OLD TESTAMENT ESSAYS 13/3 (2000), 269-282 269

Isaiah 37:21-35: Sennacherib's siege of Jerusalem

as a challenge to the honour of Yahweh

P J Botha (UP)
ABSTRACT
The aim of this short paper is to investigate the socio-political role played by
honour and shame in the description of Sennacherib's assault on Jerusalem
in Isaiah 37:21-35. In this way it is hoped that the ideological (and
theological) contours of this pericope may be enhanced and that the
importance of these social values in understanding the politics of the situation
may come into stronger relief

A INTRODUCTION

Honour and shame are variously described as 'pivotal' (Malina 1981:25) or 'core'
(Plevnik 1998:106) or 'central' (Moxnes 1996:33) social values of the ancient
Mediterranean world. During the nineteen sixties, the British social anthropologist
Julian Pitt-Rivers drew attention to the importance of honour and shame in
understanding the social relations of a village in Spain (Moxnes 1996:24). Other
studies in this field led to the view that almost all cultures bordering on the Medi-
terranean Sea display the same value system based on the complementary codes of
honour and shame. Although there are also differences between modern and ancient
Mediterranean societies, the importance of these social values seems to extend also
to ancient times. It was soon recognised therefore that this model could be applied to
almost all ancient near eastern societies where the family and the clan were important
units of social organisation, such as those described in the New Testament (Moxnes
 270 ISAIAH 37:21-35: SENNACHERIB'S SIEGE OF JERUSALEM

1996:28) and also the Old Testament. It can now be safely stated that recognition of
the importance of the social values of honour and shame is a sine qua non for under-
standing not only the social life of ancient Israel, but also almost every chapter of the
entire Old Testament.
Honour as a value of such Biblical societies was described by Malina as the
'socially proper attitudes and behavior in the area where the three lines of power,
sexual status, and religion intersect' (Malina 1981:27). Religion in this regard
concerns the proper attitudes of respect and homage in relation to those who control
one's existence, namely powerful people and ultimately God. Honour is therefore not
only a social value, but also a theological value. The aim of this short paper is to
investigate the social and theological role played by honour and its inverse social
value, shame, in the description of Sennacherib's assault on Jerusalem as described
in Isaiah 37:21-35. In this way it is hoped that the ideological (and theological)
contours of this pericope may be enhanced and that the importance of these social
values in understanding the politics of the situation may be highlighted.

B STICHOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF ISAIAH 37:21-35

And Isaiah, the son of Amos, sent to 21 ‫קזלח ןשץמזו כנ־אמוץ אל־חןק;הו לאמיר‬
Hezekiah:
‫בה־אסר יהוה אלהי ??}־אל‬ 'Thus says Yahweh, the God of Israel
‫ללת אלי אל־סןסריב קולך אשור‬9‫הת‬ concerning what you have prayed to me
about Sennacherib the king of Assyria.
‫ר יהןה ?}ליו‬3‫זוז הד^ר אשר־ד‬ This is the word which Yahweh has spoken
concerning him:
A 1 She laughs at you, she mocks you,
22 9‫ןהלןזלןנגהלף‬
the virgin daughter of Zion; ?‫כת־ציון‬ ‫ולת‬
2 ‫אחו־יף ראש הףץה‬ she wags her head behind you —
3
‫תלייזי^ם‬ the daughter of Jerusalem.
Whom have you mocked and reviled?23 3 ‫ן ןגךןיון‬1?‫את־מי חר‬
‫ועל־כד הוימחתה קול‬ Against whom have you raised your voice
4 ‫ךתקןא ?!רום עיגיף‬ and haughtily lifted your eyes?
‫אל־קדוש לקזךאל־‬ Against the Holy One of Israel?
 OLD TESTAMENT ESSAYS 13/3 (2000), 269-282 271

