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Stratigraphic and tectonic evolution of the northwestern Indian plate and

Kabul Block

Article  in  Geological Society London Special Publications · January 2000

DOI: 10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.170.01.25

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 t /).-
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Stratigraphic and tectonic evolution of the northwestern

Indian plate and Kabul Block
M. s. BADSHAHT, E. GNos2, M. e. JAN3 & M. I. AFRIDIT
tFederally Administered Tribal Areas Development Corporation ( FATADC),
Peshawar, Pakistan
2
M ineralogisch- Petrographisches Institut, (lniversitcit Bern, Baltzerstrasse l,
.; 3012 Bern, Switzerland
I 3National Centre of Excellence in Geology, (Jniversity of Peshawar, Pakistan
6
t-
i. Abstract: A 1 : 500 000 scale geological map covering large parts of the northwest Pakistan
southeast Afghanistan border region between 31-34'N and 69 71"F, has been compiled.
The map covers the tribal areas ol Kurram and of North and South Waziristan in Pakistan,
where the map is based on unpublished data of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas
Development Corporation. The map area comprises Precambrian crystalline rocks of the
Indian and Kabul blocks, Permian to Quaternary sedimentary rocks, and the Late
Cretaceous-Palaeocene Kabul Altimur and Zhob Waziristan Khost ophiolite complexes.
The Himalayan collision resulted in extrusion of the Kabul Block along the Chaman Fault
system and formation ol the Katawaz Basin which was filled with clastic deposits of the
'Early-Indus' fan. Ongoing contractional tectonics led to southward thrusting of the
Spinghar Indian crystalline basement over the Miocene Murree Formation. New names and
type sections are proposed for six units in the Spinghar and South Waziristan. These units are
the Daradar Dolomite, Spinghar Quartzite, Sikaram Series, Makai Limestone, Wana Schist
and Kaniguram Slates.

The map at l:500000 scale presented here
(Fig. 1) is a compilation of largely unpublished
mapping work.by the Federally Administered
Tribal Areas Development Agency (Badshah
1972,1973,1974,197'7a, b, c,1983a, b, 1984,
1985; Khan 1978; Khan & Khan 1985; Khan &
Inamullah 1987; Afridi & Tariq 1988; Allaudin
1988; Khan et al. l988,and others), by the USGS
. (Hemphill & Kidwai 1973; Meissner et al. 1974,
1975), by the Pakistan Mineral Development
Corporation (Afridi et al. 1969), and by the
\ i
1{ Geological Survey of Pakistan (Khan et al.1982).
L- The Afghanistan part is based on Kaever (1967a,
6), Mennessier (1968, 1969,1977), Ganss (1970),
Wittekindt (1973), Wittekindt & Weippert
(1973), Bosum et al. (1974), Meissner (1977),
Cassaigneau (1979), Mennessier & Beun (1981,
1985) and GEOCART (1983). The map covers
Kurram, North and South Waziristan and parts
of the Orakzai and Khyber Agencies, as well as
parts of the Kohat, Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan
Divisions in the Frontal Regions of Pakistan,
and parts of Logar, Paktia, Paktika, Kabul and
Nangarhar Provinces in Afghanistan (Fig. 2).
An E-W cross-section through the area was
published by Tapponnier et al. (1981). The
coverage of the tribal arca part of Pakistan is
based on geological mapping at 1:50000 scale.
Field based data were also preferred for the rest
of the compilation. The map complements those
published by Jones (1960), Bannert et al. (1992)
and Bender & Raza (1995), and with them
provides a clear overview of the geology of much
of the Pakistan Afghanistan border from
Khyber south to the Karachi area. Tectonostrati-
graphically, the map area is divided into: (l)
Spinghar (Kohe Sofaid), (2) Waziristan-Khost
and western Kurram, (3) Kohe Sulaiman, Dera
Ismail Khan and Bannu, (4) South Waziristan,
(5) Katawaz Basin and (6) Kabul Block and the
Altimur Range. A brief description of these
follows. Detailed descriptions of type localities
are only given for the newly named units.
Spinghar (: Kohe Sofaid: white mountain)
Forming a natural barrier between Afghanistan
and Pakistan, the Spinghar consists of Indian
basement crystalline, metamorphosed P alaeozoic
and relatively unmetamorphosed Mesozoic rocks

