Jairam Arts& Science College, Salem - 8 Staff Code: Sbua16 Class: Iii Bba Subject: Training and Development DATE: 13.06.17

TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT III BBA
JAIRAM ARTS& SCIENCE COLLEGE, SALEM – 8

STAFF CODE: SBUA16 CLASS: III BBA
SUBJECT : TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT DATE: 13.06.17
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION UNIT I
Training and development describes the formal, ongoing efforts that are made within organizations to
improve the performance and self-fulfillment of their employees through a variety of educational methods and
programmes. In the modern workplace, these efforts have taken on a broad range of applications—from
instruction in highly specific job skills to long-term professional development. In recent years, training and
development has emerged as a formal business function, an integral element of strategy, and a recognized
profession with distinct theories and methodologies. More and more companies of all sizes have embraced
"continual learning" and other aspects of training and development as a means of promoting employee growth
and acquiring a highly skilled work force. In fact, the quality of employees and the continual improvement of
their skills and productivity through training are now widely recognized as vital factors in ensuring the long-
term success and profitability of small businesses. "Create a corporate culture that supports continual learning,"
counseled Charlene Marmer Solomon15 in Workforce. "Employees today must have access to continual
training of all types just to keep up. If you don't actively stride against the momentum of skills deficiency, you
lose ground. If your workers stand still, your firm will lose the competency race."
CONCEPTS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
TRAINING- It is about developing employees as an individual to make them capable and confident in their
jobs, and consequently in their life. Thus it is an organized process for increasing the knowledge and skill of the
employees. Consequently it is a process aimed at changing the behavior in such a way that the consequence
would be useful for the up-liftment of the organization. Training is about developing people as an individual
and helping them to become more confident and competent in their lives and in their jobs. The learning process
is at the core of training and the ways of and opportunities for learning are numerous and varied.
DEFINITION OF TRAINING
Training is the art of increasing knowledge & skills of an employee for doing a particular job. (By
Flippo)
According to Wayne F Cascio, ―Training consists of planned programme designed to improve

performance at the individual, group, and /or organizational levels. Improved performance, in turn, implies
that there have been measurable changes in knowledge, skills attitude, and/or social behavior.
DEVELOPMENT is related to enhancing the conceptual skills of the employee, which helps individual
towards achieving maturity and self actualization. In the words of Michael Armstrong19 ― Employee
development, often referred to as human resource development (HRD) is about the provision of learning,
development and training opportunities in order to improve individual, team and organizational performance.
DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
According to Bernard M Bass & James A. Vaughan, “Development implies the nature and change
induced among employees through process of education and training”.
In the words of Harold Koontz and Cyril O. Donnel Managerial development concerns the means
by which a person cultivates those skills whose application will improve the efficiency and effectiveness
with which the anticipated results of a particular organizational segment are achieved.
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OBJECTIVES OF TRAINING
The objectives of training can vary, depending upon a large number of factors. The objectives depend on the
nature of the organization where training has to be provided, the skills desired and the current skill levels. It is
difficult to draw generalizations of the objectives of training; still they can be stated as under:
 To bring about change in the attitudes of the workers towards fellow workers, supervisor and the
organization.
 To improve the overall performance of the organization.
 To make the employees handle materials, machines and equipment efficiently and thus to check wastage
of time and resources.
 To reduce the number of accidents by providing safety training to employees.
 To prepare employees for higher jobs by developing advanced skills in them.
 To prepare the employee both new and old to meet the present as well as the changing requirements of
the job and the organization.
 To prevent obsolescence.
 To impart the new entrants the basic knowledge and skill they need for an intelligent performance of
definite job.
 To prepare employees for higher level tasks.
 To assist employees to function more effectively in their present positions by exposing them to the latest
concepts, information and techniques and developing the skills they will need in their particular fields.
 To build up a second line of competent officers and prepare them to occupy more responsible
positions.
 To broaden the minds of senior managers by providing them with opportunities for an interchange of
experiences within and outside with a view to correcting the narrowness of outlook that may arise
from .over specialization.
 To develop the potentialities of people for the next level job.
 To ensure smooth and efficient working of a department.
 To ensure economical output of required quality.
 To promote individual and collective morale, a sense of responsibility, co-operative attitudes and good
relationships.
AREAS OF TRAINING
Organization provides training to their employees in the following areas:
 Company Policies and Procedures: This area of training is to be provided with a view to acquainting
the new employee with the Company Rules, Practices, Procedures, Tradition, Management,
Organization Structure, and Environment Product! Services offered by the company etc. This
acquaintance enables the new employee to adjust himself with the changing situations. Information
regarding company rules and policies creates favorable attitudes of confidence in the minds of new
employee about the company and its products/services, as well as it develops in him a sense of respect
for the existing employees of the company and the like. The company also provides first hand
information to the employee about the skills needed by the company, its development programmes,
quality of products/services and the like. This enables the new employees. To know his share of
contribution to the organization’s growth and development.
 Training in Specific Skills: This area of training is to enable the employee more effective on the job.
The trainer trains the employee regarding. Various skills necessary to do the actual job. For example, the
clerk in the bank should be trained in the skills of making entries correctly in the edge, skills and
arithmetical calculations, quick comparison of figures, entries and the like. Similarly, the technical
officers are to be trained in the skills of project appraisal, supervision, follow-up and the like.
 Human Relations Training: Human relations training assume greater significance in organizations as
employees have to maintain human relations not only with other employees but also. With their
customers. Employees are to be trained in the areas of self-learning, interpersonal competence, group
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dynamics, perception, leadership styles, motivation, grievance redress, disciplinary procedure, and the
like. This training enables the employees for better team work, which leads to improved efficiency and
productivity of the organization.
 Problem Solving Training: Most of the organizational problems are common to the employees dealing
the same activity at different levels of the organization. Further some of the problems of different
managers may have the same root cause. Hence, management may call together all managerial
personnel to discuss common problems so as to arrive at effective solutions across the table. This not
only helps in solving the problems but also serves as a forum for the exchange of ideas and information
that could be utilized. The trainer has to organize such meetings, train and encourage the trainees to
participate actively in such meetings.
 Managerial and Supervisory Training: Even the non-managers sometimes perform managerial and
supervisory functions like planning, decision-making, organizing, maintaining inter-personal relations,
directing and controlling. Hence, management has to train the employee in managerial and supervisory
skills also.
 Apprentice Training: The Apprentice Act, 1961 requires industrial units of specified industries to
provide training in basic skills and knowledge in specified trades to educated unemployed /apprentices
with a view to improving their employment opportunities or to enable them to start their own industry.
This type of training generally ranges between one year to four years. This training is generally used for
providing technical Knowledge in the areas like trades, crafts
TRAINING, DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION

No longer do the organizations talk of training in isolation. It is usually addressed along with
development. While referring to the conjugation of the two processes, Dale Yoder has observed “The use of the
terms training and development in today’s employment setting is far more appropriate than ‘training’ alone
since human resources can exert their full potential only when the learning process goes far beyond simple
routine”.
Although the terms training and development are used together, they are often confused. Training means
learning the basic skills and knowledge necessary for a particular job or a group of jobs. In other words, training
is the act of increasing the knowledge for doing a particular job. But development refers to the growth of an
individual in all respects. An organization works for the development of its executives or potential executives in
order to enable them to be more effective in performing the various functions of management.
Training
 Training means learning skills and knowledge for doing a particular job and increases skills required for a
job.
 Training generally imparts specific skills to the employees.
 Training is concerned with maintaining and improving current job performance. Thus, it has a short-term
perspective.
 Training is job centered in nature.
 The role of trainer or supervisor is very important in training.
Development
 Development refers to the growth of an employee in all respects. It is more concerned with shaping the
attitudes.
 Development is more general in nature and aims at overall growth of the executives.
 Development builds up competences for future performance and has a long-term perspective
 Development is career-centered in nature.
 All development is ‘self-development’ and the executive has to be internally motivated for the same.
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT
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DEVELOPMENT LEARNING
TRAINING DEVELOPMENT
DIMENSIONS
Who Non managerial Personnel Managerial Personnel
What Technical & Mechanical Conceptual ideas
Why For Specific jobs For a variety of jobs
When Short term Long term
Training is also different from education in the following respects:

 Training it is concerned with increasing knowledge and skills in doing a particular job. The major burden of
training falls upon the employer. But education is broader in scope. Its purpose is not confined to
developing the individuals, but it is concerned with increasing general knowledge and understanding of total
environment.
 Education generally refers to the formal learning in a school or a college, whereas training is vocation
oriented and is generally imparted at the work place.
 Training usually has mere immediate utilitarian purpose than education.
 At times, both training and education occur at the same time. Some schools run formal vocational courses,
which can be job-oriented whereas some employee development programmes in industry have quite a wide
scope and may be viewed education.
Benefits of Training to Employers

The employers invest in training because they reap several benefits out of the exercise, which can be
summed up as under:
 Faster learning of new skills: Training helps the employers to reduce the learning time of their employees
and achieve higher standards of performance. The employees need not waste time in learning by observing
others. If a formal training programme exists in the organization, the qualified instructors will help the new
employees to acquire the skills and knowledge to do particular jobs quickly.
 Increased productivity: Training increases the skill of the new employee in while performing a particular
job. An increased skill level usually helps in increasing both quantity and quality of output. Training can be
of great help even to the existing employees. It helps them to increase their level of performance on their
present job assignments and prepares them for future assignments.
 Standardization of procedures: Training can help the standardization of operating procedures, which can
be learn by the employees. Standardization of work procedures makes high levels of performance rule
rather than exception. Employees work intelligently and make fewer mistakes when they possess the
required knowledge and skills.
 Lesser need for supervision: As a generalization, it can be stated safely that trained employees need lesser
supervision. Training does not eliminate the need for supervision, but it reduces the need for detailed and
constant supervision. A well-trained employee can be self-reliant in his/her work because s/he knows what
to do and how to do. Under such situations, close supervision might not be required.
 Economy of operations: Trained personnel will be able to make better and economical use of the materials
and the equipment and reduce wastage. In addition, the trained employees reduce the rate of accidents and
damage to machinery and equipment. Such reductions can contribute to increased cost savings and overall
economy of operations.
 Higher morale: The morale of employees is increase if they are giving proper training. A good training
programme moulds employees’ attitudes towards organizational activities and generates better cooperation
and greater loyalty. With the help of training, dissatisfactions, complaints, absenteeism and turnover can
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also be reduced among the employees. Thus, training helps in building an efficient and co-operative work
force.
 Managerial Development: The top management can identify the talent, who can be groomed for handling
positions of responsibility in the organizations. Newer talent increases the productivity of the organizations.
By providing opportunity for self-development, employees put in their best effort to contribute to the
growth of the organization.
Benefits of Training to Employees

The employees are the ultimate link in an any organization, who carry out the operations. Training can
help them in several ways, as mentioned below:
 Increasing Confidence: Training creates a feeling of confidence in the minds of employees, who feel
comfortable while handling newer challenges. It gives a feeling of safety and security to them at the
work place.
 New Skills: Training develops skills, which serves as a valuable personal asset of a worker. It remains
permanently with the worker himself.
 Career advancement: The managers can develop their skills to take up higher challenges and work in
newer job dimensions. Such an exercise leads to the career development of the employees, who can
move up the corporate hierarchy faster.
 Higher Earnings: Higher earnings are a consequence of career development. A highly trained
employee can command high salary in the job market and feel more contended.
 Resilience to change: In the fast changing times of today, training develops adaptability among
workers. The employees feel motivated to work under newer circumstances and they do not feel
threatened or resist any change. Such adaptability is essential for survival and growth of an organization
in the present times.
 Increased Safety: Trained workers handle the machines safely. They also know the use of various
safely devices in the factory, thus, they are less prone to accidents.
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME

Some of the typical steps in designing a training programme are:
 Identification of training needs.
 Setting training objectives
 Organizational set-up for training
 Training operations
 Evaluation of training
IDENTIFICATION OF TRAINING NEEDS

The present time is the age of change. In all the spheres of organizational activity, there is a very rapid
change. Technology has become the most important harbinger of the change process. In order to remain
competitive, people have to learn newer skills and keep themselves updated. This calls for a constant training.
The process of change has influenced even the process of training itself. Earlier the people were acquiring
training through apprenticeship and vocational courses, which are not sufficient in the modern era of
industrialization. It is necessary to identify the training needs because of the following reasons:
 Adoption of new techniques in an organization and introduction of modern working methods. For example,
Computerization of the office as has been done in banks, railways etc. The staff needs to be trained to
handle the newer gadgets.
 Although it is often said that workforce is cheap in India, but they do not measure up to the global standards
in terms of productivity. Poor performance by the workers as reflected by low output, lack of initiative,
incompetence, and bad decisions. This requires their systematic training.
 Wide gaps exist between what workers should be doing and what they are doing.
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 Analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of an organization may pinpoint the areas of weaknesses, which
need to be handled seriously.
 Organizational Analysis: Organizational analysis is basically a systematic study of an organization’s

objectives, resources, resource allocation and utilization, growth potential and its environment. Its purpose
is to determine where training emphasis should be placed in the organization for increasing organizational
effectiveness. Organizational analysis involves the following elements:
 Analysis of Objectives: The long-term and short-term objectives and their relative priorities should be
properly analyzed. Specific goals for various departments should be stated which will serve as means
for achieving the overall organizational objectives. The management would have to examine what are
the specific training inputs that would contribute towards the achievements of these objectives.
Fig: Design of a Training Programme
 Resource Utilization Analysis: The allocation of human and physical resources and their efficient
utilization in meeting the operational targets should be analyzed. In order to examine the need for
training, it should be found out whether adequate numbers of personnel are available to ensure the
fulfillment of the goals or not. Also, it is important to know whether the personnel performance is up to
the required standards.
 Climate Analysis. : An organization’s climate reflects the attitudes of its members with regards to trust,
loyalty, openness, commitment to organizational goals. Analysis of an organization’s climate
determines whether the environment, when analyzed in different departments is conducive to the
fulfillment of their goals. This will help in knowing areas where training is needed to improve the
climate of the organization.
 Task Analysis. It is a systematic analysis of jobs to identify job contents, knowledge, skills and aptitudes
required to perform the job. Particular attention should be paid to the tasks to be performed, the methods to
be used, the way employees learn these methods and the performance standards required of employees.
Questionnaires, interviews, personnel records, observation and other methods can be used to collect
information about jobs in the organization.
In task analysis, the main focus is on the job or task. Task analysis requires the study of various types of
skills and training required to perform to the job effectively.
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 Manpower Analysis. The quality of manpower required by the organization has to be carefully analyzed. It
has to be done in the light of both internal and external environment of the organization. The economic,
social, technological and political environment of the organization should be properly scanned to determine
the quality of human resources desired. To achieve these quality standards, specific training needs should be
determined on the following lines :
 Specific areas where individuals need training,
 The capability of present workforce to learn new skills and behaviors,
 The time frame within which training must be imparted, and
 Job designing and redesigning, introduction of new work methods and technology.
TYPES OF TRAINING
Training can be classified into many types, depending upon several bases. On the basis of purpose, several
types of training programmes, which are not mutually exclusive, are offered to the employees. They invariably
overlap and employ many common techniques. Some of the important types of training programmes are as
follows:
 Orientation or Induction Training: Induction relates to introducing or orienting a new employee to the
organization. When a new employee joins any organization, he needs to be acquainted with its procedures,
rules and regulations. He must be helped to familiarize himself with the work environment and with his
fellow employees. It is better to give him a friendly welcome when he joins the organization, get him
introduced to the organization and help him to get a general idea about the rules and regulations, working
conditions, etc. of the organization.
Employee orientation or induction training basically deals with the introduction of the organization to
the newly employed person. The purpose is to give a ‘bird’s eye view’ of the organization where he has to
work. It is a very short and informative type of training given immediately after recruitment. It creates a
feeling of involvement in the minds of newly appointed employees.
 Job Training: When an employee joins an organization, he undergoes job training, which relates to the
specific job, which the worker has to perform. It gives information about machines, process of production,
instructions to be followed, and methods to be used and so on. It develops skills and confidence among the
workers and enables them to perform the job efficiently. Job training is the most common form of the
formal in-plant training programmes. It is necessary for the new employees to acquaint them with the jobs
they are expected to perform. It helps in creating interest of the employees in their jobs.
 Apprenticeship Training: Apprenticeship training programmes are more inclined towards education than
merely on the vocational training. Under this, both knowledge and skills in doing a job or a series of related
jobs are involved. The governments of various countries, including India, have passed laws which make it
obligatory for certain classes of employers to provide apprenticeship training to the young people. The usual
apprenticeship programmes combine on the job training and experience with classroom instructions in
particular subjects. The trainees receive wages while learning and they acquire valuable skills, which
command a high wage in the labor market. In India, there are several ‘earn while you learn’ schemes both in
the private as well as public sector undertakings. Such schemes are also advantageous to the trainees.
 Internship Training: Under this method of training, the educational or vocational institute enters into an
arrangement with an industrial enterprise, or any organization which can utilize their knowledge, for
providing practical knowledge to its students. Internship training is usually meant for such vocations where
advanced theoretical knowledge has to be backed up by practical experience on the job. For instance,
engineering students are sent to big industrial enterprises for getting practical work experience and medical
students are sent to big hospitals to get practical knowledge. The period of such training varies from six
months to two years. The trainees do not belong to the business enterprises, but they come from the
vocational or professional institutions. It is quite usual that the enterprises giving them training absorb them
by offering suitable jobs after completion of their trainings.
 Refresher Training: As the name implies, the refresher training is meant for the old employees of the
enterprise. It is also called retraining. The basic purpose of refresher training is to acquaint the existing
workforce with the latest methods of performing their jobs and to improve their efficiency further. While
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explaining this, Dale Yoder has rightly remarked, “Retraining programmes are designed to avoid personnel
obsolescence”. The skills with the existing employees become obsolete because of technological changes
and because of the tendency of human beings to forget. Thus, refresher training is essential because of the
following factors:
 The workers require training to bring them up-to-date with the knowledge and skills and to relearn what
they have forgotten.
 Rapid technological changes make even the qualified workers obsolete in course of time because new
technology is associated with new work-methods and job requirements. The workers need to learn new
work methods to use new techniques in doing their jobs.
 Refresher training becomes necessary because many new jobs that are created due to changes in the
demand for goods and services are to be handled by the existing employees.
 Training for Promotion: The talented employees may be given adequate training to make them eligible for
promotion to higher jobs in the organization. Promotion of an employee means a significant change in his
responsibilities and duties. Therefore, it is essential that he be provided sufficient training to learn new skills
to perform his new duties efficiently. The purpose of training for promotion is to develop the existing
employees to make them fit for undertaking higher job responsibilities. This serves as a motivating force to
the employees.
ORGANIZATION FOR TRAINING
Organizational Set-Up for Training

