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Strut-and-Tie Model: Part 2 - Determining

STM
January 19, 2022

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BLOG BRIDGE INSIGHT

Strut-and-Tie Model
Contents
1. Introduction

2. Determining the Geometry of a Strut and Tie Model

3. 3D Strut and Tie Model - Downloadable Example

4. References
 
 

1. Introduction
 
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In Part 1, the basics of the Strut and Tie Model (STM) were covered. In Part 2, we will cover the method of
determining STM considering the strut, tie, and nodal zone, and how to calculate the forces required for
design. The verification and rebar detailing of the strut, tie, and nodal zone strength for each design
standard will be covered in Part 3.
 
Various design standards in each country not only recommend using the Strut and Tie Model for deep beam
design, but also suggest various considerations that must be taken.
 

AASHTO LRFD
5.6.3 Strut-and-Tie Model

ACI 318-08
APPENDIX A – STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS

Eurocode 1992-1-1
6.4 Analysis with strut and tie models

5 Design with strut and tie models

CEB-FIP Model Code 09

6.8. DEEP BEAMS AND DISCONTINUITY REGIONS
 
 

2. Determining the Geometry of Strut and Tie Model

 
 
One of the most difficult factors for engineers when determining the Strut and Tie Model is determining the
geometry. There are a lot of things to consider when deciding where and how to place struts and ties, and
that’s why a lot of research is still being conducted. In the design standard, it is suggested that struts be
placed considering the flow of loads or stresses. Additionally, depending on the strut arrangement method,
the load transfer method is expressed with the following terms: arch mechanism, truss mechanism, and
combined mechanism. In order to arrange the ties, the details of the reinforcement must be considered.
Furthermore, the node, nodal zone, bearing face, etc., must be determined according to the design
conditions to obtain the desired calculation results. However, as the shape of the structure becomes more
complex, it is very difficult to check the flow of forces and stresses and arrange the struts and ties
according to the load transfer mechanism.
 
The example used in this article is an STM of 4 piles cap as shown in the figure below. We hope this
example helps you with your understanding of how to determine the geometry of an STM.
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Figure 1: Example images of a Pier and a 4 Piles Cap

 
 
 
A. Tie
 
The most important this when determining the location of the tie is that it should be placed at the center of
the tensile reinforcement. As stated in Figure 5. “Effective Width of Ties” in Part 1, since the method
presented by each design standard is different, it must be checked before deciding the location of the ties.

If the layer of reinforcement increases or the diameter increases due to the increase in the required amount
of reinforcement, the center position of the tensile reinforcement changes, and the position of the ties must
be changes accordingly. Furthermore, as shown in the figures below, if the position of the tie goes up due to
the increase in the required reinforcement, the strut angle becomes smaller, making it unfavorable to the
STM, so it is necessary to decide whether to increase the layer of reinforcement or the diameter.
 

Figure 2: Changes in Effective Width of Tie and Strut Angle according to the increase in tensile
reinforcement
 
 
B. Strut
 
The arrangement of struts in STM for 4 piles cap can be determined based on the limit value of the strut
angle. When the strut is arranged from the position where the load is applied to the support, and the strut
angle is less than the limit value suggested by the design standard, the strut angle can be increased by
adding a vertical member.
 
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Figure 3: How to arrange struts in STM for Deep Beam design

 
 
Calculating the strut angle is not difficult because it can be calculated by knowing the distance from the
load acting position to the support, and the height of the STM, but it must be verified because the value
suggested is different for various design standards.
 

AASHTO LRFD

5.6.3.3.3 - Limiting Compressive Stress in Strut

In AASHTO LRFD, the limit value of the strut angle is not directly specified, but is included
in the limit value of the strut compressive stress

ACI 318M-11

APPENDIX A – STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS

arctan(1/2) = 26.5 degrees, rounded to 25 degrees

Eurocode

6.2.3 Members requiring design shear reinforcement

1≤ cotθ ≤2.5

CEB-FIP Model Code 09

6.8.2.2 Discontinuity regions

 
C. Node, Nodal Zone
 
In the Strut and Tie model, the point where three or more forces gather is called a node, and the simple
idealization of the complex stress state in this region is the nodal zone. The nodal zone plays a very
important role in STM because it is not only related to transferring the force of struts and ties to other struts
and ties, but is also related to anchoring of reinforcement and calculating the effective area of struts.
 
