Construction and Building Materials 237 (2020) 117415

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Construction and Building Materials

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Acrylic surface treatment applied to architectural High-Performance

Concrete (HPC): Identification of potential pitfalls on the way to
long-lasting protection
Tobias Bader a,b,⇑, Roman Lackner a,b
a
Unit of Material Technology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstraße 13, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
b
Christian Doppler Laboratory for Performance-Based Optimization of Binder Composition and Concrete Manufacturing, Technikerstraße 13, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria

h i g h l i g h t s

 Seven application amounts were investigated by direct & indirect methods.

 Application process can affect colour change resulting from surface treatment.
 Application process can affect its resistance against weathering.
 Weatherability is characterised by discolouration and delamination.
 Colour differences described by DIN99 and CIELAB colour space are similar.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Surface treatment is recommended for the protection of High-Performance Concrete (HPC) against weath-
Received 27 May 2019 ering. This laboratory study highlighted the underlying weathering mechanisms of treated HPC surfaces
Received in revised form 4 October 2019 when cyclically exposed to UV irradiation and condensation. The extent of the weathering-induced
Accepted 27 October 2019
changes in colour of the acrylic films (perceived as opacity of former transparent films) were revealed
to depend on the application amount (associated with film toughness) and the application method (asso-
ciated with film quality). To ensure long-lasting protection through surface treatment, the films have to
Keywords:
be free of pinholes and sufficiently thick in order to withstand stresses resulting from weathering.
Architectural concrete
High-Performance Concrete (HPC)
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Surface treatment
Coating
Application
Weathering
Colour change

1. Introduction growing interest in the use of HPC for architectural purposes

The term High-Performance Concrete (HPC) describes a type of
concrete that is usually more durable than ordinary concrete
(OC) due to its dense microstructure and very low permeability
[1]. This circumstance makes HPC from a structural point of view
interesting for the use in harsh service environments. From an aes-
thetic point of view, the HPC mix design (low water/binder ratio,
fillers and addition of superplasticizers) allows to produce surfaces
that cannot be achieved by conventional mix designs varying from
smooth (roughness < 1 mm) up to microtextured [2–4]. The
⇑ Corresponding author at: Unit of Material Technology, University of Innsbruck,
Technikerstraße 13, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
E-mail address: tobias.bader@uibk.ac.at (T. Bader).
demands among others the preservation of the original appear-
ance. However, the long-term stability of the aesthetic appearance
of architectural concrete surfaces can be diminished by the envi-
ronmental conditions they are exposed to (e.g. rain, fog, dew, and
solar radiation). Common types of degradation phenomena, which
negatively affect the visual perception (e.g. efflorescence, staining)
are triggered by water penetrating HPC superficially [5–8]
(see Fig. 1).
In practice, a common way to prevent effectively the penetra-
tion of water is by applying surface treatment that can prolong
the service life of structural and architectural concrete (e.g. [9–
13]). Although the water absorption of HPC is low, several studies
highlighted that surface treatment is recommended for HPC (e.g.
[14–17]). The requirements on surface treatment applied to

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117415
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 T. Bader, R. Lackner / Construction and Building Materials 237 (2020) 117415
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of environmental conditions (rain, fog, solar radiation) affecting architectural concrete surfaces by promoting the formation of efflorescence at
the surface and/or staining within the near-surface pores.
architectural HPC differ from structural HPC since architectural
surfaces are permanently exposed to view making colour stability
an important selection criteria. Acrylic coating formulations
exhibiting a matt finish may satisfy this demand by avoiding the
loss of the mineral appearance of HPC due to the high gloss finish
of conventional formulations [16,18].
On the way to long-lasting protection of HPC through surface
treatment, the influence of surface properties (e.g. age [3,14], cur-
ing condition [3], moisture content [19], surface free energy
[17,20], type of mould [3,4,21]) and surface preparation (e.g. clean-
ing [21], sandblasting [3]) were already discussed in literature.
While studies focusing on the longetivity of acrylic surface treat-
ment within the service environment of building facades are lim-
ited to Kozak [44], with the mechanisms leading to the visual
deterioration of acrylic surface treatment being unknown. More-
over, the influence of the application process on the service life
of acrylic surface treatment under the exposure conditions of
building facades remains unclear. Consequently, the objective of
this study is to assess the underlying weathering mechanisms of
acrylic surface treatment and its effect on the visual degradation
of treated HPC surfaces. The so-obtained insights will be beneficial
to evaluate the influence of the application process on the durabil-
ity of surface treatment in the service environment of building
facades. This is of great importance because the influence of the
application process on weatherability of surface treatment is not
immediately obvious.
For this purpose, an artificial weathering environment is
employed that allows reproducing natural weathering within
shorter time by cyclical exposition to solar radiation in the critical
short wavelength UV region and condensation. Moreover, the
inclined specimen position (promoting the simulation of rainwater
runoff) and the cyclical exposition to wet and dry periods simulate
the weathering conditions of real building facades that lead to the
formation of undesirable efflorescence [6]. To assess the influence
of artificial weathering on the performance of different application
amounts, both, direct (scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction
(XRD)) and indirect methods (colourimetry) are employed. Addi-
tionally, the influence of the selected colour space (CIELAB,
DIN99) on changes in colour due to application of surface treat-
ment as well as artificial weathering will be evaluated.
Based on the provided experimental basis, the weathering-
induced degradation mechanisms of acrylic surface treatment as
well as the influence of the application process on the service life
are outlined and guidelines for the proper application of surface
treatment according to the protection desired are given in order
to avoid misapplication requiring expensive and time consuming
maintenance work.
2. Materials and sample preparation
2.1. Concrete and coating
The employed mid-grey-coloured HPC substrate is composed of
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) CEM I 42.5 R, silica fume, meta-
kaolin, calcareous crushed sand and admixtures (two superplasti-
cizers, retarder and air entraining agent), see [19]. The used
water-binder (w/b) ratio for the mix design is 0.33. The maximum
size of calcareous crushed sand is 0.8 mm. The porosimetric details
and the mechanical properties are given in [15].
A supplied water-borne acrylic coating (major components:
butyl acrylate and methyl methacrylate) with matt finish was
applied. This coating formulation is approved for the protection
 T. Bader, R. Lackner / Construction and Building Materials 237 (2020) 117415 3

