WORK GUIDE NO.

3
THE TRIAL
Objective: That the student:
Identify what a trial is, the components, and the different types.
Elaborate propositions in typical form.
Text: Notes on Elements of Logic

THEORETICAL PART
INSTRUCTIONS: Respond to the following questions

10. What is the trial?

It is the relation of a concept called subject (affirmatively or negatively) with another concept
called predicate.

11. What is the relationship between subject and predicate terms, which can be negative or
affirmative?
The Trial.

12. What is called a categorical proposition:

It is a proposition that affirms or denies that all or some of the members of one category are
included in another.

13. Indicate the types and names of categorical propositions.

All s is p Universal affirmative proposition
No S is P Universal Proposition Negative
Any S is P Affirmative Particular Proposition
Some S is not
Negative Particular Proposition
P

14. According to their quality, categorical propositions can be:

Universal or particular, either affirmative or negative.

15. Propositions can be universal or particular with respect to:

Affirmative or Negative.

16. List the elements of the proposition and explain them briefly:
Categorical They are considered as assertions about classes, which affirm or deny.

Quality It can be affirmative or negative, depending on whether the inclusion of classes is

affirmative or negative.
Quantity It can be universal or particular, depending on the proposition
17. Distribution is the technical term used to characterize the various ways in which the subject and
predicate terms can be presented. According to the type of proposition indicated, write the
corresponding logical form and symbolization.

TYPE TYPE
LOGICAL A s is p FORM
All ENo S is P
FORM LOGIC
SYMBOLIZATI SYMBOLIZE
Sd ȼT Pd
ON Sd cT Pi CION

TYP TYPE
LOGICAL EI Some S is P FORM OSome S is not P
FORM LOGIC
SYMBOLIZATI If Cp Pi SYMBOLIZES Si cP Pi
ON CION

18. The diagram is a graph or scheme as its name indicates that represents the way in which
the terms are related. Write the types of Propositions and elaborate the respective diagram.

Type: All S is P Type: No S is P

DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Type: Some S is P Type: Some S is not P

DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

19. Types of Propositions that manifest S in a distributed manner (Sd) or taken in its entirety:
All S is P.

20. Categorical Propositions that manifest the term P distributed (Pd) or taken to its full extent:
No S is P.

21. Categorical Propositions manifesting undistributed S (Yes):

Some S is P.

22. Types of Propositions manifesting undistributed P (Pi):

Some S is not P.
Practical Part
1. Convert the following propositions to their typical form, remember they must have
 QUANTIFIER - SUBJECT - COPULA - PREDICATE.
Few people do not have a cell phone Some people do not own a cell phone.

Most people suffer from the violence that exists Some people are victims of violence in society.
in society.

Students are not quiet No student is quiet

The auditors are characterized by their All auditors are characterized by being very
seriousness serious.

2. State the logical form and type of the following propositions:

The equipment has a useful life of Type A All S is P

A large part of the population uses public Type I Some S is P

transportation.

The vast majority of animals cannot be pets Type O Some S is not P

No politician is 100% honest Type E No S is P

3. State the Quantity of the following propositions:

Some Guatemalans are not apolitical Particular

Everyone is responsible for his or her actions Universal

No worker is irresponsible Universal

Some children are very quiet Particular

4. Elaborate the Diagram of the following propositions

No person is worthy of discrimination

All science is useful

Some people are slaves to their own vices

Some communities are not ignorant of their

rights
 5. Determine the Quality and Quantity of the following propositions:
Hominids represent the ancestors of man. Affirmative Universal

Most women in indigenous communities do not Negative Particular

know how to read and write.

Almost all men like to tell the truth Affirmative Particular

No child is ignorant Negative Universal

6. Convert the following propositions to their typical forms and state their Symbolization:
Most animals become accustomed to Some animals are accustomed to their Si Cp Pi
their natural habitat. natural habitat.

Many of the natural resources are not Some natural resources are not cared Si cP Pi
cared for for

Young people are not boring No young person is boring Sd ȼT Pd

Guatemalans have many dreams All Guatemalans have many dreams Sd cT Pi

7. Convert the following propositions to their typical form and complete the table.

a. Most teenagers are rebellious

Some Teens are Rebels.
b. There is no sincere ruler
No ruler is sincere.
c. Almost all young people have no responsibility
Some young people are not responsible.
d. Guatemalans are athletes
All Guatemalans are responsible.
e. The Aztecs are not Mayan
No Aztec is Mayan.
f. The majority of indigenous women have earned respect with their work.
Some indigenous women deserve respect for their work.
g. Some people are not aware of the responsibility
Some people are not responsible.
h. Working people have dignity
All working people have dignity.
i. Public transportation units are in poor condition
All public transportation units are seen in poor condition.
j. Most lawyers do not work honestly
Some lawyers are not honest workers.
TYPE LOGICAL QUALITY QUANTITY SYMBOLIZATION DIAGRAM
FORM

i Some S is P Particular Affirmative Si Cp Pi

Universal
E No S is P Negative Sd ȼT Pd

O Some S is not P Particular Negative Si cP Pi

A All S is P Universal Affirmative Sd cT Pi S

Universal
E No S is P Negative Sd ȼT Pd

i Some S is P Particular Affirmative Si Cp Pi

O Some S is not P Particular Negative Si cP Pi

A All S is P Universal Affirmative Sd cT Pi S

A All S is P Universal Affirmative Sd cT Pi S

O Some S is not P Particular Negative Si cP Pi

 WORK GUIDE NO. 4
THE REASONING
Objective: That the student:
 
Define what a reasoning is.