Training has to be impacted by the people and in order to enable them work effectively; organization
must have a structure that makes them work effectively and efficiently. However the issue of establishing a
training center within a company has to be addressed from the very first question that whether it is really
feasible to have a separate training center at all or not?
Advantages of having in-house training center:

In case a company decides to have its own training center, then it can reap several advantages, as
mentioned below:
 Training programme shall be under the direct control of the executives.
 The likeliness of a training programme to adhere to the objectives increases if it is being organized
within the organization.
 If training is a regular exercise, as it is the case of software, pharmaceuticals and other companies, then
it is feasible to have a separate training center. In such companies, training of staff continues throughout
the year. So, the overhead expenses are reduced. Even permanent staff can be hired for management and
imparting the training.
 An in-house training center ensures the privacy of training. In the competitive times of today, privacy is
an important issue because the competitors can copy the organization’s efforts and offset its competitive
advantage.
 Constant review of training effectiveness is easy if it is being imparted within the organization.
TRAINING OBJECTIVES
Once the training needs are identified, the next step is to define specifically training objectives and to
decide upon the methods to be adopted to achieve these objectives. The overall aim of any training programme
is to increase organizational effectiveness. However, each training programme must also have specific
objectives such as increased productivity, improved quality, better human resource planning, better health and
safety, prevention of obsolescence and enhanced personal growth.
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Unit-I contd..,
Specific Objective of Training

Increased productivity
Improved quality
Better human resource planning Overall purpose of Training
Higher morale Increased Organizational
Better health and safety Effectiveness
Prevention of obsolescence
Enhanced personal growth
TRAINING DELIVERY COMPETENCIES

In 1986 the International Board of Standard for Training, Performance and Instruction (IBSTPI)
developed a set of standards that uses a straightforward definition of the term competency as “an essential skill
without which an individual is not a qualified practitioner”. The basic instructional design model calls for five
basic steps: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (ADDIE model).
BEFORE
TRAINING 3. Establish & Maintain
Credibility
1. Analyze material 4. Manage Learning 12. Evaluate Learner

& Learner Environment Performance
Information
11. Use Media 5. Communication Skills

2. Prepare Site Effectively
DURING
TRAINING
10. Use Training

methods 6. Presentation Skills
appropriately
AFTER
TRAINING
9. Provide + Reinforcement 7. Questioning Skills
& Incentives Objectives
13. Evaluate Delivery
8. Provide
14. Report Evaluation Clarification &
Information Feedback
To be a competent trainer, you should be able to demonstrate the fourteen training delivery competencies found
in the IBSTPI Standards. They are:
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1. Analyze course material and learner information.} Before training.
2. Assure preparation of the training site.
3. Establish and maintain instructor credibility.
4. Manage the learning environment.
5. Demonstrate effective communication skills.
6. Demonstrate effective presentation skills.
7. Demonstrate effective questioning skills and techniques.
8. Respond appropriately to learners’ needs for clarification or feedback.
9. Provide positive reinforcement and motivational incentives.
10. Use training methods appropriately.
11. Use media effectively.
12. Evaluate learner performance.
13. Evaluate the delivery of training.} After Training.
14. Report evaluation information.
 Logistical Arrangements: Logistics refer to the movement of people, materials, and |equipment. Logistical
arrangements involve preparing the training site and ensuring that people are notified about it, that
equipment is in place when and where it is needed, that food, other refreshments arrive as ordered, and that
handout and other materials arrive on schedule. You must make all logistical arrangements well in advance,
then double- check them to ensure that everything runs smoothly.
 Physical arrangements: The term ‘physical arrangements’ refers to the furniture, room configuration,
supplies, materials, and equipment that will be used during training delivery. Some organizations employ a
cadre of people specifically for handling these accommodations. But it still remains your responsibility as a
trainer to ensure that the physical arrangements are organized for a training experience.
 Room Layout: Many people associate the layout of a training room with the layout of classrooms they
attended while in school. Desks and chairs are arranged in neat rows and columns, all pointed toward the
front of the room. But training situations are different. Many room configurations are possible, and the
choice of what configuration to select depends on such issues as the type of training, the activities that will
be used, the level of formality desired, and the number of people attending.
Room configurations should be deliberately chosen based on programme objectives, available resources,
and facility limitations. The following Figure suggests design based upon different situations that you might
encounter.
U-Shaped Conference Table Traditional Classroom Theatre Style
Cluster or Team Style

V-shaped
 Equipment and Supplies: When planning the physical environment, check the equipment and supplies
before you begin delivering training. Equipment refers to overhead projects, computers, and projection units
(LCD). Supplies include items such as markers, masking tape, paper, or chalk. Training events can be
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unsuccessful if necessary equipment is not available (or does not work) and if necessary supplies are not
available when needed.
 Backup Plans: Remember that, no matter what you do and no matter how carefully you plan, technology
can still fail, materials can get lost during transportation, and equipment can break. For that reason, develop
backup plans that will allow the training to proceed even without the planned equipment and materials. For
example, if you plan to use presentation software, make backup transparencies in case the computer-based
presentation fails. Further, print a paper copy of the slides for handouts so that you have something to use in
case the overhead transparency unit does not work. Make decisions about, when and how far to go with
contingency planning based on the situation, the level of risk, the resources available, and the time required.
 Dealing with Unexpected Events: Unexpected events will occur during training delivery no matter what
preventive steps you take. While it is difficult to say whether these problems could have been prevented
through better planning, you have to be flexible and inventive to deal with unexpected problems. However,
when distractions do arise during delivery you must manage the situation as it happens. Competency four,
managing the learning environment, is very important for managing distractions during delivery.
STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF TRAINING DEPARTMENT

In many organizations the training department is a part of personnel department or HRD department
headed by a Training Manager. Usually he has qualification in personnel Management and also in training and
development.
HRD or PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT
Industrial Wages Labor Training & Administration

Relations Department Welfare Development
Department Department Department
The training manager will be looking after the training functions of the organization, reporting to the chief of
the personnel department or HRD. He may be also having sufficient experience and background to look after
the training functions of the organization. The role of the training department in an organization is detailed
below:
 Management of Training Data: The training department keeps the training record of the employees. The
data is stored according to experience, educational qualifications, the number of training programmes
attended by the employees, the duration and the venue of the training programme, the fee paid and other
relevant details.
 Assessment of training needs of employees: The training department assesses the training needs of the
employees at frequent intervals and on an ongoing basis. The T&D keeps relations with the different
departmental heads and collects information by questionnaires, interviews and discussions about the
employees need for a proper training.
 Preparation of Training Budgets: It also prepares the training budget for the organization after taking into
consideration the manpower and expenditure involved in training process during a particular calendar year.
 Planning for training: The training department’s plans about the exact type of training required by the
employees for the approval of respective executives. It determines whether the training programees are
internal or external one, the duration, the course content, infrastructure facilities and venues. If the training
is external in nature, it maintains contacts with external agencies which conduct such training programmes.
 Assessment of Usefulness of Training: The training and department also prepare the methods and
procedures to evaluate the impact of training in the actual working field after the employees report from the
training. It is an accepted fact that the training leads to changes towards improvement in the areas of job
knowledge or skills or attitudes, individually or in all the areas simultaneously. The data elicited during
evaluation is further processed and put into use to bring effective changes in the future training.
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 Monitoring Nominations: This is also one of the important functions of the training department. Having
finalized the nominations, the training department informs the respective employees about their nomination
through a letter stating the type of programmes, duration, and venue, details regarding TA and DA,
residential or non-residential, the date on which he has to report.
 Guest Faculty Arrangement: The training department sometimes engages the guest faculty for their
internal programees. They keep a list of such valuable and competent guest faculty to facilitate this
function. This list is also updated then and there to have effective guest faculty. It fixes the amount of
honorarium and other perks to be paid to the guest faculty.
STRUCTURES TRAINING DEPARTMENT

Organizational structure
The exact position of the training department must be specified in the organizational structure of the company.
Training, being a staff function has a risk of being sidelined in a large organization. Some of the typical
structures of training department can be:
 As a part of the personnel department: In most companies, human resource development is entrusted upon
HRD/Personnel department. In such situation, the training department would function within the
authoritative control of the HRD manager. Usually, the new employees undergo an orientation/induction
programme, which is organized by this department. In such department, there can be a permanent training
manager, who shall plan and manage the training programmes. He shall also evaluate the training
programmes and report to the HRD manager. Although rare, organization might hire some permanent
faculty to provide the training. The common practice is that some core faculty might be hired, while the
external experts might impart specialized training. Usually, the training imparted by this department is more
generic in nature.
 In the form of a matrix organization: The training manager might not be a specialist in all functional areas.
While imparting sophisticated training, the common practice is to take a manager from the functional
department. The representatives, the sales manager might be asked to plan the same. In such a situation, he
shall design the training programme and identify the faculty who shall provide the training. He might even
identify the trainees who need to be trained. The training manager, who shall be under the HRD manager,
shall organize the training according to the plan suggested by the sales manager. He might arrange for the
hotel, training facilities and other necessary paraphernalia required for the training. In such a situation, the
training activity is conducted in the form of a matrix organization, where the training manager merely
becomes a facilitator of a training programme.
 Training by functional heads: When training is not a very regular exercise, even the functional heads, such
as marketing manager/production manager etc. might undertake the task of organizing the training
programmes. They plan and organize the entire programme themselves.
ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TRAINING

To sum up, the essentials of good training programmes can be stated as under:
 Training programme should be chalked out after identifying the training needs or goals. It should have
relevance to the job requirements.
 It must be flexible and should make due allowance for the differences among the individuals as regards
ability, aptitude, learning capacity, emotional make-up, etc.
 It should prepare the trainees mentally before they are imparted any job knowledge or skill.
 It must be conducted by well-qualified and experienced trainers.
 An effective training programme should emphasize both theory and practice. It should help in acquiring
knowledge and its practical applications.
 It should have the support of the top management as it can greatly influence the quality of training.
 Lastly, an effective training programme should be supported by a system of critical appraisal of the
outcome of the training efforts.

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Unit – I contd..,
EXECUTION OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES

To put training programme into effect according to definite plan or procedure is called training implementation.
Training implementation is the hardest part of the system because one wrong step can lead to the failure of
whole training programme. Even the best training programme will fail due to one wrong action.
Training implementation can be segregated into:
 Practical administrative arrangements
 Carrying out of the training
TRAINING OPERATIONS: From the operational angle, the following activities have to be undertaken to
conduct a training programme.
 Selection of the Trainees: The proper selection of trainees is very important factor that determines
permanent and gainful results. A trainee must be provided the training which he really needs.
Sometimes, the employees perceive training as a paid vacation. This might lead to wastage of the entire
effort. The trainee might receive the training in a subject, which he is not very likely to use. Again, the
effort would be of no use. Sometimes, training is also seen as a sign of incompetence. The employees
might resist the same. So, proper screening of the candidates for training improves the effectiveness of
the training a programme.
 Training the trainer: The trainer is a key figure of any training programme. Before he is entrusted upon
with the task of undertaking the training, he must be judged whether s/he him/herself is competent
enough to do the same or not. The firms might engage a qualified instructor from inside or outside the
organization. However, many insiders are not good instructors because they might not possess the
ability to teach the skill. Trainer needs many qualities besides theoretical competence. He must be able
to divide the job into logical parts so that he may take up one part at a time without losing his
perspective of the whole. The trainer has to have professional expertise to fulfill his responsibility.
Therefore, it is desirable that the trainer must have knowledge about the job for which he is going to
instruct the trainees. He must be able to suggest solutions to the practical problems faced by the trainees.
 Training Period: The duration of a training programme depends upon the skill to be acquired, the
trainee's learning capacity and the training methodology used, For example, a simple orientation
programme for clerks may require an hour a day over a period of one week, while a course in computer
programming may be require two hours a week for 10 weeks. The use of training aids usually helps to
reduce the training time.
 Training Methods and Material: To increase the effectiveness of training, some written material is
usually desirable as a basis for instruction, review and reference. The training section may prepare the
training material with the help of line supervisors to be used for different jobs. A complete outline of the
whole course should be made with the main topics included under each heading. The training material
should be distributed among the trainees well in advance so that they may come prepared in the lecture
class and may be able to understand the subject quickly and may remove their doubts by asking
questions from the instructor.
IMPLEMENTING TRAINING
Once the staff, course, content, equipments, topics are ready, the training is implemented. Completing
training design does not mean that the work is done because implementation phase requires continual adjusting,
redesigning, and refining. Preparation is the most important factor to taste the success.
REVIEWING THE AGENDA

At the beginning of the training programme it is very important to review the programme objective. The trainer
must tell the participants the goal of the programme, what is expected out of trainers to do at the end of the
programme, and how the programme will run. The following information needs to be included:
Kinds of training activities
 Schedule
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 Setting group norms
 Housekeeping arrangements
 Flow of the programme
 Handling problematic situations
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES FOR THE TRAINERS

A trainer has many roles to play in order to make any training effective. Unlike in education, where the guru
acted as a friend, philosopher and a guide, the relationship between a trainee and a trainer is more professional.
Still, a trainer has to wear many hats. There are many classifications of a trainer’s role, which can be stated as
follows:
 The Trainer: A trainer’s role is primarily concerned with actual direct training. It is a role that involves the
trainer in helping people to learn, providing feedback about their learning and adopting course designs to
meet trainees’ needs. The trainer’s role may involve classroom teaching and instruction, laboratory work,
small group work, supervision of individual project work and all those activities that directly influence
immediate learning experiences. In effect, the trainer is a learning specialist.
 The Provider: This training role relates to the design, maintenance and delivery of training programmes. It
involves training-needs analysis; setting objectives; designing courses; choosing appropriate methods;
testing out and evaluating courses or training activities; and helping trainers to deliver the training.
 The Consultant: As a consultant, a trainer is primarily concerned with analyzing business problems and
assessing/recommending solutions, some of which may require training. It may involve some elements of
the provider role but specifically concentrates on liaising with line managers; identifying their performance
problems; advising on possible training solutions (where appropriate); working with providers and/or
trainers to establish training programmes; advising training managers (where the roles are separated) on
training goals: and policies; and ensuring evaluation takes place and the results are used.
 The Innovator: As an innovator, a trainer is concerned with helping the organizations to manage the change
effectively and to solve performance problems. It involves:
 Working with managers at senior/middle levels.
 Providing support and help to managers in coping with change.
 Identifying where seminars and workshops can be a useful means of educating managers for change.
 Facilitating change; identifying the real sources of power in the organization and linking with these to
help bring about change.
 Advising the training function on how it can best help in the change process.
In Organization Development terms, such a role might be called ‘change agent’, ‘catalyst’, or
‘interventionist’. The role frequently overlaps with that of the consultant.
 The Manager: A manager’s role in training is primarily concerned with planning, organizing, controlling
and developing the training and development activity or function. It involves the following functions:
 Setting training goals, policies and plans.
 Liaising with other departments and with senior managers about the contribution training can and
should make to improving performance.
 Ensuring that appropriate training activities are designed, developed, delivered and evaluated.
 Acquiring and developing training staff; establishing effective lines of authority and communication
within the training function.
 Acquiring and effectively using non-staff resources.
 Monitoring quality standards and controlling activities against a total training plan.
EVALUATION OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES

Evaluation means the estimation of the value or worth, comparing to a set of criterion. In training
situation evaluation means finding out the benefits to contributions of trainings to the organization. The
evaluation is done at various levels of training. Evaluation is not a onetime measure. It is an ongoing process.
An evaluation of training in modern days is done with the help of various sophisticated mathematical, statistical
and psychometric tools. Highly developed electronic machines and computers are employed by experts and
trainers to do the evaluation in a systematic and scientific way.
PURPOSES OF EVALUATION
Evaluation is needed to achieve the following purposes:
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 To know increase in productivity and company profit through human perfection by training.
 To know whether improvement in quality of a company product or service has taken place.
 Whether exiting employees are ready for higher level jobs.
 Whether there is enhancement in personal growth of the employees and motivation towards their work-
area has taken place.
 Whether improvement in organizational climate has taken place.
 Existing employees require refresher training so as to keep abreast of the latest development in job-
operations.
 To make employees mobile and versatile. They can be placed on various jobs depending on
organizational needs.
 To raise the morale of the employees and maintain the validity of an organization and maintain the
employees.
 Need for enabling employees to do the work in a more effective way to reduce learning time, reduce
waste and spoilage of raw material and product quality service and develop their potential.
NEED FOR EVALUATION