Table 1
Physical and chemical properties of the used acrylic coating [19].

Characteristics Details
volume of non-volatile matter 20.0%
major components butyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate
density at 23 °C and 50% RH 1.02 g/cm3
viscosity at 20 °C 403 ± 7 mPa s
glass-transition-temperature of acrylic dispersion 5.0 °C

of concrete [16]. A summary of physical and chemical properties of Table 2

the used coating is given in Table 1. Applied amount of coating in g/m2 for specimens I to III of each test series.

test series specimen I specimen II specimen III

2.2. Preparation of samples HPC + 10 g/m 2
13 9 11
HPC + 20 g/m2 22 23 27
The HPC specimens were older than 28 days and HPC + 30 g/m2 32 28 34
105 mm  75 mm  13 mm in size. One test series consisted of HPC + 40 g/m2 41 38 44
HPC + 60 g/m2 55 61 55
three specimens (specimens named I to III), which were exposed
HPC + 80 g/m2 70 66 90
to artificial weathering. Prior to application of surface treatment, HPC + 100 g/m2 107 121 97
the near-surface substrate moisture content was adjusted to
4 wt-% (procedure is described in [19]) and verified by the mois-
ture tester Hi-520 (Kett Electric Laboratory, Japan). The experimen- (50 mm diameter), three times each (average value was used for
tal program of this study covers coating amounts between 10 and each specimen configuration).
100 g/m2. Up to 40 g/m2, the application varied in steps of 10 g/m2 To monitor the effect of application amount and artificial
and from 40 to 100 g/m2 in steps of 20 g/m2. weathering on the appearance, the total colour difference DE*
Application of the coating was performed in one-step at ambi- was calculated from the brightness L* (100 = white, 0 = black),
ent temperature using a robotic airless spray painting system of the red-green constituent a* (positive = red, negative = green) and
industrial standards with different hydraulic pressure settings at the yellow-blue constituent b* (positive = yellow, negative = blue)
constant spray distance. The underlying pressure settings were coordinates of the CIE 1976 L*a*b* (CIELAB) colour space [23]. For
adjusted based on a control specimen, which was weighted before the DIN99 colour space, the obtained CIELAB colour coordinates
and after coating application in order to determine the applied were transformed according to the procedure described in [24]
amount of coating (= difference in weight) for the individual pres- with the parametric factor kE being set to 1. The corresponding col-
sure settings. Furthermore, the applied amount was confirmed by our coordinates are named L99*, a99* and b99*. Afterwards, DE* was
weighing each specimen before and after surface treatment. calculated for both colour spaces from the differences of each col-
Directly after application of the coating, the specimens were dried our coordinate before and after application of the treatment as well
at 40 °C for 20 min in order to facilitate film formation. The consid- as before and after each interval of artificial weathering, respec-
ered specimens are listed in Table 2 providing the applied amount tively, according to:
of coating. Additionally, three untreated HPC specimens were used DE* = (DL*2 + Da*2 + Db*2)1/2
as reference.