,
B 5 ‫לד ןג^ךף חרפת אדן‬3 24 By your servants you have mocked my Lord,
‫ותאמר ברב רככי‬ and you have said, With my many chariots
6 ‫אני ץליתי מרום הרים‬ 1 have gone up to the heights of the
mountains,
‫תי ללנון‬3‫?ך‬ to the far recesses of Lebanon;
7 ‫ואכלת קומת ארזיו‬ I felled its tallest cedars,
‫מבחר בריקזיו‬ its choicest cypresses;
8 ‫ואבוא מרום קצו‬ I came to its remotest height,
:‫לער כרמלו‬ its forest-like cypresses,
9 ‫י וקזתיחי מים‬1‫אני קךי‬ 25 I myself dug and drank water
‫ואחרב ?כפ־סץמי‬ and I dried up with the sole of my foot,
:‫ל יארימצור‬3 all the streams of Masor
II C 10 ‫סליא״זימעת למרחוק‬ 26 Have you not heard? Long ago
‫אוו^ה ץקזיתי‬ I determined it
11 ‫מימי קדם וי*ךתיה‬ from days of old I planned it,
‫עתה הבאתיה‬ now I bring it to pass,
12 ‫יהדי להקזאות גלים}*•ים‬ that you should make to crash into rubble
:‫ערים ב^רות‬ fortified cities.
13 ‫ויקזכיל׳ן קצלי־;ד‬ 27 Their inhabitants shorn of strength,
‫חתו ובשו‬ were shattered and shamed,
14 ‫היו עשב קזדה‬ they became like plants of the field
‫דשא‬. ‫וירק‬ and like tender grass,
15 ‫חציר גגות ושלמה‬ like grass on the house tops, that dry out
.:‫להגי קמה‬ before the east wind.
D 16 ‫וקילתף וזנאתף‬ 28 Your sitting down and going out
‫דעתי‬:‫ובואך‬ and your coming in I know
:‫ואת הייחור אלי‬ and your raging against me.
17 ‫?עז התרגזף אלי‬ 29 Because your raging against me
‫ושאננך ץלה ?אזןי‬ and your haughtiness has risen in my ears,
18 ‫ושמתי חחי לאהף‬ I will put my hook in your nose
‫ומחגי בשפתיך‬ and my bit in your mouth,
19 ‫והשיביתיך כןיךך‬ and I will turn you back on the way
:‫ ויה‬1‫אשר־?או‬ by which you came.
III E 20 ‫תה־לך האות‬ 30 And this shall be the sign for you:
‫סיח‬9 ‫אכול הקזןה‬ One year they will eat the second growth,
272 ISAIAH 37:21-35: SENNACHERIB'S SIEGE OF JERUSALEM

‫ ה השנית קזחיס‬$ ‫י כ‬ and next year what grows from it.

21 ‫יכקזןה השלישית זרעו וקץדו‬
:‫ונסעו כךמים ואכול סךןם‬
22 ‫שאךה‬5‫ית־יהוךה ה‬3 ‫מס?ה ?ליסת‬
:‫שלש קיקק^ה ך^?ןז'ה הרי לק!זןלה‬
23 ‫א שארית‬5‫?י מירוקילם תז‬
‫וסלידה נזהר ציון‬
‫ ם‬:‫קגאת מזוה ^ א ו ת ת?שה־ז'את‬
IVF 24 ‫לכן פיה־אמר יהוה‬
‫אלימלך אשור‬
25 ‫לא ?בוא אל־העיר הזאת‬
‫ולא־יוךה קזם חץ‬
26 I?!? ‫!}ה‬3‫ולא־יקד‬
:‫ולא־ישפיך ןליה סללה‬
27 ‫כדרך <ןקזר־?א ?ה ?שוב‬
:‫ואל־העיר הזאת לא לבוא גאמ־יהוה‬
28 ‫וגנותי על־העיר הזאת להושיבה‬
‫ ס‬:‫למןנר ולמען דוד עבדי‬
But in the third year sow and harvest
and plant vineyards and eat their fruit!
31 And what has escaped from the house
of Judah, and what is left,
shall once again take root downward
and bear fruit upward.
32 For out of Jerusalem shall go forth a
remnant
and out of Mount Zion some survivors.
The zeal of Yahweh Sebaoth will
accomplish this.
33 Therefore thus says Yahweh
concerning the king of Assyria:
He shall not come into this city,
or shoot an arrow there,
or come before it with a shield,
or cast up a siege-mound against it.
34 By the way he came, he shall return
but he shall not come into this city, says
Yahweh Sebaoth.
35 For I will defend this city and save it,
for my own sake and for the sake of my
servant David.'