Hamblin (1970) defined evaluation of training as: “Any attempt to obtain information (feedback) on
the effects of training programme and to assess the value of training in the light of that information for
improving further training.”
Since evaluation is an integral part of the whole process of training and development, the details have to be
conceived much before the actual training activity rather than its ritualistic tagging at the end of training. The
trainer should be fairly clear of:
 Why to evaluate?
 When to evaluate?
 What to evaluate?
 How to evaluate?
 Cost Benefit Returns from Training Investment: Even though training budgets have continued to grow,
resources for training are always under scrutiny and the training manager
is always under pressure to demonstrate its benefits. Specifically, there are major stakeholders who look
forward to tangible returns from training investment.
 Training Department/Training Institutions/Training Practitioners
 Senior Manager/Sponsors/Clients
 Trainees
The challenge thus for the effectiveness is to develop acceptable cost-benefit analysis that will satisfy all the
stakeholders.
 Enable Improvements in the Assessment of Training Needs: While determining the effectiveness of
training in achieving the training objectives, the trainer could inter alia check the suitability and feasibility
of the objectives set for training.
 Self - Correcting Feedback: Training function operates on the basic premise that there is always room for
improvement and evaluation will help decide areas improvement can occur.
 Feedback on the Performance of the Trainers: Actual training activity revolves around two major players
—the trainer and the trainees. The training inputs, methods, tools- techniques and aids could prove
effective/ineffective depending on the skill and ability of the trainer, his creativity, the strengths-weaknesses
of the trainer vis a vis the tools and methods of training. Without evaluation, the trainer will not be able to
measure his own performance.
 Feedback on the Performance of the Trainees: Training aims at improving knowledge, skills and
attitude/behavior of the trainees. A good evaluation design would highlight the impact of training on the
knowledge, performance and behavior of the trainees, evaluation provides the added advantages of adding
process of the trainees by providing them knowledge of results.
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OBJECTIVES OF THE EVALUATION OF TRAINING
Reasons why training should be evaluated:
 To find out where the desired expectations (goal) are and are not being met.
 To make the training environment more supportive of learning.
 To revise and redefine the course to make it more effective.
 To identify and reduce workplace constraints that inhibits transfer of training.
 To prove that training is investment and not cost.
 To get commitment and support of training by management.
 To give instructors and course developers feed back to help them improve.
 To justify and perhaps increase the training budget.
 To influence future decisions like on what kind of programmes to be included.
 To manage the training function more professionally
AREAS OF EVALUATION
Various factors and conditions act together and determine the effectiveness of the training programme.
The various sub-areas which contribute to the totality of the training process are as follows:
 Contents: The evaluation should concentrate to assess about the contents of the programme in fulfilling
the training objectives. Evaluation also should state whether the contents covered are adequate,
inadequate or surplus. It should also state about the correctness of sequencing the contents and also to
point out the overlapping and duplications if any. The evaluation may also suggest additional specific
topics which can be introduced in the future training programmes.
 Methodology: The methodology should be interesting, simple, participation oriented and very much
effective to make the learning process spontaneous. The evaluation should state about the effectiveness
of the methodology used in the training programme, in specific terms.
 Infra-Structure Facilities: The evaluation should analyze about the infra-structure facilities extended to
the participants during the training programmes. The report should express whether those facilities were
adequate and inefficient which hampered the learning process of the trainees.
 Faculty, Course-Coordinators or Directors and Resource persons: The skills and abilities of faculties
to coordinate, present, communicate and maintain good interpersonal relations with the trainees are also
evaluated at various stages. The presentation and communications skills along with the effectiveness of
methodology are evaluated even from session to session every day. The trainees also do not hesitate to
evaluate the sessions given by external and internal guest faculty and it should find a place in the
evaluation report.
 Personality Development: The trainees learn routine job knowledge, skills and also undergo attitudinal
changes from the training programmes but this is not sufficient. There should also be some avenues and
subjects related to self development of the employees.
MODELS OF EVALUATION
The most common question asked to a trainer at the end of the training cycle is “How effective was the
training programme/course”? How does the trainer conclude whether those trained?
1. Are better informed and equipped for their jobs?
2. Are able to perform better after training?
3. Are able to utilize that training for improving their performance?
Especially when the results of training do not accrue immediately after training and take longer to manifest
themselves. To enable the trainer to answer these questions, the evaluator should know 'when’ and to evaluate.
Based on the criteria and approach to evaluation, many authors have suggested evaluation interventions at
different stages of the training cycle. Some of them have been presented in following table:
STAGE
KIRKPATRI VIRMANI&
/ HAMBLIN WARR BRAMLEY REAY
CK PREMILA
LEVEL
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Pre-Training Before the

1. Context Trial Phase
Context Event
During the Ongoing

2. Input Training Input
Event Phase
Post Training After the

3. Reaction Reaction Process Final Phase
research Event
4. Learning Learning Outcome Learning Learning
Job
Immediate Behavior
5. Job Behavior Behavior Improvement
Outcome
Plan
Intermediate Effectiveness
6. Functioning Results On the Job
Outcome
Ultimate Follow up and

7.
Outcome Transfer
HAMBLIN MODEL OF EVALUATION

According to Hamblin, we can evaluate at any of the four levels namely: Reaction, Learning, Job
Behavior and Functioning but ideally we should do so at every level. If we ignore the level three (job behavior)
and four (functioning), we may discover only superficial changes. If we ignore the first and second, the trainer
may find it difficult to explain and justify changes because it has not been followed through every link in the
chain.
According to Hamblin, objectives of training should be set at each of the four levels. For instance, the
objectives of a course for salesman might be to achieve a high level of involvement and interest (Reactions), in
order that trainees may effectively learn certain facts, certain skills of salesmanship and certain attitudes towards
the salesman’s job (Learning), in order that they may use these facts and apply these studies on the job (Job-
behavioral), in order that the quantity of sales may increase over a specified period (Functioning).
According to Hamblin, ideally, evaluation objectives may be set at each level of evaluation. To be
effective, any scheme of evaluation has to be tailor-made to fit the needs of the users of training.
FIGURE a
KIRKPATRICK’S DESIGN OF EVALUATION

Kirkpatrick’s evaluation design suggests four logical steps:
 LEVEL1- REACTION: How well did the trainees like the programme?/ In what ways participants liked a
particular program / training? How participants feel?
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The objective for this level is straightforward; it evaluates how individuals react to the training model by
asking questions that establishes the trainees’ thoughts. Questions will figure out if the participant enjoyed
their experience and if they found the material in the program useful for their work.
Examples of resources and techniques for level one:

 Online assessment that can be graded by delegates/evaluators.
 Interviews
 Can be done immediately after the training ends.
 Are the participants happy with the instructor(s)?
 Did the training meet the participant’s needs?
 LEVEL 2- LEARNING: What principles, facts, techniques were learnt?/ New skills / knowledge /
attitudes? What was learned? and What was not learned?
Evaluating at this level is meant to gauge the level participants have developed in expertise, knowledge,
or mindset. Exploration at this level is far more challenging and time-consuming compared to level one.
Examples of tools and procedures for level two:

 Measurement and evaluation is simple and straightforward for any group size.
 You may use a control group to compare.
 Exams, interviews or assessments prior to and immediately after the training.
 Observations by peers and instructors
 Strategies for assessment should be relevant to the goals of the training
program.
 LEVEL 3- BEHAVIOR: What changes in job-behavior resulted

from the programme? / Was the leaning being applied by the
attendees?
This level analyzes the differences in the participant’s
behavior at work after completing the program. Assessing the
change makes it possible to figure out if the knowledge, mindset,
or skills the program taught are being used the workplace.
Examples of assessment resources and techniques for level three:

 This can be carried out through observations and interviews.
 Evaluations have to be subtle until change is noticeable, after which a more thorough
examination tool can be used.
 Were the learned knowledge and gained skills used?
 360-degree feedback is a tool that many businesses use, but is not necessary before starting
the training program. It is much better utilized after training since participants will be able to
figure out on their own what they need to do different. After changes have been observed
over time then the individual’s performance can be reviewed by others for proper
assessment.
 LEVEL 4-RESULTS: What were the tangible results of the programme in terms of reduced cost, improved
quality, etc.?/ What are the final results of the training?
Commonly regarded as the primary goal of the program, level four determines the overall success of the
training model by measuring factors such as lowered spending, higher returns on investments, improved
quality of products, less accidents in the workplace, more efficient production times, and a higher quantity
of sales.
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Since there are many factors like the groups, the conference leader, and the approach to the subject, the
evaluators should recognize the limited interpretations and conclusions that can be drawn from their
findings.
Types of assessment strategies and tools used for level four:

 It should be discussed with the participant exactly what is going to be measured
throughout and after the training program so that they know what to expect and to fully grasp
what is being assessed.
 Use a control group
 Allow enough time to measure / evaluate
 No final results can be found unless a positive change takes place.
 Improper observations and the inability to make a connection with training input type will
make it harder to see how the training program has made a difference in the workplace.
 The process is to determine which methods and how these procedures are relevant to the
participant’s feedback.
WARR’S FRAMEWORK OF EVALUATION

Peter Warr had, for evaluating organization training, recommended the C.I.P.O. framework of evaluation. It
is preferable to treat evaluation as a process that is carried on before, during and after training. A training
specialist would thus collect information for evaluating training, “right from the start”.
 Context Evaluation (C): Obtaining and using information about the current operational context, that is,
about individual differences and organizational deficiencies.
 Input Evaluation (I): Determining and using facts and opinions about the available human and material
training resources in order to choose between alternative training methods.
 Process Evaluation (P): Monitoring the training as it is in progress. This involves continuous examination
of administrative arrangements and feedback from trainees.
 Outcome Evaluation (O): Measuring the consequences of training Three levels of outcome evaluation have
been distinguished:
 Immediate Outcome: The changes in trainees’ knowledge, skills and attitudes which can be identified
immediately after the completion of training.
 Intermediate Outcome: The changes in trainees’ actual work behavior which result from training
assessment, involves monitoring performance on the job.
 Long-term Outcome: The changes in the functioning of part or all of the organization which have
resulted from changes in the work behavior initiated through training
VIRMANI AND PREMILA’ MODEL OF EVALUATION

The authors have divided the process of evaluation of training into different stages. According to them
evaluation cannot be undertaking after the training is over, rather it should form part of the training objectives
and should be integrated in all the activities related to training. This way the process of evaluation of training
can be divided into the following:
1. Pre-training
2. During training
3. Post training
 Pre-training evaluation: at this stage the training objectives should be evaluated in the context of
expectations of trainees and the organizational objectives in order to ensure optimum impact of training.
The organization, trainer and trainee should match their objectives and goals with each other in order to
enhance the worth and effectiveness of training at the workplace.
 During Training evaluation: This state is also called the context and input evaluation. At this stage the
evaluation of inputs and context in which the trainee is placed and the training programme is organized are
evaluated based on the pre-training profile of the trainee. The evaluation of the context and input process
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helps in establishing the validity of the content and curriculum to be transacted during the training
programmes.
 Post Training evaluation: this stage has been divided by the authors in different parts as under:
 Reaction Evaluation: It is important that the participants are comfortable with the environment of
training and the methods and ways of conducting the programmes. The satisfaction level of trainees at
this stage plays an important role in enhancing the effectiveness of the training programme. This type
of evaluation is undertaken during conduct of the training as well as immediately after the training is
over.
 Learning: it is important to know as to how much learning has taken place on the part of the trainee.
The authors propose to arrive at measurement of the degree of learning following the learning index
prepared with the help of pre and post training scores of the trainees.
 Job Improvement Plan: the authors have devised a mechanism to measure the extent of learning that
has taken place with the trainee. The trainee may not be able to transfer whole of his learning to the job
place due to various discouraging factors. However, preparation of JIP will help in evaluation of the
extent of learning by the trainee.
 On the job evaluation: this type of evaluation would help in assessing the quantum of learning which
the trainee is able to transfer to the job place. The actual difference that might have taken place due to
raining can be measured at this stage in order to establish whether there is a tangible impact of the
training programme on the job performance of the employee.
 Follow up evaluation: the authors are of the view that it is necessary to follow up and monitor the job
performance of the trainee after some interval. The trainee may not be able to show the impact of
training through his performance immediately after he has come back on the floor from training. It may
take even up to 6 months before any observable change in performance is noticed.
PETER BRAMELY’S MODEL OF EVALUATION

The evaluation model as developed by Bramley lays emphasis on improving effectiveness of training
programme through evaluation. He wants to use the model not only for evaluation rather taking all necessary
measures which could enhance the impact of the training programmes.
 Evaluation before the event: Bramley is of the opinion that if the impact of the training programme is
enhanced then the evaluation at pre-event stage is a must in order to ascertain as to whether the training is
necessary or the improvement can be achieved through performance management, how the new learning
will be integrated with the organizational context and level of change expected from the supervisor and
colleagues in order to support the employee to perform at the desired level with the help of new learning.
 Evaluation during the event: The input and evaluation performed at the time of conduct of training
programme can play an important role in improving the quality of training programme in the time to come.
Any mid course corrective measures are possible to be taken based on this feedback. It also helps in
making the overall objectives of the training programme not only to the trainer but also to the trainees so
that they become focused. Since end evaluation cannot help much in improving the current training
programme since whatever damage is there, it has already taken place and cannot be undone. Therefore, the
evaluation during the conduct of event is of utmost importance.
 Evaluation after the event: At this stage Bramley offers to evaluation the effective of training programme
at three different levels: organization level, team level and individual level. He would like to measure the
change in behavior and learning of the trainee at this stage. The change in behavior can be assessed after
discussion with the subordinates. Measurement of frequency of improved behavior will help in establishing
that the necessary and desired change in the behavior of the trainee has taken place or not. At the learning
front, the change in knowledge is usually measured by giving pre and post test to the trainee. The change
level of skills is also measured by observing the trainee actually performing on the job. Attitude survey can
help in establishing the change in attitude of the trainee.

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Unit-I contd..,
DAVID REAY’ MODEL OF EVALUATION
David has divided the process of evaluation of a training programme at the following three stages:
 Trial Phase: the trial phase is considered by the author when the programme is developed. It has been
divided by the author in the following two parts:
 Developmental stage: This is the first stage of trial phase when an informal trial of the sample set
of material developed for training purposes is conducted. This is a preliminary testing without any
formal intensive and comprehensive evaluation.
 Pilot Testing: this is the formal testing of the programme in order to know as to whether the training
programme being organized will suit aptly to the requirements of the trainees and will help them in
improving their knowledge, skills and attitudes. The testing should be done in such a way that it
represents the sample of the groups of trainees for which the training will be conducted.
 Ongoing Phase: ongoing phase takes care of the requirement of training at a holistic level. It has been
divided by Reay into two parts:
 Validation: in this exercise the design for the training programme is evaluated in order to establish
the usefulness of the same in the light of the learning to be transacted to the learners. Once the design
of training is validated its impact on the effectiveness of the training programme for all the
stakeholders is likely to be high.
 Formative Evaluation: Reay believed that there is always a scope of improvement in every training
programme. Therefore, he propounded that evaluation of training programme should be an ongoing
and continuous process so that corrective measures can be taken promptly whenever required. The
necessary monitoring mechanism should be put in place to see that effectiveness of the programme is
kept at high level.
 Final Phase: At this stage the final evaluation of the training programme along with its different aspects is
undertaken in order to establish that everything during the training programme went on well and the training
programme has been able to achieve the desired training objectives which had been set in the light of the
organizational objectives and after undertaking the training needs analysis of the employees in the
organization.
STAGES OF EVALUATION
STAGE I- Pre-training Evaluation
 Identification of Training Needs: If the line manager is actually interested and owns the responsibility of
developing his staff, he would monitor their performance and identify their strengths and weaknesses. If the
deficiencies demand immediate correction, then he may not even wait to respond to his training needs or
even go a step further to advice remedial training is it within or external.
How does the training department promote the process of training needs, identification? 'The trainer being
the expert in the field and given the structural authority would carry out:
 Training needs survey
 Use semi-structured interviews
 Construct and administer diagnostic questionnaires
Either he possesses the necessary skills or otherwise draws the services of external experts in identification
of needs.
Ideally, all the three - the trainer, the individual and his boss can evolve a more meaningful relationship
with each contributing his own professional expertise involvement and commitment towards the total training
cycle. Wherever the line manager/individual lacks the information, the trainer can provide guidance and where
the manager is hot sufficiently motivated to develop his subordinates the trainer can play the major role.
Sometimes training needs get identified when the organization has to respond to:
 Declining company image
 Change in technology/product/process
 Introduction of new systems/policies/procedures
Any of these changes may call for change in knowledge, skills, attitude and some of these changes might
require job/task analysis to arrive at specific needs.
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 Evaluate Performance Standards: Performance standards identified as KRAs (Key Result Areas)
finalized between the individual and his boss, depending on the job and the hierarchical level may focus on:
Productivity, Rejections, Profit, coping with external pressures, achieving deadlines, work stoppages,
and amount spent on overtime, accident rate, and machine down time.
 Evaluate Training Objectives: This is to assess whether there is goal congruence between the trainee’s
needs and training objectives.
 Evaluate Trainee's Profile: Trainee’s level of knowledge, skills and attitude prior to training need and for
post training evaluation. Measuring each learner’s starting level in absolute and objective terms may not be
possible, but some measure of pre-training knowledge, skills and attitude is desirable to compare them with
post-training performance.
 Input Evaluation: Input evaluation varies depending on the team versus individual approach for designing
the Curriculum. Committee approach has been found to be fairly successful for input evaluation
Brainstorming session would also help in situations where feedback on the subject is already available.
Input evaluation gives an opportunity to the trainer to put things right before the package becomes
fully operational. It helps sift out any weaknesses, incongruities, inconsistencies, or missing links in the
total training. It thus helps to establish the validity of the training design.
STAGE-II Evaluation during Training
Both evaluation and subsequent modification need careful handling. Some methods are examined
here:
 Behavior Analysis: Usually assessment during training through behavior analysis is relevant for imbibing
of certain skills and attitudes, for example, leadership skills, team orientation and attitude towards learners.
These can be grasped best through behavior analysis.
 Course Audits: Mid - way training should give feedback for immediate course correction. Audits can be
conducted:
 At the end of each day (more suited for short duration training)
 Midway through the course (long duration i.e. more than a week’s programme).
The data thus obtained should be analyzed and wherever possible corrective action can be taken.
 Session Assessment: Assessing each session at the end or assessing each session at the end of the day is
possible. Normally this is done by using semantic differential scale, three points or five point and the trainee
is supposed to only tick mark.
STAGE – III Post-Training Evaluation