3.2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

2.3. Artificial weathering
Artificial weathering was performed with the help of the accel-
erated weathering tester QUV spray (Q-Lab Cooperation, USA).
Specimens were placed in inclined frames, which allowed weath-
ering of spots with 95  65 mm in size. The weathering procedure
was set according to EN 4892-3:2006 [22] by cyclical exposition to
UV for 8 h (simulating sunlight in the critical short wavelength UV
region between 365 nm and solar cut off of 295 nm) at 60 °C as
well as condensation of deionized water at 50 °C for 4 h. The dura-
tion of a testing interval (=data point) was 720 h (30 days). In total,
three intervals were performed amounting to a total weathering
time of 2160 h (90 days). Specimens were repositioned every
120 h in order to ensure equal irradiation. Before performing ana-
lytical experiments, specimens were dried at 40 °C for 4 h.
3. Methods
3.1. Colourimetry
The measurements were conducted with the Chroma Meter CR-
410 (Konica Minolta, Japan) using D65 illuminant condition (med-
ium daylight) with an observer angle of 2°. The software used for
data acquisition was SpectraMagic NX – Colour Data Software
CM-S100W V2.5. Each specimen was measured at two spots
For SEM analysis, the scanning electron microscope Quanta 3D
200i DualBeam (FEI company, Netherlands) was used. Data acqui-
sition was performed with the help of the xTm 1.72 software.
Acceleration voltage of 25 kV with a current of 1.2 nA was used
in low vacuum mode. Image analysis was performed with ImageJ
1.49v in order to calculate the percentage of HPC surface covered
by surface treatment. For this purpose, five backscattered electron
(BSE) micrographs per specimen were analysed. No specific prepa-
ration of the specimens was performed before SEM analysis in low
vacuum mode.
3.3. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
FTIR measurements were performed with the Alpha (BRUKER,
USA) spectrometer equipped with a single reflection diamond
attenuated total reflection (ATR) module in order to evaluate the
coating degradation in the course of artificial weathering. Data
acquisition was performed using the OPUS 7.5 software. The back-
ground was collected at ambient atmosphere before each measure-
ment. The measurements were performed with 128 scans in ATR
mode in the range of 4000 – 400 cm 1 (resolution of 4 cm 1).
The ATR mode allows obtaining spectra from the surface of the
specimens without specific preparation [25].The obtained spectra
were baseline corrected, smoothed and normalised to the absorp-
4 T. Bader, R. Lackner / Construction and Building Materials 237 (2020) 117415

tion band at 1136 cm 1 that was reported by Allen et al. [26] to
show marginal changes during photodegradation.
3.4. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of efflorescence was performed
with Empyrean (Panalytical, Netherlands) working with graphite-
crystal-monochromatized Cu-Ka radiation generated at 40 kV
and 40 mA. Spectra were taken from 5 to 70° 2 theta with a step
size of 0.013° and a counting time of 40 sec/step. Efflorescence
was carefully removed from the weathered HPC surfaces and mea-
sured with Si low background sample holders. The software for
data acquisition was HighScore Plus V 3.0.5 using PDF-2 database.
4. Results and discussion
The aesthetic requirements (e.g. colour) on architectural con-
crete surfaces are higher compared to structural concrete. As the
human perception of colour is subjective, instrumental colour
measurement is used to express colour by means of colour coordi-
nates within a colour space. Based on the colour coordinates,
changes in colour are assessed by using a colour-difference for-
mula. However, perceptual non-uniformities in the commonly
used CIELAB colour space are reported to affect the colour differ-
ence (e.g. [27,28]). Today well-known approaches to compensate
this circumstance are either the modification of the colour differ-
ence formula (e.g. CIE94 and CIEDE2000 [29]) or the transforma-
tion of the entire colour space (DIN99 [24]). In case of the DIN99
transformation, the formula giving the colour difference is similar
to CIE76. Subsequently, the influence of the selected colour space
on colour change resulting from the application of surface treat-
ment will be compared and discussed.
The colour coordinates for both colour spaces (L76*, a76*, b76*;
L99*, a99*, b99*) assessing the investigated mid-grey-coloured HPC
surface as well as colour change (expressed by DE76*, DE99*) due
to application of the different coating amounts are listed in Table 3.
As regards DE* various studies have reported different thresholds
below which colour change is considered acceptable [30,31]. In
case minimal changes in aesthetic appearance are desired (e.g.
architectural surfaces) the refined criterion given by Barath et al.
may be applied, describing DE* values > 2.0 as undesirable [32].
Regardless of the colour space used, the observed changes in
colour are mainly due to an increase in L* with marginal changes
for the colour components. The transformation of the CIELAB col-
our coordinates by using the DIN99 formula mainly influenced L*
as observed by an increase of L*. As expected for the mid-grey-
coloured HPC surface with no apparent hue, the changes of a*
and b* due to transformation are negligible. Colour changes
expressed by DE76* and DE99*, respectively, revealed similar ten-
dencies – an increase in colour change with increasing application
amount. Hence, the influence of the selected colour space on the
assessment of colour changes resulting from acrylic surface treat-
ment are regarded as marginal.
The observed increase in L* of treated HPC surfaces is attributed
to the matt finish of the used formulation since clear solutions of
acrylic surface treatment are reported to cause a decrease in L*
[33]. As reported in our previous study [16], the changes in colour

Table 3
Colour coordinates (CIE76, DIN99) of untreated and treated mid-grey-coloured HPC surfaces before (interval 0) and after each interval of artificial weathering as well as colour
change (DE*) resulting from application of acrylic coating (HPC + 10 until HPC + 100 g/m2) and artificial weathering. Mean value and standard deviation were obtained from 18
measurements each and colour differences were calculated for the individual intervals with respect to colour coordinates of interval 0. In case of treated HPC surfaces, the colour
coordinates of the untreated specimens is similar to the reference HPC specimen. Optical photos are given as supplementary data.