C HONOUR AND SHAME IN ISAIAH 37:21-35

The importance of the social values of honour and shame in this poetic composition
is suggested by the number of words in it which relate to this semantic field. These
include verbs, nouns and adjectives. In the process, descriptions of social interaction
are given which provide valuable insight into ways in which social values were
signified in the ancient Mediterranean milieu. Almost all the interactions between the
dramatis personae in this composition relate in some way or another to the social
values of honour and shame.
 OLD TESTAMENT ESSAYS 13/3 (2000), 269-282 273

The actors whose actions and words are described in this section of Isaiah 37 are:
Isaiah, the implied author;
King Hezekiah who is addressed directly in a part of the composition;
The inhabitants of Jerusalem (portrayed as a young virgin in v 22 and
referred to as 'Jerusalem', 'Mount Zion' and 'this city' in vv 32-35);
Yahweh (called the 'Holy One of Israel' in v 23 and 'my Lord' by the
author/speaker in v 24; also referred to as 'Yahweh the God of Israel' in
v 21; simply 'Yahweh' in w 21 and 33; and as 'Yahweh Sebaot' in vv 32
and 34);
Sennacherib (directly addressed and accusingly quoted in vv 23-29);
The servants of Sennacherib, representing his person (v 24);
Lebanon, Masor, and a number of fortified cities and their inhabitants
(vv 24-27); and
The remnant of Judah (vv 31-32).
The interaction between these actors in terms of honour and shame is described
below.
According to the account of Sennacherib's campaign in Judah recorded in Isaiah
36 and 37, the emperor sent an official to Jerusalem while he was stationed at
Lachish. The official came to Jerusalem with a large military force and demanded that
Hezekiah surrender. He warned the three Judean ministers who came out of the city
to speak to him that Hezekiah did not have the military power to rebel against
Assyria. He also warned them not to rely on help from Egypt, neither to rely on
Yahweh for deliverance. He accused Hezekiah of destroying the shrines of Yahweh
when he initiated his cultic reform. But in the same breath he also claimed that
Yahweh himself had told Sennacherib to attack Judah. Finally, contradicting the claim
that Yahweh had commissioned Sennacherib to conquer Judah, he warned the people
standing on the wall of Jerusalem (in Hebrew) that neither Hezekiah nor Yahweh
could save them from being captured by the Assyrian army. He compared Yahweh
274 ISAIAH 37:21-35: SENNACHERIB'S SIEGE OF JERUSALEM

to the gods of Hamath, Arpad and Sepharvaim who were incapable of saving their
followers from the Assyrian army. Later, Sennacherib also sent a letter to Hezekiah.
In it, he told Hezekiah that he must not let his God deceive him with promises of
salvation. Again he listed a number of nations whose gods could not deliver them
from the Assyrian army.
Hezekiah understood both altercations as insults to the honour of Yahweh.1 After
the visit of the envoy, he sent a message to Isaiah, telling him about the insult. Upon
receiving the letter from Sennacherib, he took it to the temple and, showing it to
Yahweh, prayed for the rescue of Jerusalem 'so that all the nations of the world will
know that Yahweh alone is God'. This phrase gives an important clue to under-
standing the thrust of that part of Chapter 37 which is under investigation here. This
section is Yahweh's official reply to Hezekiah's prayer, delivered by the prophet
Isaiah.
From Yahweh's reaction it is clear that the words of the envoy were interpreted
as a challenge to the honour of Yahweh as the guardian of Jerusalem. This was not
a challenge in the sense of the normal challenge and riposte between equals, but an
insult to the honour of Yahweh. The insult to his God was meant to be a public insult
to King Hezekiah, even though Hezekiah, in the eyes of the envoy (Is 36:9) was no
match to the lowest Assyrian official. Nevertheless, Sennacherib had made claims
about his ability to invade Jerusalem, and about the God of Israel being unable to save
the Judeans from this invasion. Should he succeed in his campaign, he would have
occasion to mock the God of Israel as he mocked the gods of other nations. Yahweh
would then seem to be powerless to save his people. In turn, the people of
Jerusalem's claim to honour was their special relationship to Yahweh. This claim
depended on evidence for God's continued interest in them. Defeat would prove
God's abandonment of them, with resultant shame (cf Plevnik 1998:108).
It seems almost impossible to solve the historical problems surrounding the
Biblical accounts of Sennacherib's campaign of 701 BCE (Childs 1967:120). But
 OLD TESTAMENT ESSAYS 13/3 (2000), 2 6 9 - 2 8 2 2 7 5

