Dr. Lê Xuân Đ I: Vector Spaces

VECTOR SPACES
ELECTRONIC VERSION OF LECTURE
Dr. Lê Xuân Đại

HoChiMinh City University of Technology
Faculty of Applied Science, Department of Applied Mathematics
Email: ytkadai@hcmut.edu.vn
HCMC — 2018.
Dr. Lê Xuân Đại (HCMUT-OISP) VECTOR SPACES HCMC — 2018. 1 / 49
OUTLINE
1 VECTOR SPACE AXIOMS
2 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE AND DEPENDENCE
3 SPANNING SET AND BASIS
4 COORDINATES RELATIVE TO A BASIS

Vector Space Axioms Real Vector Spaces
The set of real numbers

Polynomials of Degree É n
1 + : P n (x) × P n (x) → P n (x)
1 + : R×R → R
(p(x), q(x)) → p(x) + q(x)
(x, y) → x + y
2 • : R × P n (x) → P n (x)
2 •:R→R
(λ, p(x)) → λ.p(x)
(λ, x) → λ.x
The set of complex

numbers
1 + : C×C → C
(x, y) → x + y VECTOR SPACES
2 •:C→C
(λ, x) → λ.x

Vectors in 2-Space
1 + : R2 × R2 → R2
→− →− →
− →
−
(x, y )→ x + y
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
(OM, ON) → OM + ON
2 • : R × R2 → R2
→
− →
−
(λ, x ) → λ. x
−−→ −−→
(λ, OM) → λ.OM
Vectors in 3-Space
1 + : R3 × R3 → R3
→− →− →
− →
−
(x, y )→ x + y
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
(OM, ON) → OM + ON VECTOR SPACES
2 • : R × R3 → R3
→
− →
−
(λ, x ) → λ. x
−−→ −−→
(λ, OM) → λ.OM

Let V 6= ∅ on which 2 operations are defined:

1
+ : V ×V → V 2
• : R×V → V
(x, y) 7−→ x + y (λ, x) 7−→ λ.x
If the following 8 axioms are satisfied by:

∀x, y, z ∈ V , ∀λ, µ ∈ R
1
x+y = y+x 5
(λ + µ)x = λx + µx
2
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z 6
λ(x + y) = λx + λy
3
∃0 ∈ V : x + 0 = x 7
λ(µx) = (λ.µ)x
4
∃(−x) ∈ V : x + (−x) = 0 8
1.x = x
then V is called real vector space.
Linear Independence and Dependence Linear combination of vectors
DEFINITION 2.1
If w is a vector in a vector space V , then w is
said to be a linear combination of the vectors
v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ∈ V , if w can be expressed in the
form
n
λi vi = λ1 v1 + λ2 v2 + . . . + λn vn ,
X
w=
i=1
where λ1, λ2, . . . , λn are scalars. These scalars

are called the coefficients of the linear
combination.
SHOW THAT w IS A LINEAR COMBINATION OF

v1 , v2 , . . . , vn
In order for w to be a linear combination of
v1 , v2 , . . . , vn , there must be scalars λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn
such that w = λ1v1 + λ2v2 + . . . + λnvn
If this system is consistent then w is a
linear combination of v1, v2, . . . , vn.
If this system is inconsistent then w is
NOT a linear combination of v1, v2, . . . , vn.

EXAMPLE 2.1
Show that w = (1, 4, −3) is a linear
combination of
v1 = (2, 1, 1), v2 = (−1, 1, −1), v3 = (1, 1, −2).

v1 , v2 , v3 , there must be scalars λ1 , λ2 , λ3 such
that
λ1 v1 + λ2 v2 + λ3 v3 = w
⇔ (2λ1 , λ1 , λ1 ) + (−λ2 , λ2 , −λ2 ) + (λ3 , λ3 , −2λ3 ) =
(1, 4, −3)

 2λ1 − λ2 + λ3 = 1

⇔ λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = 4
 λ − λ − 2λ = −3

 1 2
 3    
2 −1 1 λ1 1  λ1 = 1

⇔  1 1 1   λ2  =  4  ⇔ λ2 = 2
    
λ3  λ =1

1 −1 −2 −3 3
Therefore, w = (1, 4, −3) is a linear
combination of
v1 = (2, 1, 1), v2 = (−1, 1, −1), v3 = (1, 1, −2) and
w = v1 + 2v2 + v3 .