test series interval L76* [–] L99* [–] a76* [–] a99* [–] b76* [–] b99* [–] DE76* [–] DE99* [–]
HPC (untreated) 0 39.1 ± 0.2 50.8 ± 0.2 0.4 ± 0.0 0.4 ± 0.0 2.8 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.1 – –
1 53.0 ± 0.3 64.2 ± 0.3 0.1 ± 0.0 0.5 ± 0.1 2.2 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.1 13.9 ± 0.3 13.4 ± 0.3
2 54.3 ± 0.3 65.4 ± 0.3 0.2 ± 0.0 0.4 ± 0.1 2.0 ± 0.1 1.4 ± 0.1 15.2 ± 0.3 14.6 ± 0.3
3 54.9 ± 0.2 65.9 ± 0.2 0.2 ± 0.0 0.3 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.1 15.8 ± 0.3 15.1 ± 0.3
HPC + 10 g/m2 0 41.9 ± 0.2 53.6 ± 0.2 0.2 ± 0.0 0.6 ± 0.0 2.9 ± 0.0 1.9 ± 0.0 2.6 ± 0.3 2.6 ± 0.3
1 52.3 ± 0.4 63.5 ± 0.4 0.1 ± 0.0 0.6 ± 0.0 2.5 ± 0.0 1.6 ± 0.0 10.4 ± 0.5 9.9 ± 0.4
2 54.8 ± 0.1 65.8 ± 0.1 0.1 ± 0.0 0.4 ± 0.0 2.0 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.0 13.0 ± 0.2 12.2 ± 0.2
3 55.2 ± 0.1 66.2 ± 0.1 0.1 ± 0.0 0.3 ± 0.0 1.8 ± 0.1 1.2 ± 0.1 13.4 ± 0.2 12.6 ± 0.2
HPC + 20 g/m2 0 43.2 ± 0.2 54.9 ± 0.2 0.2 ± 0.0 0.6 ± 0.0 2.8 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.1 4.1 ± 0.4 4.2 ± 0.4
1 47.6 ± 1.1 59.2 ± 1.1 0.0 ± 0.1 0.9 ± 0.1 3.4 ± 0.3 2.2 ± 0.2 4.5 ± 1.1 4.3 ± 1.0
2 52.9 ± 1.2 64.1 ± 1.1 0.1 ± 0.1 1.0 ± 0.1 3.3 ± 0.2 2.1 ± 0.1 9.7 ± 1.0 9.2 ± 0.9
3 57.9 ± 0.9 68.2 ± 0.8 0.4 ± 0.0 1.2 ± 0.1 3.4 ± 0.1 2.1 ± 0.1 14.8 ± 0.7 13.7 ± 0.6
HPC + 30 g/m2 0 44.1 ± 0.7 55.7 ± 0.7 0.2 ± 0.0 0.6 ± 0.0 2.8 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.1 4.9 ± 0.8 4.9 ± 0.7
1 46.9 ± 1.0 58.5 ± 0.9 0.1 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1 3.2 ± 0.2 2.0 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 1.2 2.8 ± 1.1
2 55.2 ± 2.3 66.2 ± 2.0 0.3 ± 0.1 1.1 ± 0.2 3.5 ± 0.3 2.2 ± 0.1 11.2 ± 2.0 10.5 ± 1.7
3 59.6 ± 1.2 70.0 ± 1.0 0.4 ± 0.1 1.2 ± 0.1 3.3 ± 0.2 2.0 ± 0.1 15.6 ± 1.2 14.3 ± 1.0
HPC + 40 g/m2 0 44.4 ± 0.6 56.1 ± 0.5 0.2 ± 0.0 0.5 ± 0.0 2.6 ± 0.0 1.7 ± 0.0 5.7 ± 0.6 5.7 ± 0.5
1 44.9 ± 0.7 56.6 ± 0.6 0.1 ± 0.0 0.7 ± 0.1 3.1 ± 0.2 2.0 ± 0.1 0.7 ± 0.3 0.6 ± 0.3
2 57.5 ± 1.9 68.2 ± 1.7 0.2 ± 0.1 1.0 ± 0.2 3.0 ± 0.3 1.9 ± 0.2 13.1 ± 1.6 12.1 ± 1.3
3 61.8 ± 1.9 71.9 ± 1.6 0.3 ± 0.1 1.0 ± 0.2 2.8 ± 0.4 1.8 ± 0.2 17.4 ± 2.2 15.8 ± 1.9
HPC + 60 g/m2 0 44.7 ± 0.5 56.4 ± 0.4 0.2 ± 0.0 0.5 ± 0.0 2.6 ± 0.1 1.7 ± 0.0 6.2 ± 0.5 6.2 ± 0.5
1 44.2 ± 0.4 55.9 ± 0.4 0.2 ± 0.0 0.4 ± 0.0 2.9 ± 0.2 1.7 ± 0.0 0.6 ± 0.4 0.5 ± 0.4
2 57.5 ± 2.2 68.1 ± 1.9 0.2 ± 0.1 1.0 ± 0.2 3.1 ± 0.4 2.0 ± 0.2 12.7 ± 2.3 11.7 ± 2.0
3 59.3 ± 2.9 69.7 ± 2.5 0.2 ± 0.1 0.9 ± 0.1 2.6 ± 0.2 1.7 ± 0.1 14.6 ± 2.8 13.3 ± 2.4
HPC + 80 g/m2 0 45.4 ± 0.6 57.1 ± 0.5 0.2 ± 0.0 0.5 ± 0.0 2.7 ± 0.1 1.8 ± 0.0 6.6 ± 0.9 6.6 ± 0.9
1 45.1 ± 0.4 56.8 ± 0.4 0.2 ± 0.0 0.5 ± 0.1 2.7 ± 0.1 1.8 ± 0.1 0.3 ± 0.3 0.3 ± 0.3
2 52.1 ± 1.6 63.4 ± 1.5 0.0 ± 0.1 0.7 ± 0.1 2.7 ± 0.2 1.7 ± 0.1 6.7 ± 2.1 6.3 ± 1.9
3 58.9 ± 2.6 69.4 ± 2.2 0.2 ± 0.2 0.8 ± 0.2 2.5 ± 0.4 1.6 ± 0.2 13.4 ± 3.0 12.3 ± 2.7
HPC + 100 g/m2 0 45.4 ± 0.3 57.0 ± 0.3 0.2 ± 0.0 0.5 ± 0.0 2.8 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.0 6.7 ± 0.4 6.7 ± 0.4
1 45.4 ± 0.4 57.0 ± 0.4 0.2 ± 0.1 0.6 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 0.3 1.9 ± 0.1 0.1 ± 0.1 0.1 ± 0.1
2 45.5 ± 0.2 57.5 ± 0.2 0.2 ± 0.0 0.5 ± 0.0 2.8 ± 0.1 1.8 ± 0.1 0.1 ± 0.1 0.1 ± 0.1
3 49.1 ± 0.6 60.6 ± 0.6 0.0 ± 0.0 0.8 ± 0.1 3.1 ± 0.2 2.0 ± 0.1 3.7 ± 0.7 3.6 ± 0.7
 T. Bader, R. Lackner / Construction and Building Materials 237 (2020) 117415
resulting from application of the matt film became appreciable due
to the low L* of the substrate. Hence, an increasing application
amount comes along with an increasing amount of matting agent,