 Reaction Evaluation: Information about trainee’s reactions to training may be obtained during training,
immediately after training, or sometime later. End of the course reactions are collected by the use of rating
scale. Rating scales are forms on which, at the end of each training session/programme, trainees are asked to
place on a number of five point scales.
In addition, trainers’ dairy, in which trainers record their day-to-day perceptions and experiences
should be an inexpensive method of providing information on what pleased, stimulated, or alienated the
trainees.
 Learning Evaluation: The purpose of evaluation at this stage is to obtain information on the amount of
learning acquired during the training programme, irrespective of whether they go on to apply the learning
on the job. Learning has been divided into knowledge, skills and attitudes.
 Knowledge Learning: In order to measure the amount of change caused by the training, the test must
also be administered at the start of the training programme. Virmani and Premila’s design has
suggested a new measure of learning index in which the unlearnt portion of the pre- raining score
determined how much the trainee could gain from training, and is calculated by using the formula:
Post-training score - Pre training score x 100
Learning Index= ------------------------------------------------------- X 100
Pre-training score-100
 Skill Learning: In most forms of industrial training, skill objectives are more important than
knowledge objective (knowledge is important mainly as a prerequisite to skill), Therefore, in evaluating
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the skill, we are also evaluating knowledge, but in evaluating, knowledge, we do not discover whether
the skill has also been acquired.''
 Attitude Learning: In order to change attitude in the required direction, the attitude objectives should
be clearly defined. A common way of evaluating attitudes and opinions is to hand out a questionnaire at
the start and at the end of the programme, Semantic Differential Scales are a simple, but accurate
method of obtaining open-ended feedback on trainee’s attitudes under consideration.
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-END OF THE UNIT -I=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
REFERENCE BOOKS/WEBSITES
 ENRICHING HUMAN CAPITAL THROUGH TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT, B.RATHAN REDDY, Himalaya
Publishing House
 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT , NIHRD, MADRAS
 www.managementstudyguide.com
UNIT II
METHODS OF TRAINING
Once the trainer has decided upon the training method that the wants to use for transferring the
knowledge and skills to his trainees, he can draw from various training methods, one that will be most suitable
for the particular topic, approach and the group of trainees. Even though there are a number of methods, only a
few are used normally. In a corporate, even less number of methods are in operation. In this training methods
are grouped into
1. On-the-job training method
2. Off-job-training method
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING METHODS
When an employee learns the job in actual working site in real life situation, and not simulated
environment, it is called OJT. Employee learns while working. Take the instance of roadside mechanics. Small
boys working there as helpers learn while helping the head mechanic. They do not learn the defect analysis and
engine repairing skills in any classroom on engine models.
This type of training, also known as job instruction training, is the most commonly used method.
Under this method, the individual is placed on a regular job and taught the skills necessary to perform that job.
The trainee learns under the supervision and guidance of a qualified worker or instructor. On-the-job training
has the advantage of giving firsthand knowledge and experience under actual working conditions. While the
trainee learns how to perform a job, he is also a regular worker rendering the services for which he is paid. The
problem of transfer of trainee is also minimized as the person learns on-the-job. The emphasis is placed on
rendering services in the most effective manner rather than learning how to perform the job. On-the-job training
methods include job rotation, coaching, job instruction or training through step-by-step and committee
assignments.
MEANING OF ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
As the name suggests, “on the job” training (OJT) is a method of imparting training to the
employees when they are on the job at the workplace. The aim of training is to make the employees familiar
with the normal working situation, i.e. during the training period, the employees will get the first-hand
experience of using machinery, equipment, tools, materials, etc. It also helps the employees to learn how to face
the challenges that occur during the performance of the job.
The main theme of this training method is learning by doing where the supervisor or the experienced employees
demonstrate the trainees how to perform a particular task. The trainees follow the instructions of the supervisor
and perform the task.
TECHNIQUES OF ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
ORIENTATIONS
Orientation training is vital in ensuring the success of new employees. Whether the training is
conducted through an employee handbook, a lecture, or a one-on-one meeting with a supervisor, newcomers
should receive information on the company's history and strategic position, the key people in authority at the
company, the structure of their department and how it contributes to the mission of the company, and the
company's employment policies, rules, and regulations.
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COACHING
The trainees under coaching are done by the superiors. Coaching involves an ongoing
demonstration, guidance, instructions and teaching in Job situation by the superiors. The performance and
learning of the trainees are continuously monitored and necessary appreciations and corrective measures are
introduced. Thus coaching is providing necessary motivations to the trainees and the transfer of learning to
actual work situation is made certain and it is quicker and easier without any problems. Often the trainee shares
some of the duties and responsibilities of the coach and relieves him of his burden.
Limitations
 The trainee may not have the freedom or opportunity to express his own ideas.
 Untrained and inefficient superiors may distort this method of training.
 The superiors may not have favorable attitude towards the trainees and view them as a source of trouble
in the actual working situation.
”Experience is simply the name we give our mistakes." - Oscar Wilde.
APPRENTICESHIP
Apprenticeship is a formalized method of training curriculum program that combines classroom
education with on-the-job work under close supervision. The training curriculum is planned in advance and
conducted in careful steps from day to day. Most trade apprenticeship programs have a duration of three to four
years before an apprentice is considered completely accomplished in that trade or profession. This method is
appropriate for training in crafts, trades and technical areas, especially when proficiency in a job is the result of
a relatively long training or apprenticeship period, e.g., job of a craftsman, a machinist, a printer, a tool maker, a
pattern designer, a mechanic, etc.
This method is mainly used in industries and can go on for a long time at times for duration of about
4-5 years. After the training is over the worker obtains all the necessary information and then carries on their
work. Knowledge both in the form of practical knowledge while they do their job and theoretical knowledge
from the lectures is obtained by them. It is one of the oldest and most traditional methods when it comes to
training the people of the organization.
Advantages:
 Stipend which is also known as a fixed amount of salary is received by the trainees to some extent
during this training.
 Trainees acquire valuable skills which is highly regarded and valuable and demanding in the market.
 When talking about the employer, it is a way of obtaining cheap labor with a needed skilled work force
still being maintained.
 This method helps in reducing cost for labor and production cost.
 There is ensured loyalty of the employees of the company.
Limitations:
 The length or the period of the training is very long and at all times the trainees need regular supervision
which can be difficult as the company is at a large scale.
 This method is unsatisfactory if the standards are rigid.
 At times if the person or the worker getting this training fails to learn it completely after a long duration,
then they may not be considered for working in the company which may lead to labor problems.
 This method is very expensive in nature.
INTERNSHIP
Internship is one of the on-the-job training methods. Individuals entering industry in skilled trades
like machinist, electrician and laboratory technician are provided with thorough instruction though theoretical
and practical aspects.
There is a lot of advantage of getting trained in internship. Internship practically is like working but not for full
term purpose and salary basically is low and they are called stipend. So training will actually inculcate the skill
of time management and will balance between the theory part of the studies and also the practical part of the
subject.
For example, TISCO, TELCO and BHEL select the candidates from polytechnics, engineering
colleges and management institutions and provide apprenticeship training. Apprenticeship training
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Unit-II contd..,
programmes are jointly sponsored by colleges, universities and industrial organizations to provide the
opportunity to the students to gain real-life experience as well as employment. Exhibit presents the benefits of
apprenticeship training.
The drawbacks behind this idea are that, it can only be used for skilled and works more of practically oriented
goal instead of just sitting and studying. The time usually depends on people. Some wants to keep the contract
for 6 months or some wants to keep it for 2 months only. Therefore, the timing also is not frigid, they are
flexible.
Most of the Universities and Colleges encourage students for internship as part of the curriculum as it is
beneficial to all concerned.
JOB ROTATION
It refers to the transfer or movement of executive from one job to another and from one plan to
another on some planned basis for educational learning purposes. Such rotation may continue for a period
ranging from 6 months to 24 months.
Under this method, the trainees are rotated over various routine jobs in a department, division or
unit before they are due for promotion as managers. The idea behind this is to give them the required diversified
skills and a broader outlook, which are very important at the upper management levels. It also increases the
inter-departmental cooperation and helps in reducing the monotony of the work. This also helps in turning the
specialist into generalists.
Under this job rotation can be either horizontally or vertically. Vertical rotation is nothing more than
promoting a worker into a new position. Horizontal job transfer can be made on a planned basis or on a
situational basis. The main advantage of job rotation is that it permits a greater understanding of other activities
within the company. People are prepared more rapidly to accept greater responsibility, especially at upper
levels. Further ability and talent of each manager are best tested, so the enterprise can secure his best utilization
in the emergency period.
But this is not free of drawbacks. Due to this developmental costs increase. It upsets the routine
system of the concern itself. An extensive rotation programme can result in having a vast number of employees
shifted in a position where their job knowledge is very limited. And even though there may be significant long-
term benefits from the programme.
Benefits of Job Rotation
Some of the major benefits of job rotation are:

 It provides the employees with opportunities to broaden the horizon of knowledge, skills, and abilities
by working in different departments, business units, functions, and countries
 Identification of Knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) required
 It determines the areas where improvement is required
 Assessment of the employees who have the potential and caliber for filling the position
JOB INSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE (JIT)

Job Instruction Technique (JIT) uses a strategy with focus on knowledge (factual and procedural), skills and
attitudes development.
Procedure of Job Instruction Technique (JIT): JIT consists of four steps:
 Plan – This step includes a written breakdown of the work to be done because the trainer and the trainee
must understand that documentation is must and important for the familiarity of work. A trainer who is
aware of the work well is likely to do many things and in the process might miss few things. Therefore,
a structured analysis and proper documentation ensures that all the points are covered in the training
program. The second step is to find out what the trainee knows and what training should focus on.
Then, the next step is to create a comfortable atmosphere for the trainees’ i.e. proper orientation
program, availing the resources, familiarizing trainee with the training program, etc.
 Present – In this step, trainer provides the synopsis of the job while presenting the participants the
different aspects of the work. When the trainer finished, the trainee demonstrates how to do the job and
why is that done in that specific manner. Trainee actually demonstrates the procedure while
emphasizing the key points and safety instructions.
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 Trial – This step actually a kind of rehearsal step, in which trainee tries to perform the work and the
trainer is able to provide instant feedback. In this step, the focus is on improving the method of
instruction because a trainer considers that any error if occurring may be a function of training not the
trainee. This step allows the trainee to see the after effects of using an incorrect method. The trainer then
helps the trainee by questioning and guiding to identify the correct procedure.
 Follow-up – In this step, the trainer checks the trainee’s job frequently after the training program is over
to prevent bad work habits from developing.
TRAINING BY SUPERVISORS: (UNDERSTUDY)

In this method, the trainees are placed as assistant under certain main job holder (supervisor). He is
more or less a successor to the person who is doing the regular job. The trainee is informed of various skills and
knowledge involved in the job. He has been also intimated about the company’s goals and policies and its
expectations out of the job. The conduct of the training in practical and realistic job situation is the strong point
of this system. However, this system is not free from disadvantages. The existing deficiencies, short coming
and defects in the present job may be handed over to the employees of understudy. The understudy employees
are not treated well by the chiefs or the section in-charges.
COMMITTEE ASSIGNMENTS: Under the committee assignment, group of trainees are given and asked to
solve an actual organizational problem. The trainees solve the problem jointly. It develops team work.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF ON THE JOB TRAINING

A) Advantages:
 The job is learnt by the workers in actual conditions and in a physical environment other than learning
the job in artificial conditions. This helps the employees to bring motivation within them and learn their
job well.
 This type of training is not very expensive in comparison to other trainings and it consumes a less
amount of time in learning.
 This type of training programme is under certain supervision of the supervisors to really see whether or
not everything is happening in a proper way as they are keenly interested in the training programme.
 Any kind of production isn’t affected or isn’t suffered when such a training method is adopted.
 The person or the trainee learns the maximum amount of rules and regulations when they are learning
about the job.
 This takes less amount of time when it comes to learning a special skill as a person can acquire a certain
skill even in a short period of time.
B) Limitations:
 This kind of training is mainly disorganized in a big way and things are at times done in a very
haphazard way.
 At times the person supervising the training may not be ready to willingly give their time and this may
lead to training not taking place in the appropriate way it needs to be carried out in.
 Sometimes certain experienced trainers may not be available at all times.
 At times when things are not happening in the appropriate way it leads to the trainee getting a lack
motivation when they are receiving the training.
OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING METHODS

Off-the-job training is conducted in a location specifically designated for training. It may be near the workplace
or away from work, at a special training center or a resort conducting the training away from the workplace
minimize distractions and allows trainees to devote their full attention to the material being taught- However,
off-the-job training programs may not provide as much transfer of training to the actual job as do on-the-job
programs.
Many people equate off-the-job training with the lecture method, but in fact a very wide variety of methods can
be used.
MEANING
“Off the job” training is a method of training, which is undertaken at a site, away from the actual
workplace for a particular period. The reason behind imparting training at a place other than the job location is
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to provide a stress-free environment to the employees where they can concentrate only on learning. Study
material is supplied to the trainees, for complete theoretical knowledge. The trainees are free to express their
views and opinions during the training session. Moreover, they can explore new and innovative ideas.
CASE STUDIES
Case Studies try to simulate decision-making situation that trainees may find at their work place. It
reflects the situations and complex problems faced by managers, staff, HR, CEO, etc. The objective of the case
study method is to get trainees to apply known concepts and ideologies and ascertain new ones. The case study
method emphasize on approach to see a particular problem rather than a solution. Their solutions are not as
important as the understanding of advantages and disadvantages.
Procedure of the Case Study Method

 The trainee is given with some written material, and the some complex situations of a real or imaginary
organization. A case study may range from 50 to 200 pages depending upon the problem of the
organization.
 A series of questions usually appears at the end of the case study.
 The longer case studies provide enough of the information to be examined while the shorter ones require
the trainee to explore and conduct research to gather appropriate amount of information.
 The trainee then makes certain judgment and opines about the case by identifying and giving possible
solutions to the problem.
 In between trainees are given time to digest the information. If there is enough time left, they are also
allowed to collect relevant information that supports their solution.
 Once the individuals reach the solution of a problem, they meet in small groups to discuss the options,
solutions generated.
 Then, the trainee meets with the trainer, who further discusses the case.
Case Study method focuses on:

 Building decision making skills
 Assessing and developing Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSAs)
 Developing communication and interpersonal skills
 Developing management skills
 Developing procedural and strategic knowledge
INCIDENT METHOD
It aims to develop the trainee in the areas of intellectual ability, practical judgment and social
awareness. Under this method each employee is developed in a group process. Incidents are prepared on the
basis of actual situations which happened in different organizations. Each trainee is told about the incident and
to make short-term decisions in the role of a person who has to cope with the incident in the actual situation.
IN BASKET EXERCISES
MEANING: A form of training which attempts to simulate the working situation by setting the trainee realistic
tasks. The trainees are presented with papers such as letters and memos, placed in the ‘in’ basket or ‘in’ tray to
which they respond individually. The results of the exercise are then analyzed, discussed and assessed on the
basis of the decision made
It is a methodology to portray the manager’s workload on a typical day under the simulated
environment. The Govt, public sector and even the other managers use IN and OUT trays on their table to send
the files, circulars, mails etc. to receive and to dispose. The popular methodology has derived its name from the
process. The participant acts as a manager or executive in at hypothetical organization. He is given an
assortment of managerial problems in the form of letters, memos, telex, telegrams, summary of unexpected
happenings and memoranda. The problems may be related to any department and even it may be also a Govt.
policy which affects his workings and the Co. All those problems are placed in the IN-TRAY of the trainee.
The trainees are required to read the papers and to take appropriate actions within a limited time. The time limit
is the crux of the whole exercise as it usually happens in real life. .The executive or the manager is expected to
27 | P a g e
take timely actions to solve the problem. The time pressure also produces a plenty of stress and strain in
Managers. In order to solve the problems and to run the office, the manager has to take timely decisions, may
be following the strategies namely.
1. Set priorities.
2. Delegate some of the work to his subordinates.
3. Just overlook some of the memos, inter office communication etc.
The trainee is given chance to explain his stand to other trainees. The whole exercise also may be reviewed by
the trainer and by the participants to analyze and learn from situation and actions. In Basket exercise contains
usually four parts viz.
1. Instruction to the participants which tells the participant the details about the situation, designation,
organization structure, the structure of different departments, No. of staff etc.
2. The IN TRAY contents like letter, inter office memos, notes, telegrams, mails, leave letter. Disciplinary
proceedings notes and others,
3. Faculty Notes to the trainers to conduct the programme.
4. The conclusions to be drawn in structured handwritten or printed notes.
Uses:
 Problem solving development of analytical skills.
 For gaining confidence in decision making
 Transfer of theory learned to practical applications
Advantages:
Since it stems out from the real life situation it has immense practical use ,in class room as well as outside post
training level.
 It develops various skills of the trainers problem solving, presence of mind, quick decisions stress
managing, conflict resolving, communication , interpersonal relations, risk taking, planning and
organizing, delegation , setting up of priorities, time management and it is, in short, multi-skills oriented
methodology.
 The method has been widely used by assessment centers, ITT, IBM, General Electric, Ford
 Motors, Bell Telephones and found to be a highly resourceful methodology in Training.
 The in basket exercises can be altered to suit the level of participants, focusing importance upon the
skills which the trainer wants to develop.
Disadvantages
 Like any other method it is also not a full proof method. The preparation of in basket exercise is very
much tedious and time consuming.
 It is not suitable for shorter duration programmes. The conduct of the programme may stretch to a few
too many hours and days in spite of the allocated time limits.
 The trainer shou1d have the necessary skills, knowledge and patience to conduct the exercise so that the
methodology will be effectively used. Trained and experienced faculties are needed.
 It is an individual oriented exercise and the present day management is a team work only a limited
number of participants can take part in the exercise.
BUSINESS GAMES
A management game is a training method that deals with certain specific aspects of business or
administration. It is a simulated exercise representing, as closely as possible, the constraints and pressures of the
day-to-day work environment of the participants. The participants are presented with information about
operations of an organization-marketing, financial, management of human resource, etc. They are grouped in
Unit-II contd..,
Functional teams to consider the sequence of events and problems and manage the operations.
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 The task includes finding solutions to the problems, taking decisions, and dealing with people.
 Each team takes a decision considering the data and information available to it, within the broad
parameters and objectives of the game.
 The consequences of this decision are fed back to the team by the trainer.
 The team analyses the outcome of this decision in the light of its effect on the situation and other events in
the operation. And the team then proceeds to take further decisions addressing development in the game.
Thus, a business game attempts to bring together various elements of practical decision-making. It’s
most crucial aspect is the effort to create an environment representing the social, psychological and economic
dynamics of organizational behavior in an artificial setting. The decisions taken and actions initiated are
processed and appropriate reports and documents are produced to lend a degree of authenticity to the exercise.
Major Objectives
Business games can be incorporated in training programmes in many ways. They can be used for
orienting the participants and familiarizing them with the functional dynamics of an organization or for
reinforcing the learning accruing from an earlier discussion on various aspects of management.
 A management game also helps the participants relate the management principles, concepts, and
methods of working that are being discussed in the training, to the real life environment.
 It emphasizes a functional linkage between theory and practice though through a simulated
environment. The games can be used in conjunction with other training techniques, including structured
experiences, instruments, lectures and audio-visuals.
Specifically, business games aim to enhance the participants’ understanding of:

 Inter-relatedness of the functions and parts of an organization ana their relation to the environment:
 The problems of organization policy and decision-making; and
 The problems of working in a team
The participants get an opportunity to sit in the ‘hot’ seat and feel the direct impact of decision-making. The
exercise offers opportunities for collaborative learning on self-directed lines i.e., learning as much from one’s
mistakes as from one’s success. It helps establish relationship and fundamental interplay between different
roles. However, like any other training method, its effectiveness can be more when it is used with a clear
understanding of the objectives to be attained.
Design and Methodology of Organizing the Games

 The first decision that a trainer is called upon to take is regarding the nature of the game. This by itself is
related to the objectives the trainer has in mind for the exercise. What are the end results she expects from
the exercise and what is the learning she wants to transmit or reinforce? It must, however, be pointed out
that the learning accruing from the exercise is not often limited to these established objectives. There may
be additional benefits accruing from it to the participants.
 The trainer should also decide what the sequence and flow of the course of action would be and plan for a
balance between cognitive and experiential learning. It is also important that the game should fit in the
overall training strategy for the training programme.
 It is also necessary that the trainer should make herself fully familiar with the various components of the
game and know how the game works, the sequence of events and decisions that are likely to unfold and how
it responds to the participants’ actions, O Games may be extremely simple or complex, and having
considerable depth. Depending on the nature of the game, it may last for a few hours or continue for days.
The number of participants who are likely to be actively associated with the game may vary according to
the design of the game.
 The design of the game may find it suitable to provide for each participant representing is the rule.
Depending on the structure the trainer wishes to provide, the internal organization of the group may be set
out as part of the exercise or the instruments provided to the players may assume a particular structure.
 The core around which a business game is constructed is a model of a business environment. In this model,
the interrelationships between functional areas of a business are making activities in a game run should
present reasonable opportunities to the teams to establish the working of an organization and demonstrate
the full range of its dynamics. Presumably, the optimal number of activities that can be incorporated in a
game tends to vary with the characteristics of both the individual participants and the content of the
exercise.
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 The time available to the teams for making decisions is normally related to the complexity of the game and
the nature of problems they are expected to deal with. In some cases, though, too little time is provided
deliberately. This strategy impels the teams to respond to the situations quickly. This can produce a lot of
tension and stress in the participants, adding to the excitement of the exercise. This could be regarded as an
approximation of the pressures the participants are likely to encounter in real situations while taking
organizational decisions.
 After becoming familiar with the details of the game, the trainer should decide on the time schedule. This
includes the time needed to complete each step or stage of the game and the time to regroup after
interruptions or breaks.
 Materials must be collected or prepared. The layout of the room and other physical arrangements must be
attended to. Care should be taken to eliminate or minimize distractions. Other rules of the game should also
be specified.
 The terms and language used for the exercise should be the same as used in the training programme.
Otherwise, the participants will get confused and learning could be affected.
Advantages
 It is an effective methodology in training and the participants learn just in playing the game or observing
the game.
 They are put and involved in a simulated business environment.
 They have to work, think, analyze and to major decision to come out of the situation. This methodology
is very much interesting and the participants are always alert while playing and observing the games.
Disadvantages
 The trainers have to spend many hours in getting acquainted with the business games.
 This methodology is not suitable for short term capsule programmes because conduct of an effective
business game requires a lot of time.
 Business games are to be prepared after a long study and research.
 Stationery and working forms are to be prepared and to be supplied to the trainees.
 For certain managerial situations there are no definite solutions. So concluding a business games, with
certain definite solutions is very much difficult.
GRID TRAINING (Managerial grid)

It is a six-phase program lasting, from three to five years. It starts with upgrading managerial skills,
continues to group improvement, improves inter-group relations, goes into corporate planning, develops
implementation method and ends with an evaluation phase. The grid represents several possible leadership
styles. Each style represents a different combination of two basic orientations -concern for people and concern
for production.
MANAGERIAL GRID (Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid)
The treatment of task orientation and people orientation as two independent dimensions was a major
step in leadership studies. Many of the leadership studies conducted in the 1950s at the University of Michigan
and the Ohio State University focused on these two dimensions.
Building on the work of the researchers at these Universities, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1960s)
proposed a graphic portrayal of leadership styles through a managerial grid (sometimes-called leadership
grid). The grid depicted two dimensions of leader behavior, concern for people (accommodating people’s
needs and giving them priority) on y-axis and concern for production (keeping tight schedules) on x-axis, with
each dimension ranging from low (1) to high (9), thus creating 81 different positions in which the leader’s style
may fall. (See figure 1).
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The five resulting leadership styles are as follows:

1. Impoverished Management (1, 1): Managers with this approach are low on both the dimensions and
exercise minimum effort to get the work done from subordinates. The leader has low concern for
employee satisfaction and work deadlines and as a result disharmony and disorganization prevail within
the organization. The leaders are termed ineffective wherein their action is merely aimed at preserving
job and seniority.
2. Task management (9, 1): Also called dictatorial or perish style. Here leaders are more concerned about
production and have less concern for people. The style is based on theory X of McGregor. The
employees’ needs are not taken care of and they are simply a means to an end. The leader believes that
efficiency can result only through proper organization of work systems and through elimination of
people wherever possible. Such a style can definitely increase the output of organization in short run but
due to the strict policies and procedures, high labor turnover is inevitable.
3. Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5): This is basically a compromising style wherein the leader tries to maintain
a balance between goals of company and the needs of people. The leader does not push the boundaries
of achievement resulting in average performance for organization. Here neither employee nor
production needs are fully met.
4. Country Club (1, 9): This is a collegial style characterized by low task and high people orientation
where the leader gives thoughtful attention to the needs of people thus providing them with a friendly
and comfortable environment. The leader feels that such a treatment with employees will lead to self-
motivation and will find people working hard on their own. However, a low focus on tasks can hamper
production and lead to questionable results.
5. Team Management (9, 9): Characterized by high people and task focus, the style is based on the theory
Y of McGregor and has been termed as most effective style according to Blake and Mouton. The leader
feels that empowerment, commitment, trust, and respect are the key elements in creating a team
atmosphere which will automatically result in high employee satisfaction and production.
Advantages of Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid: The Managerial or Leadership Grid is used to help
managers analyze their own leadership styles through a technique known as grid training. This is done by
administering a questionnaire that helps managers identify how they stand with respect to their concern for
production and people. The training is aimed at basically helping leaders reach to the ideal state of 9, 9.
Limitations of Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid : The model ignores the importance of internal and
external limits, matter and scenario. Also, there are some more aspects of leadership that can be covered but are
not.
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ROLE PLAYING
Learning is facilitated by active participation rather than passive reception and this is achieved, in
role play technique. In the “Crone of Experience” that highlights instructional1 alternatives. Contrived
Experience are categorized as the closest to Direct Purposeful Experience. Thus, in the absence of real
situations, certain artificial situations may have to be created to suit the instructional needs so that the trainees
would be feeling that they are experiencing life-like situations. This contrived artificial situation in education
parlance is called “Simulation." A simulation is a product that results when the appearance or effect of
something else has been created by controlling the task-irrelevant items and by adding the replaced or
represented items.
Being very near to reality and having a high degree of participation, simulation calls for an active
role on the part of the learner. One of the methods of simulation is Role Play technique. Role Play is a
technique in which some problem, involving human interaction, small or imaginary, is presented then
spontaneously acted out.
Design Considerations
 It is important that within the situation it and the descriptions of the roles of individual players, there be a
broad range of human problems. Unless role play is intended to demonstrate ineffective behavior,
participants should be given an opportunity to behave effectively.
 In the role play situation it is ideal to have conflict and variety. It is desirable to avoid getting too close to
actual current organizational situations. Using actual problem situations as the content of role play
activities can have a number of negative consequences, because:
1. Defensive behavior on the part of participants may be evoked.
2. Participants may concentrate or solutions rather than focus on aspects of the problem.
3. Basic disagreements on issues may be generated, leading to polarization within the participant group.
In setting up role play situations it is, therefore, best to use simulated problems before attempting to use real
organizational problems, if however, real problems are used, it is better to focus on existing problems rather
than ones that have been “solved.”
Planning for Role Play: Role play must be planned carefully to ensure that the activity is relevant to the goals
of the session, and it serves as on effective learning instrument. The following guidelines would be useful while
planning a role play.
1. Pick a situation that is realistic to the participants, and consistent with the learning objectives.
2. Define the problem or issue in the situation that the players will have to deal with.
3. Determine the number of role players needed.
4. Develop specific roles of each person by answering the following questions:
5. What is the person like? - What is important about their background?
6. How do they feel about the other people?
7. How do they feel about the situation?
8. What do they think about the situation?
These role questions can be written down or given verbally to the players.
Writing Role Plays:
 The role play material should be clear, concise, and highly focused. It should be readable, not too
lengthy or too complicated for the participants to remember
 Normally a role play requires some case background data to set the scene for the participants.
Occasionally, further information is used to affect the role play as it progresses.
 The role descriptions should be written in a simple language and should include some hints on how to
play the role.
 Observer background data sheets need to be provided for persons in the audience. Observers should be
provided with paper and pencil to focus their reactions, as otherwise there may be a tendency to over
personalize the observation and fail to focus on the specific learning intended.
 Instead of using prepared written role materials, participants can create their own roles. This approach
minimizes the need for printed material, but in such situations it becomes difficult for the facilitator to
manage the outcome, as it gets less predictable and may not be consistent with the expressed learning
goals.
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Setting up Role Plays: If the role play is set up effectively, both the actors and the audience become involved.
This involvement often carries over into the post role play discussion, thereby enriching and enlightening it.
Members of the audience can be asked to carry out definite tasks such as noting the gestures and mannerisms of
the actors, listening for significant remarks, spotting out focal points etc., thereby making them get involved
further.
The following steps may be followed while setting up the role play:
 Describe the purpose of the role play.
 Describe the situation briefly and clearly, even if prepared written roles are used.
 Select the role players and assign the roles.
 Brief the role players. Allow enough time to read and understand the roles.
 Assign tasks to audience. In briefing observers, it is important to clarify their tasks; are they simply
observers or are they permitted to talk with one another?
 Set the scene-Label the chairs, and strategically place role players to define the smiling, making physical
contact, and checking for readiness. Most of the common problems in managing role plays can be
avoided by a carefully prepared and delivered introduction.
Implementing Role Plays: Once the stage is set and everyone knows their role / task, the role play is ready to
get started. The following are the steps to implement the role play:
1. Start the action.
2. Stay out of the vision of the role players. Observe quietly.
3. Coach only if absolutely necessary-for example, if a role player has difficulty in getting started or breaks
out of the role, etc., intervention while the exercise is in progress should be avoided as far as possible.
4. Normally the role play will arrive at a natural end point. If not, try to cut the role play after about five
minutes, or so. Do not be too abrupt in cutting short the role play.
5. Thank the role players using their real names. This helps in de-rolling the role players. Getting
participants out of the content of the roles is crucial for effective processing.
Processing Role Plays: Processing after a simulation is a very vital part of the exercise. In this phase the
participants analyze and reflect on what happened during the role play. The processing phase helps in analyzing
what worked and what did not, and reflects on what skills or strategies are needed to successfully handle the
situation. Normally participants are willing to share their opinions. The facilitator needs to handle this phase
carefully, orienting the discussion towards the desired learning. Poorly conducted processing phase leads to
confusion and results in ineffective input for the generalization and application phases. The following
processing plan should be of use in conducting this phase effectively:
 The facilitator asks the group: What was the strategy? How was it working?
 Two or three opinions should be good enough.
 The facilitator then repeats the same question for the second role player.
 The facilitator should then ask the role players: “What was your strategy? How did you feel it worked?
Allow some time for the role players to discuss it.
 The facilitator then asks the group: “What strategies would you have used? What difficulties might you
expect?” Allow time for this discussion to take place and then move to the generalization phase.
Problem Areas in Conducting Role Play
Trainer-based Problems
 The trainer might be unclear about the objective of the training and hence may fail to set clear cut target.
 Failure to establish supportive climate while moving into post-enactment discussion focusing on the attitude
and behavior of role players.
 Trainer should be careful in selecting role playing case.
Trainee-Based Problems
 Trainees may sometimes make up facts that are not there in the role and not needed for the role play.
 Despite instruction, the player might step out of the role or “open up.”
PURPOSE OF TRAINING AIDS
The very objective of training is to help people learn, i.e. assimilate new knowledge or modifying
existing knowledge. If the process of dissemination of knowledge is supported with the help of training aids,
then the training can become very effective. Well-chosen training aids, or instructional materials, can enhance
the effectiveness of the training/learning process.
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The use of training aids in learning can achieve the following:

 Add variety to the learning process and help to maintain involvement and motivation.
 Benefit those learners whose learning style responds better to one type of approach than another.
 Provide certain stimuli not available without their use.
 Encourage interaction between the tutor and the taught.
 Act as a valuable ‘lesson plan’ to the trainer, facilitating planning and preparation before the training
session.
COMMON TRAINING AIDS
There are many training aids available to help the trainer to deliver successful training. They can be
classified into a number of broad categories:
 Printed materials - all texts, handouts and the like.
 Non-projected materials - a variety of visual display materials, for example models, photographic
printers, posters, flipcharts and marker-boards.
 Still projected material - overhead projector transparencies (view-foils), slides and microfilm.
 Video materials - video tape, video disc, broadcast television and film.
 Audio materials - audiotape, record, compact disc and broadcast radio.
AUDIO VISUALS
The use of audio devises as a training aid is increasingly becoming popular. Audio recordings can be used
in mass, group and individual instruction. Tape (both cassette and reel-to-reel), compact disc and Vinyl records
are all capable of good quality reproduction. The computer-based audio is fast becoming very popular
nowadays. Some typical uses for audio-based training aids are:
 To bring real sounds into the training room e.g. music, conversation and discussion etc., sound of
mechanical processes and the like can be invaluable to facilitate learning.
 To replay off-air broadcasts. However, due care of the copyright laws must be taken.
 To act as a vehicle for managing or guiding learning; for example guiding learners working alone or in
groups through specific tasks, in much the same way as a trainer would.
 To recording interviews, discussions or role-play.
 To play speech and record learner responses for later analysis, particularly in language learning.
 To record the trainer in his or her normal work, useful as an aid to evaluation.
Advantages
 Simple to use, relatively cheap.
 In certain circumstances (for example, music) audio is the only appropriate medium to convey the
required information.
 Can stimulate interest.
VIDEO
Video is a powerful training aid increasing in-popularity in all types of instruction. The production of
video material is beyond the scope of this chapter; some of the texts noted in the bibliography give further
details. However, the services of a knowledgeable person, or attendance on a course, are recommended to
anyone planning to produce video materials for the first time. Here, only the use of pre-prepared video is
considered.
The full benefit of video will only be realized if adequate attention is given to how its use will be integrated
within the training session; and the ways in which the video is actually used. Some uses for video
 To bring a wide range of concrete examples to the learners; particularly useful to stimulate interest; provide
an overview, present material for discussion, etc.
 Can be used to display almost any visual messages (for example, computer-generated graphics in place of
the overhead projector).
 To record, and later play back for analysis and discussion, a wide range of training activities; for example,
role-play, simulations, micro-teaching.
 As a magnification medium to display small objects, processes, etc., to a large group; for example,
microscope work, chemical reactions, machinery.
 Combined with a computer, interactive video opens a wide range of interactive training possibilities.
Advantages
 Versatile (within the obvious limits of the medium).
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 Excellent for displaying movement.
 A wide variety of commercially available materials (if recording off air, consider copyright).
 Used appropriately, can provide an excellent stimulus to learning.
Limitations
 Watching uninterrupted video generally becomes a passive activity with little learning takes place.
 Equipment can be expensive, particularly video projectors for use in mass instruction.
 Video projectors require blackout.
PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONS (P.I)

