FRICTION AND WEAR

1. FRICTION

When two solid surfaces are pressed together, a force

parallel to their surfaces in contact is necessary to cause
sliding or relative motion. This force is known as friction
force.

A large portion of the energy produced in the world is

consumed in friction. But, of course, friction has its
beneficial effects as well. (Ex. High friction between
automobile tires and roadway is an obvious measure of
safety)

The real damage occurs through WEAR or seizure, which

shortens the effective life of an engine.

If surfaces are clean and dry, the solid materials will be in

contact, and the force of friction will be caused by the
overcoming of the interlocking effect of the surface
irregularities.

welded
junctions

This type of friction is called dry friction and was first

studied by Coulomb (1781)

He stated that there was a difference between static and

dynamic friction.
Characteristics of Friction Force :
1. The friction force is directly proportional to the normal
force on the two bodies.
2. Friction force is independent of the area of the
contacting surfaces.
3. Friction force is independent of sliding velocity.
4. Friction force depends upon the nature of the sliding
surfaces.

The law of friction may be expressed as :

F=f.N F: force applied to overcome friction
N: Normal force on surfaces in contact
f: coefficient of friction

If force is applied to start sliding : f coefficient of static

friction
If force is applied to maintain sliding : f coefficient of kinetic
friction

Recent researches have shown that some of the conclusions

reached by Coulomb were not correct.
― Today it can be shown that:
- There is no ideally flat surface.
- When two bodies are in contact, they
touch each other at some certain points.
- These points which touch each other will weld with the
action of high normal force and will shear and weld at other
points.
― This shows that:
- friction depends on the area of contact.
- Surface conditions.

Coefficient of friction is very sensitive to cleanliness,

atmospheric dust and humidity, oxide and other films,
surface roughness, velocity of sliding, contact pressure,
temperature grain size, direction of grain, vibration and
static charges
Types of Friction :

Depending on the medium between the sliding surfaces, and

operating conditions, friction can be examined in 4 groups:

1. Dry Friction: This type of friction results when the

contacting surfaces are free of contaminating film-oxides,
moisture or other kinds eg. Brake shose.

2. Boundry Friction: Results from heavy loads at low

speads (Not solid contact, but are separated by one or more
molecular layers of lubricants) reversing or rotating at very
low speed under a heavy load, gear teeth, Journal bearing,
piston rings, cylinder walls.

3. Thin film (semi-fluid) Friction: A complete load-carrying

film cannot be formed to separate the surfaces. (Surfaces are
separated partly by viscous films and partly by areas of
boundary conditions of lubrication.

4. Thick film (full-fluid) Friction: Here the solid surfaces

are completely separated by a fluid film.
Friction and wear can be determined by the thickness of
the oil film compared to the surface roughness of the
surfaces.

Regimes of lubrication can be characterized by a

SPECIFIC FILM.

Regime I. The surfaces are separated by a continuous film

whose thickness is very much larger than the combined
surface roughness h >> RA
no physical contact / wear is minimal.

Regime II. With -increase contact pressure -decrease

viscosity -decrease sliding speed some contact occurs.
Film thickness is of the same order as the roughness
h ≈ RA
friction → partly shearing of lubricant partly due to
contact

Regime III. Film thickness is very small h < RA

Contact is severe and friction and wear are determined
hydrodynamic forces acting in the conjunction due to the
relative movement of the surfaces and the viscous resistance
of the fluid Hydrodynamic lubrication
WEAR

Wear can be defined as the surface damage caused by the

environment and the effect of one or more surfaces moving
past each other while in contact.

Some material removed from the surfaces.

TYPES OF WEAR :

- Adhesive Wear: When two metallic bodies are pressed

together, Due to the small area in contact the pressure on
the peaks may cause metal to flow plastically. Plastic
deformation increases the actual contact area and these
areas are weld together. Due to the sliding motion
interlocked steps at the interface will be broken the energy
released and particles of metal will be transferred from one
surface to the other.

- Abrasive Wear: Abrasive wear is the removal of material

from softer surfaces by asperities of harder surfaces.
Particles embed themselves in the softer surface and tend to
scratch the harder surface.