which seems to cause the perceptible increases in L*. However, the
extent of colour change for 100 g/m2 is greater compared to the
equal amount applied by rollers in our previous study
(DE76* = 2.7 ± 0.2 [16]). Consequently, the application method
seems to additionally affect the colour change of HPC induced by
surface treatment. This may be explained by the surface roughness
of the protective film and its interaction with incident light.
Based on the obtained results, we assume that the application
process (amount and method) influences the colour change result-
ing from surface treatment. Although the extent of colour change
decreases with decreasing application amount, the observed
changes in colour are still undesirable according to the refined cri-
terion given by Barath et al.
Both architectural concrete surfaces and applied surface treat-
ment are permanently exposed to weathering, diminishing the
aesthetic appearance of architectural concrete surfaces with ongo-
ing weathering time due to e.g. formation of efflorescence (con-
crete) or discolouration (surface treatment). For coatings applied
to architectural aluminium panels, the American Architectural
Manufacturing Association (AAMA) admits a maximum colour
change of 5.0 due to exposition to weathering (Florida exposure
for five years) [34]. The authors regard the mentioned maximum
colour change as an appropriate threshold for the evaluation of
the performed artificial weathering experiment.
Colour coordinates (L76*, a76*, b76*; L99*, a99*, b99*) of untreated
and treated HPC surfaces after each interval of artificial weathering
as well as the respective colour changes (DE76*, DE99*) are listed in
Table 3.
Again, the transformation of the CIELAB colour coordinates by
using the DIN99 formula mainly influenced L*, giving increased
values for L*. As expected for the mid-grey-coloured HPC surface
with no apparent hue, the changes for a* and b* are negligible. Col-
our changes expressed by DE76* and DE99*, respectively, revealed
similar tendencies: For untreated and treated HPC surfaces the col-
our changes resulting from exposition to artificial weathering are
mostly related to an increase in L* with minor changes for a* and
b*. The untreated reference HPC surface showed after interval 1
remarkable changes in colour, which increased considerably less
after intervals 2 and 3. For the treated HPC surfaces, the extent
of colour change varied between the different application amounts.
For 10 g/m2, already after interval 1 remarkable colour change was
observed. For 20 – 80 g/m2 similar colour changes were measured
after interval 2. Whereas for 100 g/m2, the changes in colour were
up to interval 2 not appreciable amounting to a colour change < 5.0
after interval 3. However, in contrast to the previous section the
colour changes expressed by DE99* and DE76* differed slightly.
The modification of L* by the transformation of the CIELAB colour
coordinates using DIN99 is suspected to cause the observed devia-
tion between DE99* and DE76*. In case of this study, the focus was
on a maximum colour change of 5.0, hence, the observed variances
between the two colour spaces are regarded as negligible since the
deviation is not appreciable by the naked eye.
To evaluate the underlying cause for the observed changes in
colour, SEM, FTIR spectroscopy and XRD analysis are employed.
Representative SEM micrographs showing the surface of treated
HPC substrates before and after artificial weathering are given in
Fig. 3a–c.