M. A., Trur-ol.n, P. J., Smnrn, M. P. & JlN, M. Q. (eds) Tectonics of the

Froru.' KH.rN,
Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya. Geological Society, London, Special Publications,
170,461-475. l-86239-061-4100/$15.00 O The Geological Society of London 2000.
 M. S. BADSHAH ET AL,
Fig. 2. Overview map of the NW Pakistan-SE
Afghanistan border area. Province names used in the
description are indicated. The bold, irregularly-shaped
lrame indicates the area covered by the map.
thrust southward as a nappe over Indian shelf
sediments as young as Miocene. It is likely that
mica K Ar cooling ages for the undated
Spinghar Crystalline rocks would be similar to
rhe 20-40 Ma range obtained for the Jalalabad
area located to the northwest (Wittekindt 1973).
Because of a thrust contact the rock units
exposed north of the Murree Formation are
different to lithologies south of it.
North of the Murree Formation
Rocks of the Spinghar Crystalline unit (Pcc)
occupy the eastern crest region of the Spinghar
and extend into Afghanistan where they have
been grouped into the Precambrian (Wittekindt
& Weippert 1973). The rocks are part of the
Indian plate Crystalline basement and include
granites, augen gneisses and migmatites intruded
by granite, aplite and doleritic sheets. Amphibo-
lite and serpentinite lenses are common, and
metamorphosed carbonates occur locally. The
Spinghar crystalline unit forms the core of the
Spinghar nappe which is thrust southward over
Fig. 1. Geological map of Spinghar, Kurram, Waziristan and Kohe Suleiman (Pakistan) and parts of Nahgarhar
Khost, Paktia and Paktika (Afghanistan).
the Daradar Dolomite, Sikaram Series, Spinghar
Quartzite and the Makai Limestone. With the
exception of Sikaram mountain, the majority of
the Spinghar Peaks are made up of this crystal-
line basement.
The Daradar Dolomite (Sd) is a siliceous,
white to greyish-white and hard dolomite con-
taining up to 19 wt% MgO. Dolerite intrusions
are common. Soapstones (talc) exist at many
places along fracture zones and at the contacts
with the mafic intrusions. The dolomite contains
silver-rich lead copper mineralization in the
western part of Spinghar at Neemtota
E). The dolomite is
(34'00'30" N/60'55'00"
highly deformed and generally dips steeply
northward, forming south-facing cliffs. The
dolomite overlies the Spinghar Crystalline unit
and is correlated with similar rocks of Silurian to
Devonian age in the Khyber Agency (Khan et al.
1970). The upper contact with the Spinghar
Quartzite is probably disconformable.
The Spinghar Quartzite (Os) consists of white
to grey-white, bedded qluartzite with grit and
conglomerate at the base. In the eastern
Spinghar, the quartzite is imbricated and occurs
in two horizons with graphitic phyllites of the
Sikaram Series in between. The Quartzite is
correlated with the Siluro-Devonian Spinrag
Quartzite at Jamrud in the Khyber Agency
(Khan et al. 1970). Contacts with the underlying
Daradar Dolomite and the overlying Sikaram
Series are believed to be tectonic. The contact
with the Makai limestone appears unconform-
able.
The Sikaram Series (PCs) is dominantly
exposed along the western Spinghar, and forms
the summit of the 4755m Sikaram Sar. It
consists of claystones and carbonaceous shale
in its lower part, and slate and graphitic schist in
the upper part. At Hussain Mela, boudins of
quartz-mica schist contain 2-8 cm sized garnet
porphyroblasts in their cores. The Sikaram Series
is several thousand metres thick in the west, thins
to a few metres in central Spinghar and gradually
in thickness eastward where it becomes
increases
more graphitic. The series has a thrust contact
with the Daradar Dolomite and the Spinghar
Crystalline unit. Griesbach (1892) reported
Triassic Lithodendroid fossils from eastern
Spinghar. In the northern Khyber Agency the
lithologically similar Landikotal Slate was dated
as Ordovician-Silurian by Stauffer (1968) and
Khan et al. (1970). Based on its stratigraphic
position above the Siluro-Devonian Daradar
 STRATIGRAPHIC AND TECTONIC EVOLUTION
Dolomite, we consider the Sikaram Series to be
between Siluro-Devonian and Triassic in age.
The Makai Limestone (Cm) comprises several