In bearings of machinery, the shaft is usually made of steel

for the required strength and stiffness. It is desirable to use
a softer material as bearing, so that any hard particles of
metal will become embedded in the bearing will prevent
abrasive wear of the shaft.
- Pitting: This type of wear appears in the region of high
contact pressure and repeated loads (wheels and rails, gear
teeth, cams and followers, rolling bearings)

Accurs in three steps:

1. A small fatigue crack appears on the surface due to the
contact stress
2. The lubricant fills in the crack, cause the crack spread
3. The chip breaks of and forms a pit.

- Fretting wear: Damage is caused by small movements

between mating surfaces which are closely filled. (Molecules
are torn from the contacting surfaces by cohesive action)

Prevent by eliminating vibration, increasing coefficient of

friction. Fretting is produced by the combined effects of
corrosion and wear.

Corrosive Wear: This type of destruction is due to chemical

reaction of gases or liquids that surround the machine
element (oxidation of metallic surfaces)

Corrosion also accelerates other types of wear (fretting)

because of the oxide particles that come of from the
surfaces.
 LUBRICATION

The object of lubrication is to reduce friction, wear and

heating of machine parts which slide relative to each other.

Lubricant is a substance (solid, liquid, gas) which is inserted

between moving surfaces. Functions:
1- To transmit load from one sliding surface to the other
2- To decrease the coefficient of friction
3- To carry away the heat generated by friction
4- To protect the surface from corrosion
5- To prevent entrance of impurities between the sliding
surfaces
6- To prevent frictional power loss
7- To remove foreign particles
8- To dampen shocks and vibration

Lubricants:
1.Oils (mineral and synthetic)
2.Greases (industrial oils, thickened with Ca, Na)
3.Solid Lubricants (used where either pressure or
temperature high) graphite, asbestos
4.Gases

Types of Librication:
1. Hydrodynamic Lubrication
2. Hydrostatic Lubrication
} Thick film (Full-film)
lubrication

3. Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
4. Boundary lubrication
5. Solid film lubrication

- Hydrodynamic Lubrication: The film pressure is created by

the moving surfaces itself pulling the lubricant into a wedge-
shaped zone at a velocity sufficient high to create the
pressure necessary to separate the surfaces against the load
on the bearing.
- Hydrostatic Lubrication: Should be considered where the
velocities are small or zero and where the frictional
resistance is to be an absolute minimum.

CMM

Lubrication is obtained by introducing the lubricant (air or

water), into the load-bearing area at a pressure high enough
to separate the surfaces with a relatively thick film or
lubricant (CNC, CMM).

- Elastohydrodynamic lubrication: Lubricant is introduced

between surfaces that are in rolling contact such as mating
gears or rolling bearings. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
occurs when a combination of sliding and rolling is present,
usually in bevel gears
an elastic deformation on the contacting surface enlarging
the load bearing area whereby the viscous resistance of the
lubricant becomes capable of supporting the load.
Note: Relative Motion:
1. Sliding
2. Rolling
3. A combination of sliding and rolling (a follower may
either roll or slide on the cam)

- Boundary lubrication: Happens when lubricant film is not

tick enough for full film lubrication.
- Boundary lubrication may occur if one or more of the
following occurs:
i)Velocity between moving parts drops.
ii)Quantity of the lubricant decreases.
iii)Bearing load increases.
iv)Lubricant temperature increases, as a result
viscosity of the lubricant decreases.
- Highest asperities are separated by a film of only
several molecules thick.
- Chemical composition of lubricant rather than its
viscosity could become important.
- Metal to metal contact may occur.
- Solid-film lubrication: At extreme temperatures, a solid-
film lubricant such as graphite or molybdenum disulfide
must be used (powders are used).

VISCOSITY
Viscosity is one of the most important properties of a
lubricant.

The lubricant particles adhere to the moving and stationary

plates.