evidently Sennacherib did put an end to the siege of Jerusalem and withdrew his
forces. This must have given occasion for a good measure of ridicule against
Sennacherib, a fact which is portrayed in Isaiah 37 in the form of a prophecy about
the emperor's being prevented by Yahweh to conquer the city. Yahweh would deliver
the city for his own sake and for the sake of his servant David. In the view of the
implied author, Yahweh's honour would be saved. Jerusalem was like the virgin
daughter of Yahweh, unable to defend her own honour. It was therefore the
responsibility of Yahweh to save her from violation and so to defend his own honour.2
By describing Jerusalem as a 'virgin daughter', the implied author focuses on the fact
that the city was not violated by the Assyrian army. But sexual status in Biblical times
was primarily an expression of political and economical potential. Virginity was the
technical term for the legal eligibility of a woman to marry (Matthews & Benjamin
1995:13). When a city is described as a virgin, the implication is therefore also that
the covenant relationship with the deity was not violated. The word 'virgin' is
sometimes used in the Bible to refer to a woman whose marriage ratifies a significant
covenant for her household. The first lady or queen was sometimes called 'Virgin'
and her capital city, such as Samaria or Jerusalem, was called the 'Virgin of Israel'. 3
What are the honour and shame issues at stake in this poetic composition?

1 The text focuses on Sennacherib's display of arrogance towards and his

lack of respect for Yahweh

The rhetorical questions in verse 23, introduced by the interrogative pronoun ‫ מי‬and
forming a threefold parallelism, are meant to illustrate that it is the honour of Yahweh
that was impugned by Sennacherib, not that of Jerusalem. In all, six expressions are
used in verses 23 to 24 and 28 to 29 to describe the arrogance of the Assyrian. He is
said to have mocked Yahweh ( ‫ ח ר ף‬Pi, vv 23 and 24), to have reviled him (®)‫גד‬
v 23), to have raised his voice against Yahweh ( ‫ ק ו ל‬D ‫ הר י‬v 23),4 haughtily to have
276 ISAIAH 37:21-35: SENNACHERIB'S SIEGE OF JERUSALEM

lifted the eyes (] ",V ‫ נ ש א מ ר ו ם‬v 23), and to have raged against him (T ‫ ר ג‬Hit inf,
vv 28 and 29). Indeed, his haughtiness rose into the ears of Yahweh (] ‫ע ל ה ב א ל‬
‫[ שאג‬, V 29). The mocking is once described as being effected through Sennacherib's
servants, a remark which adds to the severity of the insult. The Assyrian king's attack
on Jerusalem and his threats are therefore seen as an insult to the honour of God. In
this regard it is significant that Hezekiah tore his clothes in shock and grief when he
heard the words of the Assyrian envoy, that he put on sackcloth and consulted
Yahweh through Isaiah (Is 37:1-4).
Although Sennacherib may have perceived his attack on Jerusalem as a challenge
to the honour of Hezekiah and the inhabitants of the city, it is interpreted differently
by the author. It is of course true that there was a very close relationship between
Yahweh and Jerusalem. One is reminded of this truth in the final stanza where the
divine promise is given that Yahweh will defend and save the city for his own sake
(honour) and for the sake of his servant David (Is 37:35).5
One of the most important functions of a prophet in Israel was to respond to the
political and economic policies of the monarchs of Israel and Judah (Matthews &
Benjamin 1995:214). It was a basic contention of the prophets that there was only one
relevant covenant that prescribed Israel's or Judah's course of action, namely the
covenant with Yahweh (Matthews & Benjamin 1995:222). This covenant with
Yahweh recognised him as the only monarch and therefore also as the only provider
and protector of the state (Matthews & Benjamin 1995:222). In the light of these
assumptions, it was the honour of Yahweh that was challenged by the Assyrian
assault. It stands to the credit of Hezekiah that he recognised the priority of the
covenant with Yahweh in political matters. In contrast to the response of King Ahaz
under a similar threat, Hezekiah is highly commended for his reaction of passing the
challenge on to Yahweh. Ahaz is severely criticised for attempting to resolve the
matter all by himself (Is 7:1-25; cf Matthews & Benjamin 1995:219-226).
 OLD TESTAMENT ESSAYS 13/3 (2000), 269-282 277