EXAMPLE 2.2
Determine whether w = (4, 3, 5) is a linear
combination of
v1 = (1, 2, 5), v2 = (1, 3, 7), v3 = (−2, 3, 4) or not?

that
λ1 v1 + λ2 v2 + λ3 v3 = w
⇔ (λ1 , 2λ1 , 5λ1 ) + (λ2 , 3λ2 , 7λ2 ) +
(−2λ3 , 3λ3 , 4λ3 ) = (4, 3, 5)
 ¯ 
1 1 −2 ¯ 4 r →r −2r
¯ 2 2 1
¯  r3 →r3 −5r1
2 3 3 ¯ 3  −−−−−−→

¯
5 7 4 ¯5
 ¯   ¯ 
1 1 −2 ¯ 4
¯ 1 1 −2 ¯ 4
¯
 r3 →r3 −2r1 
0 1 7 ¯ −5  −−−−−−→  0 1 7 ¯ −5 
 ¯ ¯ 
¯ ¯
0 2 14 ¯ −15 0 0 0 ¯ −5
This system is inconsistent, so no such
scalars λ1, λ2, λ3 exist. Consequently,
w = (4, 3, 5) is NOT a linear combination of
v1 = (1, 2, 5), v2 = (1, 3, 7), v3 = (−2, 3, 4)

EXAMPLE 2.3
Determine whether w = (4, 3, 10) is a linear
combination of
v1 = (1, 2, 5), v2 = (1, 3, 7), v3 = (−2, 3, 4) or not?

that
λ1 v1 + λ2 v2 + λ3 v3 = w
⇔ (λ1 , 2λ1 , 5λ1 ) + (λ2 , 3λ2 , 7λ2 ) +
(−2λ3 , 3λ3 , 4λ3 ) = (4, 3, 10)
 ¯ 
1 1 −2 ¯ 4
¯ r2 →r2 −2r1
 r3 →r3 −5r1
2 3 3 ¯ 3  −−−−−−→
 ¯
¯
5 7 4 ¯ 10
 ¯   ¯ 
1 1 −2 ¯ 4
¯ r3 →r3 −2r1 1 0 −9 ¯ 9
¯
r →r
 1 1 2  −r
0 1 7 ¯ −5  −−−−−−→  0 1 7 ¯ −5 
 ¯ ¯ 
¯ ¯
0 2 14 ¯ −10 0 0 0 ¯ 0

This system has infinitely many solutions

(λ1 , λ2 , λ3 ) = (9 + 9t, −5 − 7t, t), t ∈ R.
Therefore, w = (4, 3, 10) is a linear

combination of
v1 = (1, 2, 5), v2 = (1, 3, 7), v3 = (−2, 3, 4) and
w = (9 + 9t)v1 + (−5 − 7t)v2 + tv3 , t ∈ R.

Linear Independence and Dependence Linear Independence and Dependence
∃λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λm ∈ R :
λ21 + λ22 + . . . + λ2m 6= 0
n o
v1 , v2 , . . . , vm
is a linear m
such that
λi vi = λ1 v1 + λ2 v2 +
P
dependent set i=1
. . . + λm vm = 0
m n o
λi vi = λ1 v1 +
P
v1 , v2 , . . . , vm
i=1
λ2 v2 + . . . + λm vm = 0 is a linear
⇒ λ1 = λ2 = . . . = independent
λm = 0 set
Linear Independence and Dependence Geometric Interpretation
A GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF LINEAR