Newton’s law of viscous friction states that the shear stress

in the fluid due to the force F is proportional to the rate of
change of velocity with respect to y, where y is the distance
of intermediate layer from the stationary plate.

absolute viscosity (proportionality constant)

↓
du Rate of change of velocity with distance
τ=µ
Shear stress dy ←*(rate of shear) – velocity gradient
↓
*measure of the resistance of the luguid to shearing
- Absolute Viscosity (µ, Z)
Assuming that the velocity gradient is constant

du U F U L : length
= ⇒ τ= =µ
dy h A h T: Time

[L / T ]
Dimension : [STRESS] = µ
[L ]

µ = [STRESS] [T]

force mass
[ F ] [ M ][ L] [M ]
[ STRESS ] = 2
= 2 2= 2
⇒ µ has the dimension
[ L] [ L] [T ] [ L][T ]
 M
 
length

 L T 
- Kinematic Viscosity (ν, Zk)
While designating the viscosities of oils commercially we
use kinematic viscosity.
Absolute viscosity
Kinematic viscosity
µ
ν=
ρ Mass density
[M]
[L ][ T ] [L2 ]
Dimension =
[M] [T]
3
[L ]

Note:
Units : English Speaking Countries

- US customary foot-pound-second system (fps)

inch-pound-second system (ips)

FT 2 ( pound − force)(sec ond ) 2 s2

( fps ) ⇒ M = = = lbf
L foot ft

FT 2 ( pound − force)(sec ond ) 2 s2

(ips ) ⇒ M = = = lbf
L inch in
- The international System of Units

ML (ki log ram)(meter )

( SI ) ⇒ F = 2
= 2
= kg.m / s 2
T (sec ond )

ML ( gr )(cm)
(cgs) ⇒ F = 2
= 2
= gr.cm / s 2
T (sec ond )

Units of Absolute and Kinematic viscosity

FT 2 [M]
M= M [ L ]2
[ Stress ][T ] = [L ][ T ] [L2 ]
L LT T =
[M] [T]
Units System Designated 3
[L ]
by
SI  N .s  m2
µ Pa.s =  2  ν
m  s
British (ips)
µ psi . s = (reyn)



lbf s 

 in2 
cgs * dyn . s cm 2
µ = ( Poise) ν ( Stroke; St )
cm 2 s
gr.cm
* dyne = 2
s
Z centipoise : cP Zk centistoke : c St
Z (cP)
= µ ( Pa.s ) *
10 −3
cP
( Poise) P = − 2 (centipoise)
10

Conversions : µ ( Pa.s) → 6890 reyn

µ ( Pa.s) →103 Z (cP) *
Z (cP)
µ (reyn) →
6.89.106
M ( Pa.s )
µ (reyn) →
6890
Viscosity Index : (American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) method to determine viscosity)

Time is measured for the lubricant to run through the tube

 m2   180  t : time in seconds

( SI ) ν   =10 −6  0,22 t − 
 s   t  Saybolt universal seconds
 180 
Z k (cSt ) =  0,22 t −  Kinematic viscosity
 t 
 180 
µ ( Pa.s) =10 −6 ρ  0,22 t − 
 t 
density (kg/m3)
..... a highy dependent on temperature
As temperature increase, µ decrease
Viscosity Index : Method for specifying the rate of change of
viscosity with temperature.

(1) Oil with small change of viscosity with temperature is

given VI 100
(2) Oil with large change of viscosity with temperature is
given VI 0

Oils (1) and (2) are chosen such that they have the same µ,
with the unknown oil at 210°F

Systems of Lubrication
1. Hand oiling (Suitable for low speed and lightly loaded
bearings)
2. Drop feed or wick feed oiling (more uniform supply of oil)
3. Oils rings or chains (ring or chain carries the oil from a
reservoir)
4. Splash system (gear or disk runs in an oil reservoir and
splashes oil inside the casing)
5. Pressure feeding (used for heavily loaded bearings, also
carries away the heat generated)
6. Grease lubrication (used if full film lubrication cannot be
obtained)
7. Oil bath lubrication (all or some parts are submerged in
oil reservoir)
8. Oil-jet lubrication
9. Air-oil mist (mist = small, tiny droplets) lubrication
Drop feed or wick feed oiling

Splash system Oil bath lubrication

Pressure feeding

Air-oil mist

Hand oiling

Oils rings or chains