2 Sennacherib's display of pride about his military successes is further

interpreted as a 'mocking' of Yahweh

This refers in the first place to the claim that Sennacherib was responsible for his own
success. Note in this regard the emphasising use of the first person singular personal
pronoun in verses 24 and 25: ‫'( א] י ע ל י ת י‬I myself have gone up') , ‫ו ש ת י ת‬
‫'( ק ר ח י‬I myself dug and drank'). The boasting is further enhanced through a number
of nouns which serve as adjectives describing the magnificent achievements of
Sennacherib, such as 'with my many chariots' ( , ‫ ) ב ר ב ר כ ב‬, 'the heights of the
mountains' ( ‫ ) מ ר ו ם ה ר י ם‬, 'the far recesses ( ‫ ) י ר כ ת י‬of Lebanon', 'its tallest
cedars' (‫ ) ק ו מ ת א ר ז י ו‬, 'its choicest cypresses' (‫ ו‬, ‫ ) מ ב ח ר ב ר ש‬, 'its remotest
height'(‫)מר ים קצי‬, et cetera. The repetitive use of 'tall' and 'height' suggests the
aspirations to honour and therefore the arrogance of Sennacherib. There may also be
an allusion to the idea of a conscious, deliberate entry into the garden of God which
was thought of as a wooded garden (Kaiser 1980:396).6

3 Sennacherib displays contempt for the conquered lands, adding to the

idea that he is ignorant of Yahweh's role in history

For the purpose of enhancing the claim to honour, it is important that the excellence
of what was achieved by Sennacherib should be underlined. But, on the other hand,
he himself himself is depicted having contempt for the conquered areas. This is the
meaning of the statement in verse 25 where the author has Sennacherib boasting that
'I dried up with the sole of my foot (‫ )ו א ח ר ב ב כ ף ״ פ ע ם י‬all the streams of Masor.
'Foot' is symbolic of 'contempt' in this instance.7 But Yahweh makes it clear that
this honour which Sennacherib claims, was not acquired but was granted to him by
Yahweh. The first person verbal forms in verse 26 are meant to form a contrast to
those in verses 24 and 25: 'Long ago I determined it, from days of old I planned it,
278 ISAIAH 37:21-35: SENNACHERIB'S SIEGE OF JERUSALEM

now I bring it to pass, that you should make to crash into rubble fortified cities'. The
shame that falls on the inhabitants of those cities (they become 'shorn of strength',
'dismayed and shamed' v 27) is only relative. Sennacherib himself is like tender grass
(v 27) before the Lord of all, the God of Israel who has predetermined these incidents
a long time ago.

4 Sennacherib's haughtiness is to be answered with subjugation

by Yahweh

Yahweh's reaction to the haughtiness of Sennacherib's claim and his arrogant actions,
is to promise salvation for Jerusalem and incapacitation of the Assyrian army's
power. A fourfold repetition of the word 'not' in verse 33 depicts the power of
Yahweh to defend the city. The actions which will be denied to the Assyrian forces,
are listed in reverse order: Sennacherib shall not enter the city, or shoot an arrow
towards it, or appear before it with shields or siege-machines; he will not even cast
a siege-mound against the city (v 33). He will have to return by the way he came
(v 34). But, even more embarrassing, he will be forced to return: Yahweh will put
his hook in Sennacherib's nose and his bit in Sennacherib's mouth and turn him back
on his way (v 29). He will be treated like a wild animal8 or a horse or, for that
matter, like one of the many exiles he had sent off to Assyria. In terms of normal
social interaction, the references to facial elements such as 'nose' and 'mouth' serve
to signify dishonour and thus shame.9

5 When Sennacherib has to withdraw his forces, there is a display

of derision towards him on the part of Jerusalem

In everyday life, derision would occur when someone made a claim to honour and
could not sustain that claim.10 The implication of verse 22 is therefore that Senna-
cherib made a claim to honour and could not sustain that claim. He will lose honour
through not being able to invade Jerusalem as he boasted he would. Such derision is
only possible after someone has failed to sustain a claim, therefore the conceivable
circumstances in which this verse originated, would be after the withdrawal of
Sennacherib. In this case, it is a young virgin, the city of Jerusalem, who had been
threatened by violation, who mocks her would-be attacker. She js portrayed as a girl
who openly despises (H f ‫ ב‬v 22) and mocks ( ‫ ל ע ג‬v 22) the aggressor. She wags her
head behind his back in derision ( ‫ נ ו ע‬Hi v 22)." That a young girl openly displays
contempt in this way, signifies the impotence of Sennacherib to do what he has
claimed to be able to do. The powerful aggressor has been humiliated.