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CCT Nodes 
 
The calculation result of the CCT zone, the area where two compression struts and one tension tie meet,
plays a role in determining the settlement length of the tension tie and the effect width of the strut. The
calculation method is shown in the figure below.
 
 

Figure 4: Geometry of CCT Node and calculation of Strut Width

 
 
For reference, detailed calculation methods and images of the cross sectional area of the strut in a
3Dimensional STM can be found in References [2], [5], and [8].
 
 
CCC Nodes
 
The figure below shows the comparison between the case where the bearing face is recalculated by
distributing the magnitude of the load in the CCC node (where only the compression struts meet) and the
case where it is not. When the bearing face is recalculated by applying load distribution, not only the
effective area of the strut changes, but also the angle of the strut changes accordingly.
 
A detailed calculation process and description of the strut width divided into the left and right potions
according to the percentage of the applied load can be found in Reference [1].
 
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Figure 5: Reconstruction of the Nodal Zone according to the load distribution and the conceptual diagram
of the change in the strut

D. Equivalent Force System

 
Design Example 4 – “Drilled Shaft Footing” in Reference [1] explains how to recalculate the load acting on
the Pier bottom as an equivalent load. This is a necessary process not only in 2D STM but also in 3D STM
because the location and type of load acting (compressive or tensile forces) varies depending on the load
combination (axial, shear force, and moment) to be used in the design. In general, the loading position of
the compressive force is determined by the center of gravity of the stress diagram, and the tensile force is
determined by the center position of the pier reinforcement. This is because when the force is delivered
from the pier to the pile cap, the compression force is transferred through the concrete and the tensile force
is transferred through the reinforcement of the pier.
 
The figure below shows the process of calculating the equivalent force (in US units) through the example in
Reference [1] (Figure 4-4 ~ Figure 4-6).
 
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Figure 6: Linear Stress Distribution and Equivalent Force System (FHWA-NHI-130126)

 
E. Moment Recalculation
 
In Example 11 – “Deep Pile Cap with Tension Piles” in Reference [3], the pier bottom force is recalculated as
the load acting on the STM and used as the design load considering the eccentric distance between the pier
bottom and the STM.
 
The figure below shows the process of recalculating the design force through the example in Reference [3].
(SI units)
 
In order to obtain the same result value as the example in Reference [3], the MSTM is calculated by rounding
the pile head reaction, RB 180.55 kN to 181 kN.
 
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Figure 7: Calculation of the Design Loads acting on the Strut and Tie Model (ACI-ASCE Committee 445,
SP-273)
 
The 3D Strut and Tie Force calculator that can be downloaded below considers all the factors mentioned
above except the factors mentioned in D. Equivalent Force System. The process of calculating the Strut and
Tie force with 3D STM was constructed based on the ideas obtained from the examples in Reference [3]
ACI-ASCE Committee 445, SP-273. Two STM models across the pilecap are constructed and members are
placed in any position that can be a strut or tie. Additionally, the necessary members are calculated
according to the load combination acting on the STM.
 

Figure 8: Strut and Tie Model on the downloadable content

 
As will be mentioned again in the Verification and Rebar Detailing Content (Strut and Tie Model Part 3), the
design methods and examples presented in the design criteria are based on experimental 2D design areas
and determinate truss calculation methods. Therefore, it is recommended to use a Finite Element Analysis
program for STM considering a two-way moment or a load combination that generates a tensile force on a
vertical member.
 
 

3. Strut and Tie Model Example: 3D Pile Cap

 
In the Download Section below, we have provided an Excel file that calculates the Strut and Tie force of a 4
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Piles Cap with a 3D Strut and Tie Model. Users can enter the dimensions of the structure to be designed as
well as the reinforcement information, and select the desired design code (AASHTO, Eurocode). A structural
analysis program such as midas Civil must be used for load combinations in which Uplift occurs.
 