INDEPENDENCE

Linear Independence and Dependence Geometric Interpretation
A GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF LINEAR

INDEPENDENCE

Linear Independence and Dependence Algorithm
The linear independence or linear

dependence of v1, v2, . . . , vm is determined by
whether there exist non-trivial solutions of
the system λ1v1 + λ2v2 + . . . + λmvm = 0, where
λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λm ∈ R are the unknowns.
If this system has trivial solution
λ1 = λ2 = . . . = λm = 0 then v1 , v2 , . . . , vm are
linearly independent.
If this system has non-trivial solutions
then v1, v2, . . . , vm are linearly dependent.
WHEN v1 , v2 , . . . , vm ∈ Rn
Let A = v1T v2T . . . vm

T
¡ ¢
and determine r(A).
If r(A) = m then v1, v2, . . . , vm are linearly
independent.
If r(A) < m then v1, v2, . . . , vm are linearly
dependent.

SPECIAL CASE m = n
If det(A) 6= 0 then v1, v2, . . . , vm are linearly
independent.
If det(A) = 0 then v1, v2, . . . , vm are linearly
dependent.

EXAMPLE 2.4
Determine whether
v1 = (2, 1, 2), v2 = (3, 2, 1), v3 = (1, 1, 4) are linearly
dependent or linearly independent?
Let  
2 3 1
A = v1T v2T v3T
¡ ¢
=  1 2 1 .
 
2 1 4
We have det(A) = 5 6= 0, thus v1, v2, v3 are
linearly independent.
EXAMPLE 2.5
Determine whether
v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (4, 5, 6), v3 = (7, 8, 9) are linearly
independent or linearly dependent?
 
1 4 7
A = v1T v2T v3T
¡ ¢
=  2 5 8 .
 
3 6 9
We have det(A) = 0, therefore, v1, v2, v3 are
linearly dependent.
EXAMPLE 2.6
Determine whether
v1 = (1, 1, 2, 3), v2 = (2, 3, 3, 1), v3 = (1, 2, 1, −2) are
linearly independent or linearly dependent?
 
1 2 1 r2 →r2 −r1
¢ 1 3
 2  r3 →r3 −2r1
 r4 →r4 −3r1
A = v1T v2T T
¡
v3 =   −−−−−−→
2 3 1 
3 1 −2

   
1 2 1 1 2 1
0 1 1  r3 →r3 +r2  0 1 1 
 r4 →r4 +5r2 
 −−−−−−→ 
 
 0 −1 0 0 0
 
−1  
0 −5 −5 0 0 0
⇒ r(A) = 2 < 3 = m.
Therefore, v1, v2, v3 are linearly dependent.

Spanning set and Basis Spanning Set
SPANNING SET
DEFINITION
n
3.1 o
The set S = v1, v2, . . . , vm of the vector space V
spans V if ∀w ∈ V , ∃λi ∈ R, i = 1, 2, . . . , m :
m
λi vi = λ1 v1 + λ2 v2 + . . . + λm vm .
X
w=
i=1
We denote it by o n
V = Span(S) = Span v1 , v2 , . . . , vm .

EXAMPLE 3.1 n o
In R2 consider S = (1, 0); (0, 1) . For all
w = (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 we have
w = (x1 , x2 ) = x1 (1, 0) + x2 (0, 1)
thus, S is the spanning set of R2.

EXAMPLE 3.2 n o
In R2 consider S = (1, 2); (1, 1) . For all
w = (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 , we find a, b ∈ R such that
w = (x1 , x2 ) = a(1, 2) + b(1, 1) = (a + b, 2a + b)

(
a + b = x1
⇔
2a + b = x2
This
¯ system
¯ is consistent because
¯1 1 ¯
¯ = −1 6= 0. Therefore, S spans R2 .
¯ ¯
¯2 1
¯
¯
EXAMPLE 3.3
n o
The set S = (1, 1, 1); (1, 0, 2) does not span R3.
S spans R3 if the system
α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 0, 2) = (x1 , x2 , x3 )

 
 α + β = x1
  α + β = x1

α = x2 ⇔ 0α − β = x2 − x1
 α + 2β = x
 
 0α + 0β = x + x − 2x
3 3 2 1
is consistent for all x1, x2, x3.