In our previous study, we highlighted that the used acrylic coat-
ing is not absorbed into the near-surface area of HPC and, thus,
occurs only superficial [19]. This observation is assigned to the
reduced porosity and pore size of the near-surface area of the
investigated HPC that seem to act as a filter. Thus, the applied
aqueous dispersion is separated into water (being absorbed by
5
Fig. 2. Results of XRD analysis of efflorescence salts formed due to exposition to
artificial weathering on (a) untreated HPC, (b) HPC + 10 g/m2, (c) HPC + 20 g/m2 and
(d) HPC + 30 g/m2. (Abbreviation: Cc, calcite; Vtr, vaterite).
HPC) and the film forming components (remaining on the surface).
The investigated HPC surface is characterised by regularly dis-
tributed rounded asperities (average diameter: 200 – 300 mm)
and rounded pores that had diameters in the range between 50
and 250 mm. The coverage of HPC surfaces before and after each
interval of artificial weathering are given in Fig. 4. Before artificial
weathering, coating films with incomplete coverage of HPC sur-
faces were observed for films resulting from 10 (40 ± 5%), 20
(86 ± 5%) and 30 g/m2 (88 ± 6%). While the protective films result-
ing from application of 40 (98 ± 1%), 60 (98 ± 1%), 80 (99%) and
100 g/m2 (100%) covered the HPC surfaces almost completely.
The observed differences in coverage may be attributed to the sub-
strate that is rough and contains pores. This seems to complicate
the complete coverage of HPC surfaces with small coating
amounts. Moreover, all films exhibited circular voids varying in
size between 10 and 60 mm, with some voids going completely
through the coating film exposing the underlying HPC surfaces.
The amount of voids as well as voids going completely through
the coating film seems to decrease with increasing application
amount.
After interval 1 of artificial weathering, SEM micrographs
revealed randomly distributed granular crystals of a few microns
on untreated and surfaces treated with 10, 20 and 30 g/m2 due
to weathering. With the help of XRD analysis, the calcium carbon-
ate polymorph calcite was detected and in addition to calcite, the
polymorph vaterite was detected for surfaces treeated with 20
and 30 g/m2 (see Fig. 2a–d).
Thus, water arriving at the surface of the mentioned specimens
extracted the soluble calcium-bearing constituents from the hard-
ened cement paste, which later reacted with carbonic acid (from
atmospheric carbon dioxide) to form insoluble calcium carbonate.
In case of the treated HPC surfaces, the coating films resulting from
10, 20 and 30 g/m2 were not able to prevent efflorescence forma-
tion. This is attributed to the incomplete coverage of HPC surfaces
that did not stop water from penetrating. While application
amounts  40 g/m2 prevented efflorescence formation by hinder-
ing water from extracting the soluble calcium-bearing con-
stituents. With ongoing exposition to artificial weathering, the
coverage of HPC surface decreased with the extent of decrease
depending on the application amount. In case of coating films
resulting from the application of 10 g/m2, a noticeable decrease
in the coverage was already detected after interval 1 that is attrib-
uted to delamination. The coverage of HPC further decreases with
ongoing exposition to artificial weathering suggesting the proceed-
ing delamination of the non-continuous films. For 20 – 80 g/m2, the
coverage of HPC surface was almost unchanged up to interval 1
6 T. Bader, R. Lackner / Construction and Building Materials 237 (2020) 117415