Determine the types of reasoning, structure reasoning correctly.

Identify what a syllogism is and determine when they are valid or invalid based
on the rules of syllogism.
 Differentiate the different invalid reasoning or fallacies.
Text: Notes on Elements of Logic
Fallacies Brochure

THEORETICAL PART
1. Define the following concepts:
a) Reasoning:
It is a set of statements or judgments related in such a way that it is assumed that one of
them (called conclusion follows or is inferred from the one or ones (called premises).

b) Logical Reasoning:
It is a mental process that involves the application of logic. From this type of reasoning,
one can start from one or several premises to arrive at a conclusion that can be
determined as true, false or possible.
c) Psychological Reasoning:
It tries to discern the properties of each ideal object and to discern the relationships
between different ideas on the basis of the individual's own need, memorized external
data and natural memories. All this shapes the reasoning.
d) Argumentation:
It is defined as a set of premises followed by a conclusion. An argument can be sound
(valid and with true premises) or be persuasive in some other way.
e) Reasoning by Analogy:
It is a type of non-deductive reasoning that consists of obtaining a conclusion from
premises in which an analogy or similarity is established between elements or sets of
different elements.
f) Elaborate a Scheme to represent the types of Reasoning

Types of Reasoning

Deductive Inductive

It is any reasoning in which it is required It is the reasoning by which the

that the conclusion necessarily follows or universal laws of any science are
follows from the premises. discovered.

Example: All Chapín is

Guatemalan.
All of Chapín is Central
I have observed 1 crow and
American it was black in color
All A is B, All B is C I have observed another
crow and it is also black in
color
I have observed another
crow and it is also black in
color.
In conclusion, all crows are
g) Explain what is Categorical Syllogism? black.
A categorical syllogism is one in which the premises and the conclusion are categorical
statements. A categorical statement is one that affirms or denies that a class, set,
category of things is included in another class, set or category, totally or partially.

h) List the elements that make up the Categorical Syllogism.

The major term
The term minor
The middle ground

i) What is the Figure of Syllogism?

It is determined by the position that its middle term occupies (and, therefore, the role it
plays) in the premises.

j) How is the Mode of Syllogism formed?

It is the set formed by the types of the three propositions that make up the syllogism
(including also the conclusion).

k) List the rules of the Categorical Syllogism

Every syllogism consists of three terms
The middle term should not be included in the conclusion.
The middle term must be distributed or taken in its full extent at least once.
No term can be taken in its full extension in the conclusion if it is not taken in the
respective premise.
No conclusion can (validly) be drawn from two negative premises.
No conclusion can (validly) be drawn from two particular premises.
Given two affirmative premises, the conclusion must be affirmative.
The conclusion follows the weaker part (the weaker part is understood as the particular
with respect to the universal and negative with respect to the affirmative).

l) What do you call fallacies?

In logic, a fallacy is an argument that appears to be valid, but is not. Some fallacies are
committed intentionally to persuade or manipulate others, while others are committed
unintentionally due to carelessness or ignorance.
m) Complete the following outline, explaining briefly what each fallacy consists of

AD HOMINEM In logic, an ad hominem argument is a type of

fallacy that consists of taking for granted the
F falsity of an assertion by taking as an argument
who is the sender of the assertion.
AD It is a fallacy that consists in the manipulation of
A MISERICORDIAM feelings to sustain an argument as valid.
AD IGNORANTIAM It is a fallacy that consists of defending a
proposition by arguing that there is no proof to
L the contrary, claiming an opponent's inability to
present convincing evidence to the contrary.
AD POPULUM It is a fallacy that involves responding to an
argument or statement by referring to the
A supposed opinion that people in general have of
OF ATTENTION it, rather than to the argument itself. An argument
ad populum has this structure: For the majority,
C A.
AD BACULUM It is a fallacy that implies sustaining the validity of
an argument based on force, threat or abuse of
I one's position; in other words: "Force makes
right".
AD VERECUNDIAM It consists of defending something as true
A because the person who is cited in the argument
has authority on the subject.
FALSE CAUSE It is a fallacy that consists of thinking that the
cause of an event is what happens before.
S
COMPLEX It is a fallacy that occurs when someone asks a
QUESTION question that presupposes something that has
not been proven, or that has not been accepted
by all the people involved.
EQUIVOCO It is the misleading use of a term with more than
one meaning or sense.
AMPHIBOLOGY By making a statement with multiple meanings,
confusion is created, as we do not know which of
them is the one the sender is trying to convey.
ACENTO The fallacy is constructed by making a
proposition that contains a part affirming or
OF agreeing with a subject and another part with an
AMBIGUEDA objection or condition.
D BY DIVISION The Fallacy of Division consists in making people
believe that what is true for the whole is true for
any of its parts.
BY COMPOSITION It is a fallacy that consists of inferring that
something is true about a set or group only
because it is true about one or several of its parts
or components.
 PRACTICAL PART
a. Instructions: read and analyze the following reasoning, determine if they are Deductive or Inductive, and in the
case of being Inductive, indicate if they are complete or incomplete.
1. Cobaneros are Guatemalans. José is a Cobanero. Therefore, Deductive
José is Guatemalan. Complete