This system may have no solution or may

have solutions depending on x1, x2, x3.
Choosing (x1, x2, x3) = (1, 1, 2), this system is
inconsistent. Therefore, (1, 1, 2) is not a
linear combination
  of vectors in S.
1 1
Note. A =  1 0  ⇒ rank(A) = 2 < 3
 
1 2
S does not span R3

WHEN v1 , v2 , . . . , vm ∈ Rn
Let A = v1T v2T . . . vm

T
¡ ¢
and determine r(A).
If r(A) = n then v1, v2, . . . , vm span Rn.
If r(A) < n then v1, v2, . . . , vm does not span
Rn .
Note. n is the number of coordinates of

vectors v1, v2, . . . , vm in Rn.

SPECIAL CASE m = n
If det(A) 6= 0 then v1, v2, . . . , vm span Rn.
If det(A) = 0 then v1, v2, . . . , vm does not
span Rn.

Spanning set and Basis Basis for a Vector Space
BASIS FOR A VECTOR SPACE
DEFINITION
n
3.2 o
If S = v1, v2, . . . , vn is a set of vectors in vector
space V , then S is called a basis for V if
1
S spans V
2
S is linearly independent
The number of vectors in a basis S for V is
called the dimension of vector space V . We
denote it by dim(V ).
Spanning set and Basis Basis for a Vector Space
EXAMPLE 3.4
n o
The set S = i, j, k ⊂ R3, where
i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1), is the
standard basis for R3.
Indeed, ∀x = (x1, x2, x3) ∈ R3 we have

x = x1 .i + x2 .j + x3 .k ⇒ S spans R3 .
Consider α.i + β.j + γ.k = 0
⇔ (α, β, γ) = (0, 0, 0) ⇔ α = β = γ = 0
⇒ S is linear independent.
Therefore, S is the basis for R3 ⇒ dim(R3) = 3.
Coordinates Relative to a Basis Coordinates of vector
DEFINITION
n
4.1 o
If S = v1, v2, . . . , vn is a basis for a vector
space V , then every vector w ∈ V can be
expressed in the form
w = x1 v1 + x2 v2 + . . . + xn vn
in exactly one way. The scalars x1, x2, . . . , xn

are called the coordinates
h i ¡of w relative to the
¢T
basis S. We denote w = x1 x2 · · · xn .
S

Coordinates Relative to a Basis Coordinates of vector
EXAMPLE 4.1
Find the coordinate vector of w = (6, 5, 4)
relative to the basis S: v1 = (1, 1, 0), v2 = (2, 1, 3),
v3 = (1, 0, 2).
We must find x1, x2, x3 such that
w = (6, 5, 4) = x1 (1, 1, 0) + x2 (2, 1, 3) + x3 (1, 0, 2)
 
 x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 6
  x1 = 3

⇔ x1 + x2 = 5 ⇔ x2 = 2
 
 x = −1
 3x2 + 2x3 = 4 3
h i
Therefore, w = (3, 2, −1)T .
S
Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem
THE CHANGE-OF-BASIS PROBLEM
If B = {e1, e2, . . . , en} and B0 = {e10 , e20 , . . . , en0 } are 2

bases for a vector space V .
Suppose that w ∈ V , then
n h i
xk ek or w = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )T and
P
w=
k=1 B
n h i
w = xi0 ei0 or w 0 = (x10 , x20 , . . . , xn0 )T
P
i=1 B
h i
How are the coordinate vectors w and
h i B
w 0 related?
B
Suppose that there is a relation between B

and B0:
n
X
ei0 = ski ek = s1i e1 + s2i e2 + . . . + sni en , i = 1, 2, . . . n.
k=1