This methodology helps the trainees to learn on their own and at their own pace. It is one of the innovative
teaching technologies, introduced in recent years. Programmed learning is a self instructional learning and the
course materials are prepared or programmed in such a way that the trainees learn in a series of sequential steps.
The subject matter to be learnt is divided into small steps and the order or sequence to be followed by trainees is
given. The trainees start learning from simple steps and progress towards more complex steps/instruction. The
programme is structures in such a way that the trainees will be able to know the results or correctness of his
learning then and there. The answers are provided at the end of each step or programme. Even if he commits
errors, he will get the information why he committed errors.
Advantages
 This method enables the trainees to learn at his own speed according to his convenience. He can sit in
his home or in any place to work out programmes and learn. it is a self-teaching methodology.
 Large number of people can learn through programmed learning method, without any geographical or
distance barriers. Large amount of information’s can be given as input in this method.
 The infrastructural facilities like well developed faculty, class rooms, audio visual aids are not needed.
 This method is highly elastic and flexible. The same programme can be used for so many batches of
trainees, year after year and it is easier to introduce modifications in the programmes.
 The trainees get the psychological satisfaction due to immediate feedback, self pacing and
individualized learning.
Disadvantages:
 The programme writing is tedious, time consuming and needs greater care, concern and analysis.
 This is a methodology suited for giving knowledge and information to the trainees.
 Learning through this method requires a strong motivation on the part of the trainees to learn. But many
of the trainees especially workers and office goers may not have enough time and motivation for self
learning.
 It is a highly structured routine methodology. People with creativity and innovative mind resent such
directions.
SENSITIVITY (T-GROUP) TRAINING

In this type of training, a small group of trainees consisting of 10 to 12 persons are formed which meets
in an unstructured situation. There is no set agenda or schedule or plan. The main objectives are more openness
with each other, increased listening skills, trust, support, tolerance and concern for others. The trainers serve a
catalytic role. The group meets in isolation without any formal agenda. There is great focus on inter-personal
behaviour. And, the trainer provides honest but supportive feedback to members on how they interacted with
one another.
• Sensitivity training is about making people understand about themselves and others reasonably, which is
done by developing in them social sensitivity and behavioral flexibility.
 Social sensitivity in one word is empathy. It is ability of an individual to sense what others feel and
think from their own point of view.
 Behavioral flexibility is ability to behave suitably in light of understanding.
 Procedure of Sensitivity Training
Sensitivity Training Program requires three steps:
1. Unfreezing the old values –It requires that the trainees become aware of the inadequacy of the old values.
This can be done when the trainee faces dilemma in which his old values is not able to provide proper guidance.
The first step consists of a small procedure:
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 An unstructured group of 10-15 people is formed.
 Unstructured group without any objective looks to the trainer for its guidance
 But the trainer refuses to provide guidance and assume leadership
 Soon, the trainees are motivated to resolve the uncertainty
 Then, they try to form some hierarchy. Some try assume leadership role which may not be liked by
other trainees
 Then, they started realizing that what they desire to do and realize the alternative ways of dealing with
the situation
2. Development of new values – With the trainer’s support, trainees begin to examine their interpersonal
behavior and giving each other feedback. The reasoning of the feedbacks are discussed which motivates
trainees to experiment with range of new behaviors and values. This process constitutes the second step in the
change process of the development of these values.
3. Refreezing the new ones – This step depends upon how much opportunity the trainees get to practice their
new behaviors and values at their work place.
SIMULATION
In this technique the situation is duplicated in such a way that it carries a closer resemblance to the
actual job situation. The trainee experiences a feeling that he is actually encountering all those conditions. The
trainee is asked to assume a particular role in the circumstances and solve the problems by making a decision.
Feedback is given immediately on the performance of the trainee.
ADVANTAGES OF OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING

Off-the-job training goes through following advantages:
 High Productivity: The trained employees are placed in the actual work station; hence, high
productivity is maintained
 No Production Error: In off-the-job training, the employees are trained outside the work environment.
Therefore, they are not involved in production process as in OJT. As a result, error in production can be
minimized.
 Economy: Off-the-job training will be economical in the sense that a large groups of trainees are trained
simultaneously at a time.
 Free On Production: When the trainees are not involved in production process, the production
activities can be carried out without any interruption. Hence, it runs freely,. Moreover, costly errors and
injuries can be avoided.
 Large People: In off-the-job training, a large number of people can be trained at a time.
 Less Time of Training: Under off-the-job training, a large amount of information can be recovered
within a short span of time. During training phase, no production will take place; hence, training
requires less time.
DISADVANTAGE OF OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING

Off-the-job training goes through the following drawbacks:
 Outside The Work Station: Off-the-job training program takes place outside the work station, so that it
may not yield the desired result to employees as they are unknown with actual machines and
equipments.
 Not Effective: Off-the-job training will not be effective as the employees are trained in an artificial
classroom. They are unfamiliar with actual work environment. As a result of which, it requires long time
for them to learn.
 No Production: During training period, any production takes place because employees are kept away
from the actual work place. The organization bears only training cost without any physical output.
 Expensive: Off-the-job training is expensive in the sense that the organization has to prepare extra place
for training outside the actual work environment.
 Lack Of Feedback: The employees are trained away from the organizational work environment; hence,
it lacks feedback to employees.
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UNIT III
LEADER CENTRAL TECHNIQUES OF MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Management Development is described as the process from which the managers learn and improve their
skills & knowledge not only to benefit themselves but also their employing organizations.
Earlier training programmes in industrial organizations were mostly concentrated on improved

performance in a particular job. They were intended to emphasize on learning whatever skill and knowledge
necessary for the satisfactory performance of the job. Training were for the most part job holders in rank and
file-positions. With the passage of time organizations are growing and the complexity in the work is also
increasing. Now, the role of the mangers is not as easy as it was earlier. The term manager has been used to
mean people at different levels of hierarchy. All those persons who have authority over the others and are
responsible for their activities and for the operation of an enterprise are managers. They have not only to deal
with the staff but also with other outsiders etc., and have a decided influence on the organization. Even the
corporate chairman, departmental head, personnel administrator, planner or coordinator is. In fact a manager,
although many of them do not supervise others but are on the board of management. So the title of manager
cannot be standardized. It is their actions which are significant. Even a worker may be considered a manager,
some times. So a manager is the dynamic life-giving element in any concern. His caliber and performance will
largely determine the success of any enterprise. If any concern wants to expand, it must attempt to improve the
quality of managers, it should introduce imaginative and systematic development schemes for them. So it can
be said that due to the increasing role and its complexities and importance a new word like management
development came into existence. Because the term training seemed inappropriate.
MEANING
Management Development is a systematic process of training and growth by which managerial personnel
gain and apply skill, knowledge, altitude and insights to manage the work in their organization effectively and
efficiently.
DEFINITION
"Management Development is an educational process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by
which managerial personnel learn conceptual and technical knowledge for general purpose."
OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT
The objective of management development is. in general, to improve the quality of managers/executives
performance now and in future. Some main objectives of the management development ore as under:
 To develop managers/executives for better performance on their present job or assignment

 To provide a steady source of competent persons at different levels so as to meet the future requirements
of the organization.
 To enable the managers to understand the problems of the business organization in so far as they arise
out of its policies and system of control.
 To create conditions and a climate which contribute to the growth process?
 To replace elderly executives, who have risen from low ranks, by highly competent and academically
qualified professionals?
 To increase morale of the managers.
 To acquire knowledge about the problems of human relations.
 To create the second line of defense in the organization so as to meet the emergencies.
 To broaden the outlook of the various levels of management especially top management regarding their
role, position and responsibilities.
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 To help the top management to understand the economic, technical and institutional forces in order to
solve business problems.
 To increase the versatility of the managers
 To stimulate creativity in the thoughts of the managers.
 To create a sense of inter-departmental coordination among managers.
 To indicate how to apply to practical problems the knowledge of the physical and social aspects of
business problems and management.
So we can say that management development is an educational process utilizing a systematic and organized
procedure by which management personnel learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge for general purpose.
These purposes are (i) Productivity (ii) Quality (iii) Human Resource Planning (iv) Morale (v) Obsolescence
prevention, and (vi) Personnel growth.
TECHNIQUES FOR MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT

Management development method is further divided into two parts:
 On the Job Methods of Management Development
 Off The job methods of Management Development
ON THE JOB MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT METHODS
JOB ROTATION
Job Rotation is a management approach where employees are shifted between two or more assignments
or jobs at regular intervals of time in order to expose them to all verticals of an organization. It is a pre-planned
approach with an objective to test the employee skills and competencies in order to place him or her at the right
place. In addition to it, it reduces the monotony of the job and gives them a wider experience and helps them
gain more insights.
Job rotation is a well-planned practice to reduce the boredom of doing same type of job everyday and explore
the hidden potential of an employee. The process serves the purpose of both the management and the
employees. It helps management in discovering the talent of employees and determining what he or she is best
at. On the other hand, it gives an individual a chance to explore his or her own interests and gain experience in
different fields or operations.
Job Rotation Objectives

 Reducing Monotony of the Job: The first and foremost objective of job rotation is to reduce the
monotony and repetitiveness involved in a job. It allows employees to experience different type of jobs
and motivates them to perform well at each stage of job replacement.
 Succession Planning: The concept of succession planning is ‘Who will replace whom’. Its main
function of job rotation is to develop a pool of employees who can be placed at a senior level when
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someone gets retired or leaves the organization. The idea is to create an immediate replacement of a
high-worth employee from within the organization.
 Creating Right-Employee Job Fit: The success of an organization depends on the on-job productivity
of its employees. If they’re rightly placed, they will be able to give the maximum output. In case, they
are not assigned the job that they are good at, it creates a real big problem for both employee as well as
organization. Therefore, fitting a right person in right vacancy is one of the main objectives of job
rotation.
 Exposing Workers to All Verticals of the Company: Another main function of job rotation process is
to exposing workers to all verticals or operations of the organization in order to make them aware how
company operates and how tasks are performed. It gives them a chance to understand the working of the
organization and different issues that crop up while working.
 Testing Employee Skills and Competencies: Testing and analyzing employee skills and competencies
and then assigning them the work that they excel at is one of the major functions of job rotation process.
It is done by moving them to different jobs and assignments and determining their proficiency and
aptitude. Placing them what they are best at increases their on-job productivity.
 Developing a Wider Range of Work Experience: Employees, usually don’t want to change their area
of operations. Once they start performing a specific task, they don’t want to shift from their comfort
zone. Through job rotation, managers prepare them in advance to have a wider range of work
experience and develop different skills and competencies. It is necessary for an overall development of
an individual. Along with this, they understand the problems of various departments and try to adjust or
adapt accordingly.
Job rotation is a well planned management approach that is beneficial both for employees and management.
MENTORING
Mentoring is a relationship in which a senior manager in an organization assumes the responsibility for
grooming a junior person. Technical, interpersonal and political skills are generally conveyed in such a relationship
from the more experienced person.
A mentor is a teacher, spouse, counselor, developer of skills and intellect, host, guide, exemplar, and most
importantly, supporter and facilitator in the realization of the vision the young person has about the kind of life he
wants as an adult.
 The main objective of mentoring is to help an employee attain psychological maturity and effectiveness and
get integrated with the organization.
 In a work situation, such mentoring can take place at both formal and informal levels, depending on the
prevailing work culture and the commitment from the top management.
 Formal mentoring can be very fruitful, if management invests time and money in such relationship building
exercises.
JOB INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE (JIT)
It is a Step by step (structured) on the job training method in which a suitable trainer:
a) Prepares a trainee with an overview of the job, its purpose, and the results desired,
b) Demonstrates the task or the skill to the trainee,
c) Allows the trainee to show the demonstration on his or her own, and
d) Follows up to provide feedback and help. The trainees are presented the learning material in written or
by learning machines through a series called ‘frames’. This method is a valuable tool for all educators
(teachers and trainers). It helps us:
 To deliver step-by-step instruction
 To know when the learner has learned
 To be due diligent (in many work-place environments)
LECTURERS & CONFERENCES
Lecturing method is one of the old and basic employee training methods used by many of the
organizations. More and more training institutions are applying the lecture method for training. In this method
the trainer is active whereas the trainees are passive. Though lecture method is not very much effective, some
extent of informal lecture is inherent in the conduct of any training program to motivate trainees, provide
explanation & analyze relevant exercises.
Considerations: The background, age, cultural difference, knowledge of subject, level of education, likes &
dislikes of the audience should be considered for this method of training. More over the purpose of training &
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basic understanding of the trainees can make lecture method of training effective. Under this method the time
available is an important consideration. It is necessary for the trainer to speak from his own experience and
knowledge as per the requirement of trainees. The contents of lecture should be simple, brief and to the point.
The main theme of the lecture has to be developed in logical sequence. It is necessary to start with simple
concepts and progress towards difficult topics.
Role of Trainer: The trainer should arrive at the specified place in time to check the arrangements for training.
There should be proper standing posture for the trainer to maintain eye contact with different segments of the
audience. A Lecture who gives attention to all parts of the audience uniformly is more successful. The speaker
should be sincere, courteous and enthusiastic for the lecture. Making optimum use of time should be important
consideration for the resource person to deliver lecture. The trainer must have proper planning of the lecture to
create interest among the trainees by including examples, questions and humor according to requirement in the
lecture to be delivered.
Merits: The lecture method of training has the following important merits to be consideration for adoption of
the training method.
 This method is effective to train large number of trainees within limited time available
 Delivery of lecture is useful for communication of basic theoretical knowledge to the learners
 Lecture method is convenient to have one-way transfer of information without any interaction
 Lecture method is less expensive for an organization
Demerits: The lecture method of training has the following important demerits.
 There may not be any scope for clarification of difficult parts of the lecture for the participants
 Repeated lectures may produce staleness and monotony resulting in less absorption of
knowledge by trainees
 It becomes difficult to have proper feedback from the learners by following lecture method of training
COACHING
In coaching the trainee is placed under a senior manager who acts as an guide or coach and teaches job
knowledge and skill to the trainee. He instructs him what he wants him to do, how it can be done etc., and helps
him to correct errors and perform effectively. It is just as track coaches who observe, analyze and attempt to
improve the performance of their athletes. This technique of development is quite rewarding. As the managers
learn by doing. It also creates the opportunities for high level interaction and rapid feedback on performance.
But this has a limitation also as we cannot expect that alt excellent managers will be effective coaches. Thus,
the effectiveness of this technique relies on the ability of the concerned 'coach'.
According to a survey conducted by International Coach Federation (ICF), more than 4,000 companies
are using coach for their executives. These coaches are experts most of the time outside consultants.
A coach is the best training plan for the CEO’s because
 It is one-to-one interaction
 It can be done at the convenience of CEO
 It can be done on phone, meetings, through e-mails, chat
 It provides an opportunity to receive feedback from an expert
 It helps in identifying weaknesses and focus on the area that needs improvement This method best suits
for the people at the top because if we see on emotional front, when a person reaches the top, he gets
lonely and it becomes difficult to find someone to talk to. It helps in finding out the executive’s specific
developmental needs. The needs can be identified through 360 degree performance reviews.
STUDENT-CENTERED LEARNING
Student-centred learning, also known as learner-centred education, broadly encompasses methods of

teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student. In original usage, student-centred
learning aims to develop learner autonomy and independence by putting responsibility for the learning path in
the hands of students. Student-centred instruction focuses on skills and practices that enable lifelong learning
and independent problem-solving. Student-centred learning theory and practice are based on the constructivist
learning theory that emphasizes the learner's critical role in constructing meaning from new information and
prior experience.
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Unit –III contd..,
While student-centred learning has sometimes been criticized as a fuzzy concept that refers to a vague
assortment of teaching strategies, or that means different things to different educators, in recent years some
education reformers and researchers have sought to define the term with greater precision. While the definition
of the term is still evolving, advocates of student-centred learning tend to emphasize a few fundamental
characteristics:
1. Teaching and learning is “personalized,” meaning that it addresses the distinct learning needs, interests,
aspirations, or cultural backgrounds of individual students.
2. Students advance in their education when they demonstrate they have learned the knowledge and skills
they are expected to learn (for a more detailed discussion, see proficiency-based learning).
3. Students have the flexibility to learn “anytime and anywhere,” meaning that student learning can take
place outside of traditional classroom and school-based settings, such as through work-study programs
or online courses, or during non traditional times, such as on nights and weekends.
4. Students are given opportunities to make choices about their own learning and contribute to the design
of learning experiences.
DISCUSSION METHOD
It is one of the intensive participation oriented methodology. The learning through this methodology is by
discussions on the subject matter or any other related themes.
The Discussion method consists a two-way flow of communication i.e. knowledge in the form of lecture
is communicated to trainees, and then understanding is conveyed back by trainees to trainer.
Understanding is conveyed in the form of verbal and non-verbal feedback that enables the trainer to
determine whether the material is understood. If yes, then definitely it would help out the trainees to implement
it at their workplaces and if not, the trainer may need to spend more time on that particular area by presenting
the information again in a different manner.
Questioning can be done by both ways i.e. the trainees and the trainer. When the trainees ask questions,
they explain their thinking about the content of the lecture. A trainer who asks questions stimulates thinking
about the content of the lecture. Asking and responding questions are beneficial to trainees because it enhance
understanding and keep the trainees focused on the content. Besides that, discussions, and interactions allow the
trainee to be actively engaged in the material of the trainer. This activity helps in improving recall.
Advantages of discussion method:
(a) It is a participation oriented method and goes very well with the trainees irrespective of age and
designations.
(b) Because of discussions there is exchange of ideas and experiences. The effect of synergy takes place and
powerful ideas and solutions emerge out.
(c) It is a self-learning methodology and participants need not solely depend upon the trainers for learning.
The learning is spontaneous and almost automatic.
(d) The trainees get immediate on the spot feedback from the co-trainees about the opinions and experiences.
Disadvantages of discussion method:
 It is time-consuming because sometimes everyone wants to add to the discussion.
 Many times the discussions are side tracked from the main objective.
 Some trainees may dominate the discussion.
There are some trainees who keep silent throughout the discussions. The outcome and decisions of discussions
may be too much controversial in nature and as such no solutions are arrived at even after the prolonged
individual or group discussions.
known and popular method applicable to all groups of trainees, especially in giving training to supervisors,
managers and executives.
OFF THE JOB METHODS OF MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT
There are many management development techniques that an employee can take in off the job. The few
popular methods are:
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CASE STUDIES
It is a written description of an actual situation in the past in same organisation or somewhere else and
trainees are supposed to analyze and give their conclusions in writing. This is another excellent method to
ensure full and whole hearted participation of employees and generates good interest among them. Case is later
discussed by instructor with all the pros and cons of each option. It is an ideal method to promote decision-
making abilities within the constraints of limited data.
Case studies are complex examples which give an insight into the context of a problem as well as
illustrating the main point. Case Studies are trainee centered activities based on topics that demonstrate
theoretical concepts in an applied setting.
A case study allows the application of theoretical concepts to be demonstrated, thus bridging the gap
between theory and practice, encourage active learning, provides an opportunity for the development of key
skills such as communication, group working and problem solving, and increases the trainees” enjoyment of the
topic and hence their desire to learn.
MANAGEMENT EDUCATION
At present universities and management institutes gives great emphasis on management education. For e.g.,
Mumbai University has started bachelors and postgraduate degree in Management. Many management
Institutes provide not only degrees but also hands on experience having collaboration with business concerns.
SEMINARS
Seminars are short term training programmes arranged for a few days - a day or two or maximum three
days. Seminars are convened to have in depth discussion on a subject from the view of various view points. In
seminars there are presentation of papers by various authors related to the theme followed by discussions
questions and answers. Participants are participating in discussions and as whole seminars help the trainees to
broaden their knowledge and outlook. At the end of the session the participants can come out with
recommendations.
Advantages
(a) This method is helping participants to listen the views, opinions, Research findings etc. through the
papers presented by the experts. Otherwise it might have taken considerable time of trainees to gather
such knowledge by reading books and discussing.
(b) Some seminars are forceful and thought provoking. It facilitates participants to change their attitudes
and opinions.
(c) In seminars, the trainees are given the opportunity of listening to the experts from different fields, but
related to the issues in discussion.
Disadvantages
Generally the audience for the seminar is is too big. The individual attention in training situation is not
possible. Many seminars have are just become rituals without giving much thought to the issues. As a result no
purpose is achieved by convening seminars. Interactions between participants are very much 1imi ted.
CONFERENCES
It is a methodology suited to executives and senior officers in dealing with a complex problem which
requires the contributions from senior officers to solve the same. The issues and the subject matters of the
conference have been intimated to the delegates and participants, well in advance and they prepare the papers
and related materials for the conference. The delegates present and explain on the various aspects of the
problem. The participants also are given chances to put forth their views during the discussion hours. At the end
of the conference solutions and recommendations are made based On the deliberations and discussions.
The main advantage of this method is that it suits to bigger groups and participants are benefited by
listening to various senior level speakers. They are induced to think over the problems, issues and solutions.
The disadvantage of this method is that it is not participation oriented and the trainees are inactive
during the programmes. It is difficult to find out whether the trainees learn anything or not.
WORKSHOP- AN INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD
Workshop is defined as assembled group of ten to twenty five persons who share a common interest or
problem. They meet together to improve their individual skill of a subject through intensive study, research,
practice and discussion.
The term workshop has been borrowed from engineering… In these workshops persons have to do some
task with their hand to produce something. Question Bank Workshops are organized in education to prepare
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questions on the subject. The designers are given knowledge and training for preparing questions in the
workshop.
Objectives of Workshop
 Cognitive Objectives: The workshop is organized to achieve the following cognitive objectives:
 To solve the problem in teaching profession.
 To provide the philosophical and sociological background for instructional and teaching situation.
 To identify the educational objectives in the present context.
 To develop an understanding regarding the use of a theme and problem.
 Psychomotor Objectives: The following objectives are achieved by this method under psychomotor
domain:
 To develop the proficiency for planning and organizing teaching and instructional activities.
 To develop the skills to perform a task independently.
 To determine and use of teaching strategies effectively.
 To train the persons for using different approaches of teaching.
Advantages of Workshop Method
 It can be use to realize the higher cognitive and psychomotor objectives. The workshop method enables
the learner to explore or master relatively abstract ideas by first encountering them in concrete, physical
embodiments, then as pictorial representations, and finally in symbolic (letter, number, sentence) form.
 It can be effectively used for developing understanding and proficiency for the approaches and practices
in education. It is used for developing and improving professional efficiency. The teaching proficiency
can be developed by using it.
 It develops the feeling cooperation and group work or team work. . The workshop method helps the
instructor create an environment in which the learner is more likely to be involved and motivated. The
workshop method focuses on participatory, hands-on learning; small-group activity and problem
solving; pair and small-group discussions; etc. As a result, because of the “active” rather than “passive”
nature of the experience, larger numbers of learners are motivated to participate and learn.
 It provides the situation to study the vocational problems.
 It introduces new practices and innovations in Education.
Limitations of Workshop Method
 Workshops in education are usually seminar cum workshop on any theme of problem.
 The teachers do not take interest to understand and use the new practices in their classrooms.
 The workshop cannot be organized for large group so that large number of persons is not trained.
 Participants do not take interest in practical work or to do something in productive form.
 Generally follow up are not organized in workshop technique.
 It requires a lot of time for participant and staff.
 A large number of staff members are needed to handle participation.
 It demands special facilities or materials.
SYNDICATE METHOD
The administrative Staff College at Henley-on-Thames and at Hyderabad have contributed to this method. The
Staff Colleges in India and abroad follow syndicate method in their training and allied programmes. It is a
widely known and popular method applicable to all groups of trainees, especially in giving training to
supervisor’s managers and executives.
In this method, the trainees have been divided into sub groups, called as syndicates and each syndicate
has to work on various subjects. The syndicates discuss the issues related to the subject and prepare a paper.
The issues may be an integrated one involving all the departments in an organization and the members of
syndicate will be selected from a cross section of organizations. The syndicate has to complete the task assigned
with specified limited date and time. Additional problems may be announced here and there to bring pressure
on syndicates.
The nomination of office bearers of syndicates like chairman, secretary etc are by rotation and so
everyone gets a chance. In some cases Resource persons and facilitators are appointed to keep in touch with the
group and to motivate them to achieve the assigned task. Even experts lectures and guidance are arranged from
outside wherever necessary.
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Trainer provides each syndicate a carefully prepared document stating the issues and problems to be discussed
by the syndicate.
This is the base paper for the discussion. The paper prepared by the syndicates is circulated among all the
syndicates for evaluation and to give critical remarks and suggestions.
Towards the end of the session each syndicate presents the paper in the final form and followed by elaborate
discussions with the groups. The Chairman of the syndicate presents the paper and he with his syndicate
members answers and clarifies to the questions and doubts of the other trainees in the group.
Advantages of Syndicate Method
 All the participants are getting involved in the syndicate sessions actively.
 It cultivates leadership qualities since the filing up of president and secretary posts are by rotation. It is a
self learning and development process
 because each of the syndicate member comes out with his knowledge, experiences and skills.
 Generally, the whole issue is discussed in an interested fashion and the trainees look at the problem
from many angles - production, marketing, finance, personnel etc.
 The syndicates formed for certain definite purpose and the group cohesiveness is enhanced along with
competitiveness and conflicting interests. The existence of the syndicate is for some fixed duration and
there is consistent interactions and understanding between trainees.
Disadvantages of the method
 If the syndicates consist of members with wider interests and views, there may be presence of
disagreement on issues till the end.
 The syndicates should be carefully structured by trailers. The wrongly or hurriedly structured
syndicates do not contribute anything.
 There is no guarantee that every member of syndicate will participate in the process of learning. The
participation of members may be lop sided.
BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is the name given to a situation when a group of people meet to generate new ideas around a
specific area of interest. Using rules which remove inhibitions, people are able to think more freely and move
into new areas of thought and so create numerous new ideas and solutions. The participants shout out ideas as
they occur to them and then build on the ideas raised by others. All the ideas are noted down and are not
criticized. Only when the brainstorming session is over are the ideas evaluated.
This is the traditional way brainstorming is done. The aim of this website is to train you in the methods of
traditional brainstorming and then to move on and discover a series of advanced techniques available to you.
Some other definitions:

 Brainstorming is a process for generating new ideas
 Brainstorming is "a conference technique by which a group attempts to find a solution for a specific
problem by amassing all the ideas spontaneously by its members" - Alex Osborn
 To brainstorm is to use a set of specific rules and techniques which encourage and spark off new ideas
which would never have happened under normal circumstances
Traditional Brainstorming
The normal view of brainstorming is where a group of people sit in a room and shout out ideas as they occur to
them. They are told to lose their inhibitions and that no ideas will be judged so that people are free to shout out
any ideas at all without feeling uncomfortable. People should build on the ideas called out by other participants.
The purpose of this is to gain as many ideas as possible for later analysis. Out of the many ideas suggested there
will be some of great value. Because of the free-thinking environment, the session will help promote radical
new ideas which break free from normal ways of thinking.
Advanced Brainstorming
The model we propose is an extension of the traditional brainstorming scenario and makes the whole process
easier and more effective. Advanced brainstorming builds on the current methods of brainstorming to produce
more original ideas in a more efficient way. Specialized techniques, better processes and better awareness,
combined with new technologies, make traditional brainstorming a less frustrating process. Most of the
problems associated with traditional brainstorming disappear as a more effective process is used. Keep on
reading for more details of how you can do advanced brainstorming for great profit to you and your
organization.
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Unit –III contd..,
ROLE PLAYING PSYCHO DRAMA
During a role play, the trainees assume roles and act out situations connected to the learning concepts.
It is good for customer service and training. This method is also called ‘role-reversal’, ‘socio-drama’ or
‘psycho-drama’. Here trainees act out a given role as they would in a stage play. Two or more trainees are
assigned roles in a given situation, which is explained to the group. There are no written lines to be said and,
naturally, no rehearsals. The role players have to quickly respond to the situation that is ever changing and to
react to it as they would in the real one. It is a method of human interaction which involves realistic behaviour
in an imaginary or hypothetical situation. Role playing primarily involves employee-employer relationships,
hiring, firing, discussing a grievance problem, conducting a post appraisal interview, disciplining a subordinate,
or a salesman making presentation to a customer.
SIMULATIONS
Games and simulations are structured competitions and operational models that emulate real-life scenarios. The
benefits of games and simulations include the improvement of problem-solving and decision-making skills, a greater
understanding of the organizational whole, the ability to study actual problems, and the power to capture the
student's interest.
EQUIPMENT SIMULATORS
Equipment simulators are the mechanical devices that necessitate trainees to use some actions, plans,
measures, trials, movements, or decision processes they would use with equipment back on the their respective
work place.
This is the technique of working up a real thing, in which a situation is created and attempt is to made to
make it resembled to the actual situation. So a duplicate atmosphere but like original sense is created. Trainees
are assigned different roles in that situation and they
The literature on socio-technical approaches to organizational development provides guidelines for the
design or redesign of tools. Human Resource professionals involved in propose of simulators and their pre-
testing should engage those who will be using the equipment and their supervisors. Their input can help in
reducing the potential resistance, errors in the equipment and more importantly, it also increases the degree of
reliability between the simulation and the work setting.
Equipment simulators can be used in giving training to:
1. Air Traffic Controllers
2. Taxi Drivers
3. Telephone Operators
4. Ship Navigators
5. Maintenance Workers
6. Product Development Engineers
7. Airline Pilots
8. Military Officers
IN-BASKET GAMES
These are more elaborate simulation exercises in which a complex organization is created in the form of an
office environment. The trainees work in an office setting with their in-basket full of interdepartmental memos,
letters, reports, forecasts and other data on their desks, as one receives in an office.
The normal phone calls, emails and face to face meetings also keep on happening to give a real office-like
environment. Such a simulation of the office in-basket familiarizes the trainees with the role that they are
expected to play. They also get acquainted with the nature of communication that they have to perform in the
work-settings.
Critical incidents are also included in the in-basket to familiarize to the trainees.
While this is one of the most real-life experiences, the trainees might get carried away with the enactment of the
scene and might not achieve the desired goal, i.e. learning.
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-END OF THE UNIT -III=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
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UNIT IV
SENSITIVITY TRAINING
INTRODUCTION
Sensitivity training involves such groupings as --T groups (T for training), encounter groups, laboratory
training groups, and human awareness groups are all names usually associated with what is known as sensitivity
training. Sensitivity training is about making people understand about themselves and others reasonably, which
is done by developing in them social sensitivity and behavioural flexibility.
 Social sensitivity in one word is empathy. It is ability of an individual to sense what others feel and
think from their own point of view.
 Behavioural flexibility is ability to behave suitably in light of understanding.
PROCEDURES OF SENSITIVITY TRAINING
1. Unfreezing the old values –It requires that the trainees become aware of the inadequacy of the old values.
This can be done when the trainee faces dilemma in which his old values is not able to provide proper guidance.
The first step consists of a small procedure:
 An unstructured group of 10-15 people is formed.
 Unstructured group without any objective looks to the trainer for its guidance
 But the trainer refuses to provide guidance and assume leadership
 Soon, the trainees are motivated to resolve the uncertainty
 Then, they try to form some hierarchy. Some try assume leadership role which may not be liked by
other trainees
 Then, they started realizing that what they desire to do and realize the alternative ways of dealing with
the situation
2. Development of new values – With the trainer’s support, trainees begin to examine their interpersonal
behavior and giving each other feedback. The reasoning of the feedbacks are discussed which motivates
trainees to experiment with range of new behaviors and values. This process constitutes the second step in the
change process of the development of these values.
3. Refreezing the new ones – This step depends upon how much opportunity the trainees get to practice their
new behaviors and values at their work place.
GOALS OF SENSITIVITY TRAINING
While the emphases, styles and specific goals of the multitude of sensitivity training programs vary,
there does seem to be some consensus as to general goals. These include:
 Increased understanding, insight, and self awareness about one's own behavior and its impact on others,
including the ways in which others interpret one's behavior.
 Increased understanding and sensitivity about the behavior of others, including better interpretation of both
verbal and nonverbal clues, which increases awareness and understanding of what the other person is
thinking and feeling.
 Better understanding and awareness of group and intergroup processes, both those that facilitate and those
that inhibit group functioning.
 Increased diagnostic skills in interpersonal and intergroup situations. For the authors, the accomplishments
of the first three objectives provide the basic tools for accomplishing the fourth objective.
 Increased ability to transform learning into action, so that real life interventions will be more successful in
increasing member effectiveness, satisfaction, output, or effectiveness.
 Improvement in individuals' ability to analyze their own interpersonal behavior, as well as to learn how to
help themselves and others with whom they come in contact to achieve more satisfying, rewarding, and
effective interpersonal relationships.
OUTCOMES OF SENSITIVITY TRAINING
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The outcomes they depict (self and organization) are only possibilities, and cannot be guaranteed for
everyone attending a sensitivity training program. This is because some participants do not learn or learn very
little from a T group experience, others learn some things, and others learn a considerable amount and variety
of things and because programs vary so much in terms of their nature and goals. Possible outcomes are as
follows:
Self
 Increased awareness of own feelings and reactions, and own impact on others.
 Increased awareness of feelings and reactions of others, and their impact on self.
 Increased awareness of dynamics of group action.
 Changed attitudes toward self, others, and groups; i.e., more respect for, tolerance for, and faith in self,
others, and groups.
 Increased interpersonal competence; i.e., skill in handling interpersonal and group relationships toward
more productive and satisfying relationships.
Organization
 Increased awareness of, changed attitudes toward, and increased interpersonal competence about
organizational problems of interdependent groups or units.
 Organizational improvement through the training of relationships or groups rather than isolated
individuals.
SELF LEARNING TECHNIQUES
Communication of learning goals between a student and the advising faculty member is critical. Learning
contracts are highly recommended tools for successful self-directed learning. Learning contracts generally
include:
 Goals for the unit of study
 Structure and sequence of activities
 A timeline for completion of activities
 Details about resource materials for each goal
 Details about grading procedures
 A section for advising faculty member feedback and evaluation as each goal is completed
 A plan for regular meetings with the advising faculty member and other unit policies, such as work
turned in late
Students also need to understand their approach to studying:
 Deep approach involves transforming – to understand ideas for yourself; be able to apply knowledge to
new situations and use novel examples to explain a concept; learn more than is required for unit
completion – most ideal for self-directed learning.
 Surface approach involves reproducing – to cope with unit requirements; learn only what is required to
complete unit in good standing; tend to regurgitate examples and explanations used in readings.
 Strategic approach involves organizing – to achieve the highest possible grades; learn what is required
to pass exams; memorize facts as given in lecture; spend much time practicing from past exams; most
concerned with whether material will appear on exam.
PLANNED READING
In reading assignments the participants are made to read books, periodicals, articles, magazines related
to the subject matter of the training programme. They are also asked to make notes or prepare papers which can
be shared with other co trainees in the class room. This method helps the participants to have wider knowledge
in the area of training. Particular topics are also given to the trainees for reading and they have to perform the
task within a given time limit.
CORRESPONDENCE COURSES
The Indian Society for Training & Development (ISTD), established in April 1970, is a national level
professional & non-profit society registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. It has a large
membership of individuals and institutions involved in the area of training and development of Human
Resource from Government, Public and Private Sector Organization & Enterprises; Educational and Training
Institutions and other Professional Bodies.
The Society is affiliated to the International Federation of Training and Development Organizations
(IFTDO), USA and Asian Regional Training and Development Organizations (ARTDO), Manila.
ISTD Organizes Training Programs, all over the country both at Chapter and National Levels. The Programs
cover selected areas of HRD with special emphasis on Training of Trainers, Training Goals & Objectives and
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Training Tools & Technologies. A very large number of Public and Private Sector Organizations, Training
Institutions Central And State Government participate in these programs, some of which have been held in
collaboration with Planning Commission, Bureau of Public Enterprises and the Training Division of
Department of Personnel , Government of India.
The Society publishes a Quarterly Journal, "Indian Journal of Training and Development".
The ISTD Diploma in Training & Development, conducts a Distance Learning Programme of 18
month's duration for the purposes of recruitment to superior posts under the Central Government and PSUs is
also recognized by the Department of Personnel and Training DoPT), Govt. of India under its Faculty
Development Scheme and by many of the corporates for appointments in their organizations.
ISTD has been designated as the National Nodal Agency to `Testing and Certification' of Skilled
Workers in the organized and unorganized sectors.
ISTD is managed by a National Council, headed by a President at the apex level and Managing
Committees headed by a Chairman at the Chapter level. They are assisted by other office bearers and functional
committees in a wide spectrum of activities.
PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
Its main focus is to bring desirable change in the cognitive domain of the learner’s behavior. The
structure of teaching method is that the selected content is analyzed and broken into smaller elements. Each
element is independent and complete in itself. The programmer develops frames based on each element.
Responses are also provided to the learner in the program on some different leaflets. The correct response of the
learner is the new knowledge or new behavior. Immediate confirmation of correct response provides
reinforcement to the learner and he proceeds to the next frame. Wrong responses required feedback. Physical
presence of the teacher is not necessary. He may come to give instructions regarding the program. Students are
left for learning at their own pace.
Types of Programmed Instruction
There are three types of this teaching strategy
1. Linear Programming. It is being used for teaching all subjects. In programmed teaching strategy
progressive chain elements are presented. Last step is at the mastery level. It is based on five fundamental
principles.
 Small steps
 Active responding
 Immediate confirmation
 Self-pace
 Student testing
2. Branched Programming. It is generally used in mechanical fields.
3. Mathematics. Retrogressive chain of elements is presented. First step is the master level while the last step
is the simplest element.
Advantages of Programmed Instruction
Following are the advantages of this teaching strategy
 The main emphasis is on individual differences and students’ involvement.
 There is not fixed time interval for learning. Students may learn at their own pace.
 Learning by doing maxim of teaching is followed to involve learners in the learning process.
 Students are exposed only to correct responses, therefore, possibility to commit errors in reduced.
 Immediate confirmation of the results provides reinforcement to the learners and encourages the learners to
proceed further. Feedback is provided to wrong answers, so that learner is able to develop mastery over the
content.
Disadvantages of Programmed Instruction
 It is very difficult to develop an instructional programme
 Only cognitive objectives can be achieved
 Due to tight schedule of time table, students cannot be left to learn at their own pace. It would be very
difficult to learn the content the subject matter in a limited period of time.
 There is no chance for students’ creativity, their responses are highly structured.
 Development of programme is not economical in terms of cost and time
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Unit – IV contd..,
AUDIO VISUAL LESSONS
Introduction
Audio Visual Aids are also called instructional material. Audio literally means “hearing” and “visual”
means that which is found by seeing. So all such aids, which endeavor to make the knowledge clear to us
through our sense are called “Audio Visual Aids” or Instructional Material. All these learning material make
the learning situations as real as possible and give us firsthand knowledge through the organs of hearing and
seeing. Therefore, any device which can be used to make the learning experience more concrete and effective,
more realistic and dynamic can be considered audio visual material.
We learn through our sense organs. Senses are the ways of knowledge. All the sense organs help us in
understanding the environment. Most of the knowledge, which we acquire from the school, comes through our
ears and eyes.
Audio Visual Aids Definition
According to Burton, These are sensory objectives and images which stimulate and emphasis on
learning process. Carter V. Good. It is a trainable (motivation, classification and stimulation) process of
learning.
Objectives of Teaching Aids
1. To enhance teachers skills which help to make teaching-learning process effective
2. Make learners active in the classroom
3. Communicate them according to their capabilities
4. Develop lesson plan and build interest
5. To make students good observer
6. Develop easy and understandable learning material
7. Follow child cornered learning process
8. Involve intimation in objectives
9. To create interest in different groups
10. To make teaching process more effective
1. Age: Age would be a definite deciding factor in the choice of material, as children have a shorter attention
span than adults, you need to vary your materials to keep them interested and motivated. Adults on the other
hand can do with much less visual stimulation and your lessons are much longer in comparison to a lesson
with a group of young children.
2. Number of students: This also plays an important part in choosing Teaching Aids. The size of your class
could vary; you could be giving an individual one-one lesson or addressing a class of say perhaps 25
students. You would use The OHP, interactive board, audio and visuals Teaching Aids for instructions to
groups. Individuals would most likely benefit more from a personal approach and individualized aids.
3. Student level: An important aspect of teaching groups of students learning English as a second language is
the fact that all your students are at different levels in their acquisition of the language. You have to vary
your Teaching Aids so that all students gain maximum benefit, regardless of the level makes sure the
material is appropriate and grabs the student’s attention.
4. Different kinds of learning styles: After spending some time with your students you will soon understand
each student’s unique learning style. Students can be visual/spatial, kinaesthetic, auditory, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, linguistic or mathematical. The materials used for teaching should be a mix of media and
multimedia to appeal to all learners. It may sound overwhelming as to how to choose material suitable to
reach the needs of all these different kinds of learners.
TYPES- MANUALS & HAND-OUTS

