Carbon sequestration

Dr. V. Sai Saraswathi,

Asst. Prof. (Sr.)
VIT University, Vellore.

Carbon sequestration is the general term used for the capture and long-term storage of carbon
dioxide. Capture can occur at the point of emission (e.g. from power plants) or through
natural processes (such as photosynthesis), which remove carbon dioxide from the earth's
atmosphere and which can be enhanced by appropriate management practices. Sequestration
methods include:
 enhancing the storage of carbon in soil (soil sequestration);
 enhancing the storage of carbon in forests and other vegetation (plant sequestration);
 storing carbon in underground geological formations (geosequestration);
 storing carbon in the ocean (ocean sequestration); and
 subjecting carbon to chemical reactions to form inorganic carbonates (mineral
carbonation).

Soil sequestration
It is estimated that soils contain between 700 gigatonnes (Gt, 109 tonnes) and 3000 Gt of
carbon, or more than three times the amount of carbon stored in the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide. However, most agricultural soils have lost 50–70 per cent of the original soil organic
carbon pool that was present in the natural ecosystem prior to clearing and cultivation. When
forests are converted to agricultural land, the soil carbon content decreases. Agricultural
usages such as grazing, harvesting and tillage also tend to reduce soil carbon, as does
increased erosion that often results.
Given the enormous carbon storage capacity of soils, it has been suggested that with
appropriate changes in management practices, they could represent a significant sink for
atmospheric CO2. Managing agricultural soils to increase their organic carbon content can
also improve soil health and productivity by adding essential nutrients and increasing their
water-holding capacity.
Management practices that can retain or increase the carbon content of soils include low-
tillage or no tillage, use of manures and compost, conversion of monoculture systems to
diverse systems, crop rotations and winter cover crops, and establishing perennial vegetation
on steep slopes.. The potential increase in storage through such methods is limited by soil
type, which determines the carbon-holding capacity, and climate, which determines the rate
of decomposition. Soil microbial activity increases with soil moisture and temperature, and
increasing average temperatures due to climate change may be expected to increase the
turnover rate of labile carbon in soils.
An alternative and promising approach, which is the subject of much current research, is the
use of 'biochar' to increase the soil carbon sink. Biochar is a type of charcoal that results from
heating organic materials such as crop residue, wood chips, municipal waste or manure in an
oxygen-limited environment (a process known as 'pyrolysis').

Plant sequestration
Plants use the energy of sunlight to convert CO2 from the atmosphere to carbohydrates for
their growth and maintenance, via the process of photosynthesis. Natural terrestrial biological
sinks for CO2 already sequester about one third of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel
combustion. These natural sinks are a transient response to higher atmospheric CO2
concentration, which enhances the rate of photosynthesis.
The uptake of CO2 by vegetation will decrease with time as plants grow to their full capacity
and become limited by other resources such as nutrients, and regrowth potential in previously
cleared or sparsely vegetated areas is fulfilled. Biological storage could be enhanced through
agricultural and forestry practices and revegetation, but the capacity is limited and longevity
of storage depends on the final fate of the timber or plant material.
However, carbon sequestration from revegetation and plantation programs could provide a
significant shorter-term contribution to climate change mitigation.

Geosequestration
Geosequestration is the injection and storage of greenhouse gases underground, out of contact
with the atmosphere. The most suitable sites are deep geological formations, such as depleted
oil and natural gas fields, or deep natural reservoirs filled with saline water (saline aquifers).
Though geosequestration has not yet been commercially demonstrated, there has been
considerable knowledge gained through the widespread use in the oil industry of underground
CO2 injection for enhanced oil recovery (EOR), which is directly applicable to
geosequestration. EOR involves injecting CO2 into the oil-containing reservoir to pressurise
the reservoir and improve the rate of flow of oil. The displaced oil is pushed through the well
bore, while most of the CO2 remains underground in the reservoir.
Several demonstration sites have been established to investigate the feasibility and safety of
geosequestration. The longest-running such site has been injecting and storing CO2
underground in the North Sea since 1996 (the Sleipner project), storing about one million
tonnes of CO2 per year. The largest geosequestration demonstration project, the Weyburn
project in Canada, uses CO2 injection for enhanced oil recovery and injects about 1.5 million
tonnes of CO2 per year. In Australia, the Otway Project in Victoria commenced in April 2008
and is injecting about 4500 tonnes of CO2 per month into a depleted gas reservoir about two
kilometres underground.