 

4. References
 
[1] Federal Highway Administration (FHWA-NHI-17-071), Strut-and-Tie Modeling (STM) for Concrete
Structures
[2] ACI-ASCE Committee 445 (2002), Examples for the Design of Structural Concrete with Strut-and-Tie
Models; SP-208
[3] ACI-ASCE Committee 445 (2002), Further Examples for the Design of Structural Concrete with Strut-and-
Tie Models; SP-273
[4] American Concrete Institute (ACI 318-14), Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
[5] American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications
[6] Comite Euro-International du Beton, CEB-FIP Model Code 1990
[7] Yun, Y. M. and Ramirez, J. A. (2016) Strength of Concrete Struts om Three-Dimensional Strut-and-Tie
Models
[8] Yun, Y. M. and Ramirez, J. A. (2019) A Three-Dimensional Strut-and-Tie Model for a Four-Pile Reinforced
Concrete Cap
[9] Eurocode 2, Design of Concrete Structures, Part 1 : General Rules and Rules for Buildings
 
 

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About the Author
midas Bridge 

K i m M i n Ta e | Te c h n i c a l E n g i n e e r | M I D A S I T H Q

Min Tae is a Technical Bridge Engineer within MIDAS IT Technical Planning Team in
South Korea. He has over 7+ years of experience in the design of bridges and civil
structures. He is also familiar with international codes of practice including
AASHTO, Eurocode and BS code. 
 
 

 Topics

Bridge Insight Strut-and-Tie Model STM Nodal Zone Extended Nodal Zone Subdivision Nodal Zone

Truss Model Truss Analogy 45-Degree Truss Model Variable Angle Truss Components of Strut-and-Tie Model

Struts Tension Ties

 Comments

ALEX TAO
1/24/2022, 7:27:33 AM
Reply to

Thanks for the information

sushama tiwari
1/24/2022, 7:29:28 AM
Reply to
plz send excelsheet
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Keun Hyup Lee
1/24/2022, 9:36:30 AM
Reply to

Mr. Sushama, please fill out the Download Section (below the comment section) to download the excel
template.

Lee Jia Ting

1/24/2022, 9:26:33 AM
Reply to

Where can we get the spreadsheet?

Keun Hyup Lee

1/24/2022, 9:36:50 AM
Reply to

Hello Jia Ting, please fill out the Download Section (below the comment section) to download the excel
template.

DILIP HENSEN
Reply to
1/24/2022, 10:10:17 AM

Kindly provide the excel sheet

Keun Hyup Lee

1/24/2022, 11:25:10 AM
Reply to

Hello Dilip, please fill out the Download Section (below the comment section) to download the excel
template.

kasi viswanath
1/24/2022, 10:40:11 AM
Reply to

Good Insight on Strut and Tie Actually there is proper anticipation of the force flow

MALLIKARJUNA RAO
1/24/2022, 10:41:11 AM
Reply to

Kindly provide the excel sheet

Kindly provide the excel sheet.

Keun Hyup Lee

1/24/2022, 11:25:32 AM
Reply to
Hello Mallikarjuna, please fill out the Download Section (below the comment section) to download the
midas Bridge
excel template. 

CHIA-HUNG LIN
1/24/2022, 11:10:46 AM
Reply to

I would like the excel sheet sent to me.

Jjingo Kizito
1/24/2022, 11:18:44 AM
Reply to

npon

Demirhan Ünlü
1/24/2022, 11:24:17 AM
Reply to

Thanks

aa aa
1/24/2022, 12:31:39 PM
Reply to

asdsad

Julius Nyambayo
1/24/2022, 1:03:19 PM
Reply to

Good day. I would like the Excel file. Where do I download it?

Good day. I want the Excel file. Where do I download it?

Jeff Cimagala
1/24/2022, 1:05:58 PM
Reply to

Hi I Would like to download the excel. Thank you.

Tom Kipkorir
1/24/2022, 1:09:26 PM
Reply to

Thanks for the information

Sisina Siddique
1/24/2022, 3:26:36 PM
Reply to

Kindly provide the excel sheet

James Banks
1/24/2022, 9:22:12 PM
Reply to
 Good information
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Michael Eniojukan
1/24/2022, 10:11:53 PM
Reply to

Thanks

ASHUTOSH MATHUR
1/25/2022, 11:02:45 AM
Reply to

how to do with 6&8 pile arrangement, the R/F SEEMS VERY LESS compared to plate model.

Ankit

Gupta

ankit.gupta@wsp.com

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