0
 e1 = s11 e1 + s21 e2 + . . . + sn1 en

⇔ ... ... ........................
 e0 = s e + s e + . . . + s e

n 1n 1 2n 2 nn n

DEFINITION 4.2
 
s11 . . . s1n ... s1i
s . . . s2n  ... s2i
The matrix S =  21  is called
 
 ... ... ...  ... ...
sn1 . . . snn ... sni
the transition matrix from B0 to B. We denote
it by S = Pass(B0, B).

n
X
w= xi0 ei0
i=1
= x1 e1 + x2 e2 + . . . + xn0 en0
0 0 0 0
= x10 (s11 e1 + s21 e2 + . . . + sn1 en ) + x20 (s12 e1 + s22 e2 +

. . . + sn2 en ) + . . . + xn0 (s1n e1 + s2n e2 + . . . + snn en )
= (s11 x10 + s12 x20 + . . . + s1n xn0 )e1 + (s21 x10 + s22 x20 +
. . . + s2n xn0 )e2 + . . . + (sn1 x10 + sn2 x20 + . . . + snn xn0 )en
n
X
= x k e k = x 1 e1 + x 2 e 2 + . . . + x n e n
k=1



 x1 = s11 x10 + s12 x20 + . . . + s1n xn0
 x = s x0 + s x0 + . . . + s x0

2 21 1 22 2 2n n

 .....................

xn = sn1 x10 + sn2 x20 + . . . + snn xn0

    0 
x1 s11 s12 . . . s1n x1
 x   s s . . . s   x0 
 2   21 22 2n   2
 ..  = 

 .   . . . . . . . . . . . .   ...
 

xn sn1 sn2 . . . snn xn0
h i h i h i h i
−1
⇒ w = S w 0, w 0 = S w .
B B B B
EXAMPLE 4.2
Consider
n the bases o
B = (2, 1, 0), (1, 0, 3), (0, 0, 1) ,
n o
B = (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, −2), (0, 1, 3) for R3 and
0
w = (8, −4, 6).

1
Find the transition matrix S from B0 to B.
2
Find the coordinate vector of w relative to
2 bases B, B0.

The old basis vectors are

e1 = (2, 1, 0), e2 = (1, 0, 3), e3 = (0, 0, 1) and the
new basis vectors are
e10 = (1, 0, 1), e20 = (0, 1, −2), e30 = (0, 1, 3). We want
to find the coordinate vectors of e10 , e20 , e30
relative to basis B :

0
 e1 = s11 e1 + s21 e2 + s31 e3

⇔ e20 = s12 e1 + s22 e2 + s32 e3
 e0 = s e + s e + s e

3 13 1 23 2 33 3

e10 = s11 e1 + s21 e2 + s31 e3

⇔ s11 (2, 1, 0) + s21 (1, 0, 3) + s31 (0, 0, 1) = (1, 0, 1)
 2s11 + s21
 = 1
⇔ s11 = 0

 3s21 + s31 = 1
⇔ s11 = 0, s21 = 1, s31 = −2.     
2 1 0 s11 1
In matrix form:  1 0 0   s21  =  0 
    
0 3 1 s31 1

e20 = s12 e1 + s22 e2 + s32 e3

⇔ s12 (2, 1, 0) + s22 (1, 0, 3) + s32 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 1, −2)
 2s12 + s22
 = 0
⇔ s12 = 1

 3s22 + s32 = −2
⇔ s12 = 1, s22 = −2,s32 = 4.     
2 1 0 s12 0
In matrix form:  1 0 0   s22  =  1 
    
0 3 1 s32 −2

e30 = s13 e1 + s23 e2 + s33 e3

⇔ s13 (2, 1, 0) + s23 (1, 0, 3) + s33 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 1, 3)
 2s13 + s23
 = 0
⇔ s13 = 1