Fig. 3. Representative micrographs of HPC surfaces before and after interval 3 of artificial weathering coated with 10 g/m2 (a), 60 g/m2 (b) and 100 g/m2 (c) of the acrylic
coating (dark area = coating, bright area = concrete).

and decreases progressively after intervals 2 and 3, respectively.
The observed decrease in coverage is attributed to cracking and
local spots of delamination. At the end of the artificial weathering
experiment, the highest residual coverage of HPC was observed for
100 g/m2 (average of 95%).
Additionally, FTIR spectroscopy was employed to assess the
alteration of the acrylic coating due to exposition to artificial
weathering, with the exposition to UV radiation causing the pho-
todegradation of the organic coating. Representative FTIR spectra
comparing the acrylic coating before and after each interval of arti-
ficial weathering are given in Fig. 5, showing:
 The development of a shoulder peak (1815 – 1752 cm 1) on the
broadened carbonyl ester peak (1720 cm 1), which may be
attributed to the formation c-lactone structures being most
likely caused by cyclisation reactions [26,35–37].
 The progressive increase in absorption in the region 3680 –
3050 cm 1 suggests the formation of hydroxyl groups that can
be associated with the formation of e.g. carboxylic OH groups
as well as with other OH groups such as alcohols or thermal
instable hydroperoxides [35,36]. If hydroperoxides are formed,
they will mostlikely decompose immediately due to the exposi-
tion to UV radiation and heat [38,39].
 T. Bader, R. Lackner / Construction and Building Materials 237 (2020) 117415
Fig. 4. Coverage of HPC surfaces by acrylic coating (a) after application of surface treatment and after (b) interval 1, (c) interval 2 and (d) interval 3 of artificial weathering.
Fig. 5. Representative FTIR-spectra of the applied acrylic coating (application
amount 100 g/m2) before (solid line) as well as after interval 1 (dashed line),
interval 2 (dash-dotted line) and interval 3 (dotted line) of artificial weathering.
 The progressive decrease in the C–H stretching absorption
(3000 – 2850 cm 1) suggests chain scission involving the for-
mation of volatile monomer molecules [35].
 The progressive increase in absorption at 1640 cm 1 may be
attributed to the formation of unsaturated chain-end bonds
(C = C) that can result from chain scission reactions [26,35,36].
The main results of the performed experimental study can be
summarized as follows:
The untreated HPC surfaces exhibited after interval 1 of artifi-
cial weathering considerable changes in colour, which are attribu-
7
ted to the formation of efflorescence (calcium carbonate)
highlighting the necessity of surface treatment for architectural
HPC. After intervals 2 and 3, the increase in colour change was
comparatively lower suggesting that calcium carbonate deposition
closes the open porosity of the surface, which is in accordance with
the results reported by Horgnies et al. [3]. Hence, the extraction of
additional calcium-bearing constituents from the hardened
cement paste was mostlikely reduced. The investigated amounts
of acrylic surface treatment resulted in either incomplete (10, 20
and 30 g/m2) or complete coverage (40, 60, 80 and 100 g/m2) of
HPC surfaces. After three intervals of artificial weathering, the
selected criterion for a maximum colour change of 5.0 due to expo-
sition to weathering was only met by applying 100 g/m2 of the
investigated acrylic surface treatment.
The aforementioned differences in the performance between
the investigated application amounts of acrylic surface treatment
with regard to the long-term stability are discussed in the
following:
In general, alteration of acrylic surface treatment is a conse-
quence of both, ‘substrate-related’ and ‘environmental-related’ pro-
cesses. In order to minimise the influence of ‘substrate-related’
alteration process, we adjusted the substrate moisture content to
4 wt-% [19]. Thus, artificial weathering-induced degradation
(‘env.-rel.’ processes) is suspected to be the primary cause for the
observed alteration of the acrylic surface treatment and changes
in colour of treated HPC surfaces.
After exposition to the artificial weathering environment, the
changes in colour of treated HPC surfaces were noticeable by an
increase in L*. For 10, 20 and 30 g/m2, these changes in colour
8 T. Bader, R. Lackner / Construction and Building Materials 237 (2020) 117415
are attributed to both calcium carbonate efflorescence and dis-
colouration of the coating. In case of HPC treated with application
amounts 40 g/m2, no efflorescence deposition was observed. This
is attributed to complete coverage of HPC surface by the protective
films hindering water from entering, while carbon dioxide most
likely can pass through the film to form calcium carbonate within
the near-surface area of concrete. Consequently, the observed
changes in colour are attributed to the visual deterioration of the
coating film in the course of artificial weathering. The mentioned
increase in L* of treated HPC substrates due to discolouration of
acrylic surface treatment is assumed to be initiated by moisture
subsequently accumulating within voids of the coating film due
to interactions with polar substances (e.g. surfactants [19]). These
voids within the coating – in size greater than the wavelength of
light – cause the subsequent scattering of incident light, creating
opacity and whiteness of the originally transparent acrylic films
[40,41]. The presence of these voids, however, is reported to be
controlled by the rigidity of the polymer film [42], with the latter
being influenced by the film thickness [38]. In case of the present
study, the investigated different application amounts result in dif-
ferent film thicknesses, explaining the observed differences in the
extent of opacity of the former transparent films.
Additionally, photodegradation alters the coating by either
breaking chemical bonds directly or forming free radicals, which
subsequently facilitate cyclisation and crosslinking reactions
[35,36]. We assume that, the detected structural changes of the
used acrylic coating affect the mechanical properties of the film
by e.g. decreasing its deformability (embrittlement) [43,44]. The
cyclical exposition to condensation (associated with a wet environ-
ment) and UV irradiation (associated with a dry environment)
seems to cause the permeation of moisture into and out of the
coating. The underlying repeated swelling and shrinkage of the
Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of ‘application-related’ (e.g. film thickness, pinholes) and ‘environmental-related’ factors (e.g. moisture accumulating within voids, cyclisation
reactions, crosslinking, chain scission) influencing the long-term stability of acrylic surface treatment applied to HPC surfaces under the exposure conditions of building
facades.
coating is suspected to induce additional loading, causing cracking
and delamination of the brittle coating films.
Moreover, it is supposed that the interaction between the inves-
tigated coating films and the artificial weathering environment
was additionally influenced by the underlying application method.
In this study, the coating deposition was performed by spraying
whereas in our previous study [19] the application was performed
by rolling (considering application amounts of 40 and 60 g/m2). In
contrast to rolling, the coating deposition by spraying resulted in
pinholes (perceived as circular voids). In case of application
amounts such as 40 and 60 g/m2, certain pinholes extended to
