., follows logically from) the
21
premises. Thus, the argument is shown to be
valid.

Some Hints for “some”

statements
 They don’t involve shading, but placing an “X” and
can be tricky so…
 Always diagram them last (do your shading first).
 If part of the placement area has already been
shaded, place the X in the un-shaded area.
 If neither part of the placement area has been
shaded, place the X on the line that separates the
area.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 22

Education

11
 11/1/2016

Another example
1. Some Baptists are
coffee-lovers.
2. All Baptists are
Protestants.
3. So, some Protestants
are coffee-lovers.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 23

Education

Another example
1.

2. All Baptists are

Protestants.

Notice we do the “all” statement first

because it requires shading.
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 24
Education

12
 11/1/2016

Another example
1. Some Baptists are
coffee-lovers.
2. All Baptists are
Protestants.

Since part of the area that

represents the overlap of Baptists
and Coffee-lovers is already shaded,
we place the “X” in the un-shaded
part of that overlap.
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 25
Education

Another example
1. Some Baptists are
coffee-lovers.
2. All Baptists are
Protestants.
3. So, some Protestants
are coffee-lovers.

Since the conclusion suggests that there is at least one

individual within the overlap of Protestants and coffee-
lovers, and the first two premises place an “X” in that
area, the argument is valid. 26

13
 11/1/2016

Example with an invalid argument.

1. All painters are artists.
2. Some magicians are
artists.
3. So, some magicians
are painters.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 27

Education

Example with an invalid argument.

1. All painters are artists.

Notice we start with the first

premise because it is an “all”
statement and thus requires
shading.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 28

Education

14
 11/1/2016

Example with an invalid argument.

1. All painters are artists.
2. Some magicians are
artists.

The second premise suggests there is at

least one thing in the overlap of
magicians and artists. Since neither
section of that overlap (the painters vs.
non painters) is shaded, and we don’t
know if that thing would be a painter or
not, we place the X right on the line that
divides the overlap.
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 29
Education

Example with an invalid argument.

1. All painters are artists.
2. Some magicians are
artists.
3. So, some magicians
are painters.
Since we already know that the rest of the
overlap between Magicians and Painters
is empty, in order for the conclusion to be
true, there would need to be an “X” in the
middle overlap—where the “?” is. But the
first two premises don’t give us enough
information to know if the “X” goes there
or not. So the argument is invalid.
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 30
Education

15
 11/1/2016

Step by Step
 For step by step instructions on using Venn
Diagrams to Test the Validity of Categorical
Syllogisms, see p. 237-247.

Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 31

Education

Venn Diagram

CD
For convenience it is best to
be consistent in assigning
terms to the circles. The
subject term of the
C S conclusion is assigned the
lower left circle, and the
All CD are S predicate term of the
All C are CD conclusion is assigned the
All C are S lower right circle.

16
 11/1/2016

Venn Diagram

As you work through this tutorial, realize that what

you draw in the Venn Diagram represents exactly
what is in the premises of the syllogism; nothing
more and nothing less.

There are three steps in this process: CD

1. Draw premise one.

2. Draw premise two.
3. Check the validity. C S

Venn Diagram CD

So, to represent “All CD

are S” we focus on the
CD and S circles only.
Our rule is to shade
EMPTY areas.
C S
Imagine that we don’t know
how many things are inside
these circles, or where exactly
they are inside the circles, but All CD are S
we know that all the things in All C are CD
CD are also in S. All C are S

17
 11/1/2016

Venn Diagram

Look at the first premise and

then at the shading. Since we
know all CD are in S, we
know the rest of CD
is empty.

Now draw premise 2. All the

items in C are also in CD.
Thus the rest of C is empty All CD are S
and should be shaded. All C are CD
All C are S

Venn Diagram
All CD are S
All C are CD
Now for step 3. We’ve drawn All C are S
each premise exactly and can now
check for validity. If valid, the
conclusion will be shown in the
drawing to be necessarily true.

If the drawing allows for the

possibility of the conclusion
being false then the syllogism
is invalid. What do you think?
Valid or Invalid?

18
 11/1/2016

Venn Diagram

This is a valid syllogism.

The drawing clearly
shows that the
conclusion is
necessarily true. All
C are indeed S.

The only area

of C that is not
empty is the part All CD are S
that is in S. All C are CD
All C are S

Venn Diagram - Example

E R

All educated people respect books.

Some bookstore personnel are not truly educated.
Some bookstore personnel don’t respect books.
B
Translated into All E are R
standard form Some B are not E
Some B are not R
Be clear that:
E = Educated people
R = People who respect books.
B = Bookstore personnel

19
 11/1/2016

Venn Diagram - Example

All E are R
Some B are not E E

Some B are not R

Draw the first premise.

All E are inside R, so we
know that the rest of E is
empty. We represent this B R

empty area by shading it.

Venn Diagram - Example

All E are R
Some B are not E
E
Some B are not R X
Should the “X” go here?

Now the second premise.

We read “some” as “at least
one” and represent it with an X X
“X.” So we want to put an X B R
inside the B circle but outside
of the E circle. Or here?
We want to say exactly what the premises say, but no more.

20
 11/1/2016

All E are R
Venn Diagram - Example Some B are not E
Some B are not R

Think about it. If we opt for E

the blue X, we are saying
“some B are not R,” but this
is not in the premises and we
can’t draw something that is
not in the premises. Likewise the X? X?
red X would say, “Some B are R,”
B R
and this is not in the premises either.
What we need is an “X” on the line which will mean that
“some B” are on one side of the line or the other, or both, but
we’re not sure which.

Venn Diagram - Example

All E are R
Some B are not E
E
Some B are not R

So, having drawn exactly

what is in the two premises
and no more, is the conclusion
necessarily true? Is it true that X?
some B are not R? B R

No, this is an invalid argument.

The “X” shows that there may be
some B that are not R, but not necessarily.

21
 11/1/2016

Venn Diagram - Example

I M H

No islands are part of the mainland and Hawaii is an

island. Therefore, Hawaii is not on the mainland.
No I are M
Translated into All H are I
standard form No H are M I

Draw the first premise. Nothing that is

an I is inside the M circle. So, all the
things inside I, if there are any, are in
the other parts of the circle. H M

Venn Diagram - Example

I
No I are M
All H are I
No H are M
Now draw the second premise. Everything
that is in the H circle is also in the I circle.
H M
Thus, the rest of the H circle is empty and
should be shaded.
Step 3 asks you to look at what you’ve drawn and see if
the conclusion is necessarily true. Is it necessarily true
from the picture that nothing in the H circle is in the M
circle?
Yes, this is a valid argument!

22
 11/1/2016

Venn Diagram - Example

M C

Some modems are cable connections and some cable

connections are digital. Thus, some modems are digital.
D
Some M are C
Translated into Some C are D
standard form C
Some M are D
Draw the first premise. At least one thing
in M is also in C. Where should the “X” X
go? Do you see why the “X” has to go on the
line? From the premise you can’t tell which
side of the line is correct. M D

C
Venn Diagram - Example
Some M are C XX
Some C are D
Some M are D
Now the second premise. Where should M D
the “X” go to represent ‘at least one’ C
that is inside the D circle? Remember you want to draw
just what the premise says, no more and no less.
Again, the “X” must go on the line. Our drawing can
never be more precise than the premise is. Is it Valid?
No this is an invalid argument. There is no guarantee,
from the premises that the conclusion is true. There
may or may not be an M in the D circle.

23