2. Elephants are living beings. Whales are living beings. Toads Inductive
are living beings. Therefore, all animals are living beings. Incomplete

No mortal is a perfect being. No man is a perfect Deductive

being. No man is mortal. Incomplete

4. Vegetables reproduce. Animals reproduce. Consequently, all Inductive

living beings reproduce. Incomplete

5. Earthquakes cause economic losses. Hurricanes cause Inductive

economic losses. Forest fires cause losses. Therefore, all Incomplete
natural disasters cause economic losses.

6. In the Faculty of Law of the Universidad de San Carlos de Inductive

Guatemala there have been anomalies in the admission Incomplete
process, as well as in the Faculty of Communication
Sciences; consequently, in all the Academic Faculties of the
USAC.
there are anomalies in the admission process.
7. Poor countries are underdeveloped. Guatemala is a poor Deductive
country. So Guatemala is underdeveloped. Complete

8. Guatemala is a member of the OAS. El Salvador is a member Inductive

of the OAS. Honduras is a member of the OAS. Nicaragua is Complete
a member of the OAS. Costa Rica is a member of the OAS.
Consequently, all Central American countries are members of
the OAS.
9. Guatemala suffered the ravages of nature; Mexico and El Inductive
Salvador suffered the ravages of nature. Therefore, all Latin Incomplete
American countries suffered the ravages of nature.

10. Animals are living beings. The monkey is an animal. Deductive

Therefore, the monkey is a living being. Complete
b. INSTRUCTIONS: You are presented with a series of syllogisms, analyze them and
determine each of the elements requested.
1. No Chinese is American Mode Figure:

Scheme of the syllogism:

Every Guatemalan is American

No Guatemalan is Chinese
Rules violated

Valid Invalid
2. Every tennis player is a sportsman Mode Figure:

Scheme of the syllogism:

Some athletes are professionals

Rules violated
Some professionals are soccer players Valid Invalid
3. Some staff members are men Mode Figure:

Some men are not honest people Scheme of the syllogism:

Some honest people are not civil servants

Rules violated

Valid Invalid
4. Some people are not salespeople All Mode Figure:

salespeople are not bold Scheme of the syllogism:

All people are not bold

Rules violated

Valid Invalid
 Mode Figure:

5. Dogs are brave Scheme of the syllogism:

Dogs are domestic animals

Domestic animals are tame

Rules violated

Valid Invalid

c. Read the following statements and write down the type of fallacy committed.

1. Spacious gentlemen's apartments for rent.

2. Chief, do not deduct the day. I didn't come to work because my two children are
sick and I have no one to take care of them.
AD MISERICORDIAM
3. Gabriel García Márquez is a great writer, so he can be a great politician.
EQUIVOCO

4. Ronaldinho wears Nike sneakers. Nike are the best sports shoes in the world.
ACENTO

5. We cannot say that extraterrestrial life exists because it has not been possible to
demonstrate its existence.
AD IGNORANTIAM
6. CACIF's proposals regarding the Guatemala-US FTA are rejected as a
consequence of its members being exploitative and lacking in social conscience.
AD VERECUNDIAM

7. Crime must be fought at all costs, we all have an obligation to lynch criminals.
AD BACULUM

2. International soccer players are considered "idols".

BY COMPOSITION

3. Consuming alcoholic beverages is great; everyone consumes them to have fun and have
a good time; since consuming alcoholic beverages is for good honest people.
AMPHIBOLOGY
4. I ask you to please forgive me, I didn't know that by deceiving you I was hurting you,
besides it's not my fault my father raised me that way, I ask you to please forgive me.
FALSE CAUSE
5. The traditional music of Guatemala is the marimba. Therefore all Guatemalans like the
marimba.
AD HOMINEM
6. Universidad de San Carlos is made up of 10 faculties. The School of Engineering is
made up of 10 faculties.
BY DIVISION
University of San Carlos de Guatemala
Faculty of Economics
Introductory Curriculum
2nd. Semester
Elements of Formal Logic and Dialectical Logic
Room 106 - Lic. Hector Velasquez
Melvin Arnoldo Beltetón Morales
201901056