 3s23 + s33 = 3
⇔ s13 = 1, s23 = −2,s33 = 9.     
2 1 0 s13 0
In matrix form:  1 0 0   s23  =  1 
    
0 3 1 s33 3

Therefore, the transition matrix S from B0 to

B is  
0 1 1
S =  1 −2 −2 
 
−2 4 9
   
2 1 0 1 0 0
Note.  1 0 0  .S =  0 1 1 
   
0 3 1 1 −2 3
 −1  
2 1 0 1 0 0
⇒S= 1 0 0  . 0 1 1 
   
0 3 1 1 −2 3
IN MATRIX FORM
 . ... · · · ...   ... . .

.. · · · · · · .. .

··· .
en  .  e10
 £ ¤ £ 0¤ £ 0¤ 
 e1 · · · ei · · · ··· ei ··· en

B B B 
... · · · ... · · · ... ... · · · ... ···
...
 .
.. · · · ... · · · ...

=  e10 · · · ei0 · · · en0 

 
... · · · ... · · · ...
We have
BS = B0 ⇒ S = B−1 .B0
2. The Coordinate vectors of w relative to 2

bases B, B0.
The coordinates of w relative to basis B are
λ1 , λ2 , λ3 which satisfies w = λ1 e1 + λ2 e2 + λ3 e3
⇔λ1 (2, 1, 0) + λ2 (1, 0, 3) + λ3 (0, 0, 1) = (8, −4, 6)
 2λ1 + λ2
 = 8
⇔ λ1 = −4
3λ2 + λ3 = 6


h i
⇔ λ1 = −4, λ2 = 16, λ3 = −42 ⇒ w =
h i h i B
(−4, 16, −42)T ⇒ w 0 = S−1 . w = (8, −2, −2)T .
B B
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

Dr. Lê Xuân Đ I: Vector Spaces

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VECTOR SPACES

ELECTRONIC VERSION OF LECTURE

Dr. Lê Xuân Đại

1 VECTOR SPACE AXIOMS

2 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE AND DEPENDENCE

3 SPANNING SET AND BASIS

4 COORDINATES RELATIVE TO A BASIS

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The set of real numbers

The set of complex

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Let V 6= ∅ on which 2 operations are defined:

If the following 8 axioms are satisfied by:

where λ1, λ2, . . . , λn are scalars. These scalars

SHOW THAT w IS A LINEAR COMBINATION OF

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In order for w to be a linear combination of

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In order for w to be a linear combination of

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In order for w to be a linear combination of

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This system has infinitely many solutions

Therefore, w = (4, 3, 10) is a linear

w = (9 + 9t)v1 + (−5 − 7t)v2 + tv3 , t ∈ R.

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A GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF LINEAR

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A GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF LINEAR

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The linear independence or linear

Let A = v1T v2T . . . vm

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Therefore, v1, v2, v3 are linearly dependent.

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w = (x1 , x2 ) = x1 (1, 0) + x2 (0, 1)

thus, S is the spanning set of R2.

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w = (x1 , x2 ) = a(1, 2) + b(1, 1) = (a + b, 2a + b)

S spans R3 if the system

α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 0, 2) = (x1 , x2 , x3 )

is consistent for all x1, x2, x3.

This system may have no solution or may

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Let A = v1T v2T . . . vm

Note. n is the number of coordinates of

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BASIS FOR A VECTOR SPACE

Indeed, ∀x = (x1, x2, x3) ∈ R3 we have

in exactly one way. The scalars x1, x2, . . . , xn

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THE CHANGE-OF-BASIS PROBLEM

If B = {e1, e2, . . . , en} and B0 = {e10 , e20 , . . . , en0 } are 2

Suppose that there is a relation between B

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= x10 (s11 e1 + s21 e2 + . . . + sn1 en ) + x20 (s12 e1 + s22 e2 +