the HPC surface that are suspected to weaken the film toughness.
These differences in film toughness seem to influence the alter-
ation behaviour (colour change and delamination), which is of
minor extent for coatings films applied by rolling compared to
their pendants applied by spraying.
Based on these observations, we assume that the presence of
pinholes makes coatings films with insufficient film thickness
more susceptible to degradation. In case that acrylic surface treat-
ment will be applied by spraying, it is recommended to apply at
least 100 g/m2 in order to achieve the desired colour stability that
is one of the aesthetic parameters affecting the overall quality of
buildings. By applying 100 g/m2, the risk of misapplication of sur-
face treatment resulting in early failure (discolouration and delam-
ination) can be minimised because the underlying film thickness
seems to be sufficient to compensate the influence of possible pin-
holes as well as the stresses in consequence of ‘environmental-
related’ processes (see Fig. 6).
In general, the application of surface treatment results in addi-
tional material costs and an additional working step (labour costs).
The increased initial costs must be balanced against both, the pro-
longed service life of architectural concrete (colour stability) and
 T. Bader, R. Lackner / Construction and Building Materials 237 (2020) 117415
the avoided costs for the removal of undesirable efflorescence. Our
study showed that the application of surface treatment motivated
by cost or appearance can result in a lack of protection or early fail-
ure that makes the inexpensive surface treatment far more expen-
sive than the amount that lasts a longer period.
The time span over which surface treatment has an acceptable
appearance and offers adequate protection in its service environ-
ment is described by the term service life. The used artificial
weathering environment was selected in order to assess the
weathering-induced degradation mechanisms occurring at build-
ing facades. A reliable statement on how long the applied surface
treatment will last in real outdoor environment based on these
experiments is difficult because the duration and frequency of nat-
ural water cycles as well as the temperature during UV and mois-
ture stresses are primary variables in natural weathering. In
literature, the service life expectations for acrylic coatings are esti-
mated with up to 10 years [45], whereas some case studies
reported life times of about 20 years under the exposure conditions
of real building facades [12,46].
In general, the results obtained within this study for architec-
tural HPC may be transferred to structural HPC. However, harsh
service environments may require application amounts that are
several times higher than the investigated amounts. Thus, is has
to be taken into account that thick coating films may influence
the underlying film formation process due to the formation of
so-called skins that are reported to cause vertical inhomogeneities
[40,47].
5. Conclusion
Within the present study, the weathering mechanisms of acrylic
surface treatment were highlighted and their effect on the visual
deterioration of treated HPC surfaces was assessed. Based on the
results obtained, the influence of application process on the dura-
bility of surface treatment in the service environment of building
facades was evaluated. For this purpose, different coating amounts
(10 – 100 g/m2) applied by spraying were exposed to artificial
weathering (UV radiation, condensation) and analysed with regard
to colour stability and efflorescence prevention by colourimetry,
SEM and FTIR spectroscopy.
From the obtained results the following conclusions can be
drawn:
 The application of the investigated acrylic coating with matt
finish resulted in colour changes of HPC surfaces that were
mainly related to an increase in brightness with marginal
changes for the colour coordinates. The extent of colour change
increased with increasing application amount. These changes
are assumed to be caused by the matting effect and the film sur-
face roughness and became visible due to the low L* of the
investigated substrate. The resulting changes in colour
expressed by DE76* and DE99*, respectively, showed similar ten-
dencies (DE* > 2.0). Hence, the influence of the underlying col-
our space on the estimation of the detected colour changes for
the investigated mid-grey HPC surfaces are regarded as
marginal.
 The application of acrylic surface treatment by spraying
resulted in films that either did not cover the entire HPC surface
or exhibited circular voids (so-called pinholes) within the con-
tinuoues films. Incomplete films were not able to prevent efflo-
rescence formation, while coating films with numerous
pinholes were less durable. Both circumstances led to undesired
changes in colour (DE* > 5.0). The degradation mechanisms that
resulted from exposition to artificial weathering are cyclisation
and crosslinking reactions – causing embrittlement – as well as
9
the subsequent accumulation of moisture within the coating
films. These accumulations seem to cause opacity of the former
transparent films (observed by an increase in brightness). The
cyclical exposition to wet and dry environments seems to cause
the permeation of moisture into and out of the coating. The
underlying repeated swelling and shrinkage of the coating is
suspected to induce additional loading, causing cracking and
flaking of the brittle coating films. Based on these observations,
the application process was revealed as an important factor
influencing the service life of acrylic surface treatment.
Recommendations to ensure long-lasting protection of HPC in
the service environment of building facades through acrylic surface
treatment comprises, on the one hand, sufficient film thickness
(associated with film toughness) and, on the other hand, absence
of pinholes (associated with film quality). Based on the results of
this experimental study, 100 g/m2 of the investigated acrylic coat-
ing applied by spraying fulfilled these requirements. However, its
application resulted in a preceding change in colour of HPC
(DE* > 2.0) making the coating film appreciable with the naked
eye. Nevertheless, the film thickness resulting from the application
of 100 g/m2 was sufficient to encounter the detected
‘environmental-related’ stress factors. Hence, the residual percent-
age of HPC surface covered by 100 g/m2 of the used acrylic coating
(average 95%) and the detected colour change (DE* < 5.0) after
2160 h of artificial weathering were acceptable – fulfilling e.g.
the requirements of the American Architectural Manufacturing
Association that was introduced for architectural aluminium
panels.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The research results presented in this study were obtained
within the Christian Doppler Laboratory for Performance-Based
Optimization of Binder Composition and Concrete Manufacturing
(University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria). The financial support
by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science, Research and Economy
and the National Foundation for Research, Technology and Devel-
opment as well as the associated industrial partner is gratefully
acknowledged. The authors are grateful for the assistance of Martin
Wieser and Paul Jäger in the course of the presented research work.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117415.
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