There are many different types of visual aids. The following advice will help you make the most of
those most commonly used.
 PowerPoint (or equivalent): Microsoft PowerPoint is probably now the most commonly used form of
visual aid. Used well, it can really help you in your presentation; used badly, however, it can have the
opposite effect. The general principles are:
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Do Don't
 use a big enough font (minimum 20pt)  make it so small you can't read it
 keep the background simple  use a fussy background image
 but don't over-do the animation - it gets
 use animations when appropriate
distracting
 use endless slides of bulleted lists that all
 make things visual
look the same
 Overhead projector slides/transparencies: Overhead projector slides/transparencies are displayed on the

overhead projector (OHP) - a very useful tool found in most lecture and seminar rooms. The OHP projects
and enlarges your slides onto a screen or wall without requiring the lights to be dimmed. You can produce
your slides in three ways:
 Pre-prepared slides: these can be words or images either hand written/drawn or produced on a
computer;
 Spontaneously produced slides: these can be written as you speak to illustrate your points or to record
comments from the audience;
 A mixture of each: try adding to pre-prepared slides when making your presentation to show
movement, highlight change or signal detailed interrelationships.
 White or black board: White or black boards can be very useful to help explain the sequence of ideas or
routines, particularly in the sciences. Use them to clarify your title or to record your key points as you
introduce your presentation (this will give you a fixed list to help you recap as you go along). Rather than
expecting the audience to follow your spoken description of an experiment or process, write each stage on
the board, including any complex terminology or precise references to help your audience take accurate
notes.
 Paper handouts: Handouts are incredibly useful. Use a handout if your information is too detailed to fit on
a slide or if you want your audience to have a full record of your findings. Consider the merits of passing
round your handouts at the beginning, middle and end of a presentation. Given too early and they may
prove a distraction. Given too late and your audience may have taken too many unnecessary notes. Given
out in the middle and your audience will inevitably read rather than listen. One powerful way of avoiding
these pitfalls is to give out incomplete handouts at key stages during your presentation. You can then
highlight the missing details vocally, encouraging your audience to fill in the gaps.
 Flip chart: A flip chart is a large pad of paper on a stand. It is a very useful and flexible way of recording
information during your presentation - you can even use pre-prepared sheets for key points. Record
information as you go along, keeping one main idea to each sheet. Flip back through the pad to help you
recap your main points. Use the turning of a page to show progression from point to point. Remember to
make your writing clear and readable and your diagrams as simple as possible.
 Video (DVD or VHS): Video gives you a chance to show stimulating visual information. Use video to
bring movement, pictures and sound into your presentation. Always make sure that the clip is directly
relevant to your content. Tell your audience what to look for. Avoid showing any more film than you need.
DESIGNING VISUAL AIDS

There are many different rules for designing visual aids, some of which will apply directly to different kinds of
equipment. In general, sticking to the following guidelines will produce high quality visual images:
 use one simple idea for each visual;
 make the text and diagrams clear and readable;
 avoid cluttering the image;
 keep your images consistent (use the same font, titles, lay out etc. for each image);
 Make sure your images are of a high quality (check for spelling and other errors).
Always remember that an audience should be able to understand a visual image in a matter of seconds.
Room layout
50 | P a g e
Remember that your audience needs to be able to see you as well as your visual aids. Try to involve every
member of your audience by changing the layout of your room. Below are some suggested layouts to help
maximise contact between you, your audience and your visual aids.
(Spe
a king
to
small audiences) (Speaking to larger audiences)
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-END OF THE UNIT -IV=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=

Publishing House
UNIT V
COUNSELING
MEANING: In this case, the superior plays a passive role in training the subordinate. The superior may
assign challenging task to the subordinate for the purpose of training. The superior may provide advice to the
subordinate in the completion of task, if so required. In this case, the superior acts as a guide rather than a coach
n training the subordinate.
TYPES OF COUNSELING
DIRECTIVE COUNSELING PARTICIPATIVE COUNSELING NON-DIRECTIVE COUNSELING
FULL DIRECTION NO DIRECTION
 Directive counseling:
It involves listening to an employee’s problems, deciding with the employee what should be done, and
telling him how to do it. Directive counseling is in the form of giving advice. This counseling is followed
mostly in superior-subordinate relationships and is useful in overcoming major problems.
 Participative counseling:
It is also known as co-operative counseling, is a mutual counselor-counselee relationship that establishes
a cooperative exchange of ideas to help solve a counselee’s problems. In this counseling, the counselor and
counselee mutually apply their knowledge, perspectives, and values to problems. Participative counseling
starts with the listening of counselee’s problems and as the discussion proceeds, the role of counselor
increases in diagnosing the problems.
 Non – Directive Counseling: Non-directive counseling or client-centered, counseling is the extreme end of
counseling continuum. It is the process of skillfully listening to and encouraging a counselee to explain
troublesome problems, understanding them, and determine appropriate solutions. Its focus is on counselee
51 | P a g e
rather than on counselor. For a non-directive counseling, the counselor has to develop rapport with
counselee to get maximum possible information. Sometimes, the counselee may perceive some information
as unimportant having no relation with his problem though such information may be relevant to understand
the problem correctly. Therefore, the counselor should have skills to bring such information from the
counselee.
ASSISTANT TO POSITION OR UNDERSTUDY POSITION

The trainee is given an understudy position. The trainee handles some important aspects of his
superior’s job. The trainee, at a future date, is likely to assume the duties and responsibilities of the position
currently held by his immediate superior.
The understudy technique ensures a company that a fully qualified person will be available to take over a
present manager’s position whenever he leaves the position through promotion, transfer, retirement or
resignation.
The understudy person is generally asked to do the following :
 He may be asked to investigate and make written recommendations about problems an projects related
to a unit or department.
 He may also supervise a small group of employees to experience leadership qualities.
 He may be called to attend executive meetings either with or in place of the superiors.
 He may be called to assume superior’s position in his absence.
JUNIOR BOARDS
In western countries, junior boards are formed. It permits promising young middle-level managers to
experience problems and responsibilities faced by top-level executives in their company. About 10 to 12
executives from diverse functions within the organization serve on the board for a term of say 6 months or
more.
The board is allowed to study any problem faced by the organization, in respect of personnel policies,
organizational design, interdepartmental conflicts, etc, and to make recommendations to the senior board of
directors.
COMMITTEE ASSIGNMENTS
In this method trainees are asked to solve an actual organizational problem. The trainees have to work
together and offer solution to the problems. Assigning talented employees to important committees can give
these employees a broadening experience and can help them to understand the personality issues and processes
governing the organization. It helps them to develop team spirit and work in a united way towards common
goals. However, managers should very well understand that committee assignments could become notorious
time wasting activities.
The above on the job methods are cost effective. Workers actually produce while they learn. Since
immediate feedback is available they motivate trainees to observe and learn the right way of doing things. Very
few problems arise in the case of transfer of training because the employees learn in the actual work
environment where the skills that are learnt are actually used. On the job methods may cause disruptions in
production schedules. Experienced workers cannot use the facilities that are used in training. Poor learners may
damage machinery and equipment. Finally, if the trainer does not possess teaching skills there are very little
benefits to the trainee.
RELATIVE MERITS AND LIMITATIONS OF M.D. TECHNIQUES

Advantages of on the job management development method:
 Simple to administer: On the job management development is simple to administer. Learner managers are
allowed working in actual working condition. They implement the theoretical knowledge into practice. So,
the objectives of the program can be achieved easily.
 Cost effective: This method is less costly because additional manpower is not essential during the
development period. At the same time additional space and experts are also not necessary. All these
provision reduce the management development cost.
 Less time consuming: This method consumes less time for transfer of the skills and knowledge. They work
in regular job responsibilities as well. Learning by doing facilitates quick learning.
52 | P a g e
 No delay in operation: This method allows to work during the development period as well. There will be no
shortage of managers to conduct regular activities. So, because of on the job management development
programs, there is no chance of delay in operation.
Disadvantages of on the job management development method:

 Defective output: Trainee managers lack sufficient knowledge and skills to accomplish their job. But, in
this method, they conduct job activities during their training period. Because of this reason, their
performance output may be defective. This may not be retrieved at managerial level.
 Low productivity: Trainee managers have to work in their job station at the regular basis during the
management development period as well. They have to work under the supervision of other managers. They
need to learn for this they have to ask, consult and need instruction from other senior and experienced
managers. Because of this, regular and experienced managers also get disturbed. This reduces the overall
productivity of organization.
 Lack of seriousness: Trainee managers may lack seriousness specially in internship for their job
responsibilities. Such attitude of the managers may negatively affect to the organizational image.
Advantages of Off the job management development method:

 No errors on performance: Since the trainee managers participate in management development program,
they do not influence in regular activities of organizations. There is no chance of negative effect of trainee
managers on the performance of organization. This protects the management having error in managerial
performance.
 Cost effective: In this method, maximum trainee managers can be included in same program. This helps to
reduce the cost of management development.
 Planned development: In this method, trainee managers get knowledge and skills as per the plan and
schedule. Managerial jobs do not require skills and knowledge at regular basis. So, on the job management
program cannot impart knowledge in schedule. This problem can be overcome in off the job management
development method.
 High productivity: Trainee managers do not involve in regular managerial job responsibilities. Therefore
there will be no effect in the performance output. Wastage and errors can be minimized. This helps to
increase the overall productivity.
Disadvantages of off the job management development method:

 Less effective: Trainee managers do not get chance to implement skills and knowledge of the program
immediately to the practice. Immediate feedback cannot be obtained. Managers may show the positive
impression even without being clear in the subject matter. So, this method is less effective in comparison to
on the job management development.
 Effect on regular activities: Trainee managers do not attend regular job during the management
development. This affects on the regular managerial activities of organization. There may be negative
impact to the customer and other concern parties which reduces the image of organization.
 No base for future programs: Organizations invest huge amount on management development programs
outside the organization. This investment does not support to the future development programs.
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-END OF THE UNIT -V=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=

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ALL THE BEST
53 | P a g e

Jairam Arts& Science College, Salem - 8 Staff Code: Sbua16 Class: Iii Bba Subject: Training and Development DATE: 13.06.17

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TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT III BBA

JAIRAM ARTS& SCIENCE COLLEGE, SALEM – 8

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

According to Wayne F Cascio, ―Training consists of planned programme designed to improve

TRAINING, DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT

Training is also different from education in the following respects:

 Training usually has mere immediate utilitarian purpose than education.

Benefits of Training to Employers

Benefits of Training to Employees

DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME

IDENTIFICATION OF TRAINING NEEDS

 Organizational Analysis: Organizational analysis is basically a systematic study of an organization’s

Fig: Design of a Training Programme

ORGANIZATION FOR TRAINING

Organizational Set-Up for Training

Advantages of having in-house training center:

JAIRAM ARTS& SCIENCE COLLEGE, SALEM – 8

Specific Objective of Training

TRAINING DELIVERY COMPETENCIES

1. Analyze material 4. Manage Learning 12. Evaluate Learner

11. Use Media 5. Communication Skills

10. Use Training

U-Shaped Conference Table Traditional Classroom Theatre Style

Cluster or Team Style

STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF TRAINING DEPARTMENT

HRD or PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT

Industrial Wages Labor Training & Administration

STRUCTURES TRAINING DEPARTMENT

ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TRAINING

JAIRAM ARTS& SCIENCE COLLEGE, SALEM – 8

EXECUTION OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES

REVIEWING THE AGENDA

ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES FOR THE TRAINERS

EVALUATION OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES

NEED FOR EVALUATION

Pre-Training Before the

During the Ongoing

Post Training After the

4. Learning Learning Outcome Learning Learning

Ultimate Follow up and

HAMBLIN MODEL OF EVALUATION

KIRKPATRICK’S DESIGN OF EVALUATION

Examples of resources and techniques for level one:

Examples of tools and procedures for level two:

 LEVEL 3- BEHAVIOR: What changes in job-behavior resulted

Examples of assessment resources and techniques for level three:

Types of assessment strategies and tools used for level four:

WARR’S FRAMEWORK OF EVALUATION

VIRMANI AND PREMILA’ MODEL OF EVALUATION

PETER BRAMELY’S MODEL OF EVALUATION

JAIRAM ARTS& SCIENCE COLLEGE, SALEM – 8

STAGE – III Post-Training Evaluation

Some of the major benefits of job rotation are:

JOB INSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE (JIT)

TRAINING BY SUPERVISORS: (UNDERSTUDY)

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF ON THE JOB TRAINING

OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING METHODS

Procedure of the Case Study Method

Case Study method focuses on:

Specifically, business games aim to enhance the participants’ understanding of:

Design and Methodology of Organizing the Games

GRID TRAINING (Managerial grid)