6 There is a display of respect for Yahweh on the part of the

implied author and king Hezekiah

The contempt for Sennacherib should be seen in the context of respect for Yahweh.
He is referred to by the implied author as the 'Holy One of Israel' (v 23) and as 'my
Lord' (v 24). Hezekiah responds in a way which shows his conviction that Yahweh
is the only true monarch, that the challenge to the city is in fact a challenge to his
honour and not that of the king. The view of the implied author, expressed in the
address of Yahweh to Sennacherib, is that it is not through his own ability that
Sennacherib was able to subdue all those kingdoms, but through the grace granted
him by Yahweh. There is an ironic contrast between Sennacherib's boastful claims
and Yahweh's corrective note that he had planned these victories a long time ago.

D CONCLUSION

In conclusion, I should like to make a few remarks about the difference in focus
between the functioning of honour and shame in Sennacherib's reliefs of the conquest
of Lachish and the description of the deliverance of Jerusalem in Isaiah 37. The
280 ISAIAH 37:21-35: SENNACHERIB'S SIEGE OF JERUSALEM

Lachish reliefs are all about the honour of Sennacherib - his power and his exalted
position. Religion is (literally) relegated to the background.12 The Assyrian gods are
present on the periphery, even though they are referred to in an honourable way. The
same claim to honour is also present in Isaiah 37. In this regard, the two 'texts'
illuminate each other beautifully. But the Isaian passage is thoroughly religious in
nature. It is about the honour of Yahweh. Sennacherib's achievements are put in
theological perspective. His claims to honour are portrayed as arrogance and
blasphemy against the God of Israel. For that reason, he is humiliated and put to
shame in the same way that he was portrayed as putting others to shame in the reliefs.
He has not taken into account that the God of Israel is the real force behind history.
He has not taken into account that the honour of Yahweh is closely linked to the fate
of Jerusalem. The response that Isaiah 37 seeks from its audience is the reaction of
Hezekiah: Shock at the blasphemy, self-humiliation before the awesome power of
Israel's God, and satisfaction at the fulfilment of Hezekiah's request that they be
rescued from the Assyrians 'so that all the nations of the world will know that you
alone are God' (Is 37:20).

NOTES

1 Cf my discussion of Hezekiah's reaction as being proper in these circumstances and his being
commended for this by the Deuteronomistic Historian (Botha 2000:36-49).
2 'Protecting its virgins was a matter of honor for each household. The measure of this honor was
the evidence of virginity on the part of the bride at the time when the marriage was
consummated' (Matthews & Benjamin 1995:178).
3 Examples in Is 7:14, Jr 31:4, 21; Am 5:2; Jr 18:13. Cf Matthews & Benjamin (1995: 177-178).
4 The expression normally means to shout, but here it focuses on the arrogance of the Assyrian.
'Sanherib schreit so laut, als hatte er Vollmacht, jedermann Befehle zu erteilen . . . .'
(Wildberger 1982:1431).
5 Theoretically, Yahweh is barred from responding to a challenge to his honour because of his
superior status. In such circumstances, it is expected that some or other minor should take up
 OLD TESTAMENT ESSAYS 13/3 (2000), 269-282 281

the challenge because the challenge of the superior is intertwined with his own honour. This
is indeed the case with Hezekiah, although Yahweh himself takes the initiative. Cf Malina
(1981:39).
6 Cf also Ezk 28:13 and 31:8-9.
7 This claim attributed to Sennacherib put him in direct competition with the actions of God (cf Is
19:6; 51:10) and so unmasks his pride (Kaiser 1980:396). This is probably the intention of the
author, and not the (mistaken) assumption that Sennacherib invaded Egypt (Kaiser 1980:396).
8 According to Kilian (1994:209) he will be treated like an unreasonable animal since he could
not understand himself to be an instrument in the hand of Yahweh.
9 'The head and front of the head (face) play prominent roles . . . . Honor and dishonor are
displayed when the head is crowned, anointed, touched, covered, uncovered, made bare by
shaving, cut off, struck, or slapped.' (Malina 1981:35).
10 People get shamed when they aspire to a certain status and this status is denied them by public
opinion (Malina 1981:46). Ridicule and derision are thus forms of shaming a person.
11 Wagging or shaking the head (Lm 2:15; Jr 18:16), sticking out the tongue (Ps 22:8), and
sneering (Ps 44:15) are all different ways of mocking someone who has been shamed.
12 Cf Ussishkin (1982:77). Compare the reliefs to, for instance, the Black Obelisk where Jehu is
paying tribute to Shalmaneser III with the divine symbols clearly and centrally displayed.

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P J Botha, Department of Ancient Language, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002,

Republic of South Africa. E-mail: bothapj@libarts.up.ac.za