Ocean sequestration
The ocean represents the largest carbon store on earth. Before the industrial revolution it
contained 60 times as much carbon as the atmosphere and 20 times as much carbon as the
land vegetation and soil. The ocean has been a significant sink for anthropogenic CO2
emissions of similar magnitude to the land sink but, as with the land sink, the ocean sink will
decrease in strength.

It has been proposed to bypass the natural ocean CO2 uptake mechanism and inject CO2
directly into the deep ocean to utilise its enormous storage capacity. Models suggest that CO2
injected into the deep ocean would remain isolated from the atmosphere for several centuries,
but on the millennial time scale it would recycle into the atmosphere. Considerable
uncertainties exist in our understanding of deep ocean chemistry and biology and the
potential adverse impacts on ocean ecosystems.

Another possible way to enhance the ocean carbon sink that has been proposed involves large
scale ocean fertilisation with iron to stimulate phytoplankton growth and photosynthesis.

Mineral sequestration
Mineral sequestration (otherwise known as mineral carbonation) involves reaction of CO2
with metal oxides that are present in common, naturally occurring silicate rocks. The process
mimics natural weathering phenomena, and results in natural carbonate products that are
stable on a geological time scale. There are sufficient reserves of magnesium and calcium
silicate deposits to fix the CO2 that could be produced from all fossil fuel resources. Though
the weathering of CO2 into carbonates does not require energy, the natural reaction is slow;
hence as a storage option the process must be greatly accelerated through energy-intensive
preparation of the reactants.
 Carbon Credits – Indian Scenario

Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to
mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs). One carbon credit is
equal to reduction of one ton of carbon dioxide, or in some markets, carbon dioxide
equivalent gases. The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial
processes in the direction of low emissions of GHGs into the atmosphere.

During Kyoto protocol, allocation of carbon credits or Kyoto credits was made to different
countries. Each credit gives the owner the right to emit one metric tonne of carbon dioxide or
other equivalent greenhouse gas. If a country exceeds its emission quota, it has to pay for it in
three possible mechanisms to get back the credits, and thus GHG emissions become
expensive for the emitters. The three mechanisms are as follows:
Mechanims I – Emission Trading: Countries that have not used up their quotas can sell their
unused allowances as carbon credits, while others that are about to exceed their quotas can
buy them.
Mechanism II - Clean Development Mechanism: Developed countries (responsible for high
GHGemissions, listed as Annex I countries) can start GHG reduction projects in relatively
un-developed country (listed as non-annex countries). The purpose of this mechanism is to
encourage clean development in developing countries. CDM rights are given only to Annex I
countries.
Mechanism III – Joint Implementation Mechanism: A developed country with relatively
high cost of setting up of GHG reduction project, will set it in some other developed country.
This way, countries can reduce their GHG reduction costs at the same time contribute to
Global GHG reduction. An example for a JI project is replacing coal thermal project with a
more efficient combined heat and power project. At present Russia and Ukraine are having
highest number of JI projects.

Carbon credits can be gained even by individuals within a country by developing

projects that reduce GHG emissions. Several private and government organizations are
existing now for sale and purchase of carbon credits.

The actual value of each credit may vary, subject to the market position. Currently its value is
about 12-20 Euros.
Indian Scenario:
India has generated approximately 30 Million carbon credits and approximately 140 million
in run, the second highest transacted volumes in the world. India’s carbon market is growing
faster than even information technology, bio technology and BPO sectors as 850 projects
with a huge investment of Rs 650,000 million are in pipeline. As per the Prime Minister's
Council on Climate Change, the revenue from 200 projects is estimated at Rs. 97 billion till
2012.
India has been able to register approximately 350 projects spread across various sectors with
major dominance of renewable energy, energy efficiency and biomass energy projects.

Renewable energy status in India

Source/Systems Approximate potential Achievements

Biogas plants (nos.) 12 million 3.50 million
Improved cook stoves (nos.) 120 million 35.2 million
Biomass power/ cogeneration 19500 MW 450 MW
Biomass gasifiers 52 MW
Wind energy 45000 MW 1702 MW*
Small hydro power 15000 MW 1461.43 MW
Solar PV 20 MW/sq. km 96 MWp
Waste-to-energy 1700 MWe 22 MWe
Solar water heating (collector area) 140 sq. m 0.65 sq. m

Carbon, like any other commodity, has begun to be traded on India's Multi Commodity
Exchange and has become first exchange in Asia to trade carbon credits.