hundred metres of thick, greenish-grey to dark
grey, thinly bedded, siliceous limestones. It is
strongly folded and unconformably overlies the
Sikaram Series, Spinghar Quartzite, Daradar
Dolomite and the Spinghar Crystalline unit. It
contains conglomerate and grit at the base,
indicating a transgressive unconformity. The
unit is tentatively assigned a Cretaceous age.
The stratigraphically higher part of the over-
turned unit is strongly deformed into calcareous
schists (probably mylonites) showing a sheared
contact with the Miocene Murree Formation.
This zone is interpreted as the basal thrust of the
Spinehar nappe which has crystalline rocks at its
South of the Murree Formation
The formations found south of the Murrees
continue into the Hangu Atnakzai area. The
rocks have been described by Latif (1970), Fatmi
(1972), Fatmi & Cheema (1972), Meissner el a/.
(1974, 1975), Shah (1977) and Rabbani (1978).
The formations cover a range from Jurassic to
Tertiary, and include the Datta Formation (Jd),
Shinawari Formation (Jsh), Samanasuk Lime-
stone (Jss), Chichali Forrnation (Cc), Lumshiwal
Formation (Cl), Darsamand Limestone (Cd),
Kawagarh Formation (Ck), Hangu Formation
(Th), Lockhart Limestone (Tl), Patala and
Panoba Formations (Tpp), and the Murree
Formation (Tm).
The Middle Jurassic Samanasuk Limestone
thins westward and pinches out in central
Spinghar, north of Parachinar. The Chichali
and Kawagarh formations are present as thin
units in the Spinghar area but are not shown
separately on the map. The Lockhart Limestone,
however, has not been identifled in Spinghar
(Rabbani 1978). Because the Patala and Panoba
formations could not be conclusively distin-
guished, the two formations are shown as one
unit on the map. Khan & Khan (1985) identifled
the Miocene Fatejang Member as marking the
basal part of the Murree Fomation in the
Spinghar. Because the Murree Formation is
overthrust by the older Makai limestone this
yields an important age constraint for Miocene
southward thrusting of the Spinghar nappe.
Waziristan-Khost and western Kurram
This area is tectonically complex and consists of
para-autochthonous sedimentary rocks of the
Indian plate (Tani Formation (Jt); Kaever
1967a), overthrust by an ophiolite complex
composed of two tectonic units, the Kurram
Group nappe, and a post-nappe sedimentary
cover. Outcrops of the ophiolite occur in South
and North Waziristan, Kurram and Bannu in
Pakistan, and Paktia in Afghanistan (Fig. 2), and
outside the map area near Zhob in northern
Baluchistan. The ophiolite complex is strongly
folded with steep N- to NE-trending axial planes
and locally SE-vergent folds. The western part of
the Waziristan ophiolite complex has not been
studied in detail, although lavas dominate over
peridotites.
Within the ophiolite complex two tectonic
units are recognized. The lower unit contains
Pillow Lavas and Sheet Flows (V), the overlying
Albian to Senonian (Cassaigneau 1979; Beck
1995) Barzai Chert (Cb), and the Campanian
Zhizha Olistostrom (Cz). These three rock units
are in stratigraphic continuity. Cyprus-type
massive sulphide deposits are reported from the
pillow lavas (Badshah 1983&, 1985, 1986). The
upper unit of the ophiolite complex consists of a
metamorphic sole and ultramafic rocks (Um),
which include amphibolite to blueschist facies
metamorphic sole rocks and a serpentinized,
harzburgitic mantle sequence carrying sporadic
chromite deposits (Jones 1960; Jan et al. 1985).
The crustal sequence consists ofthe Gabbro and
Sheeted Dyke Complex (Gs). A large gabbro
massif occurs west of Kurram in Afghanistan
(Cassaigneau 1979). Outcrops of the Sheeted
Dyke Complex are present near Datta Khel and
along the Manzarkhel-Saidgi line in North
Waziristan. A detailed description of the Zhob
Waziristan-Khost ophiolite complex and the
tectonostratigraphic evolution of the area is
given by Gnos e/ a/. (in press).
The Kurram Group is an extensive sedi-
mentary nappe overlying the ophiolite complex
and the Indian shelf sediments. It is stratigraphi-
cally poorly known. The Jurassic Cretaceous
'Khorram Formation' of Kaever (1967a), the
undifferentiated Jurassic-Cretaceous of Hemphill
& Kidwai (1973), and the Triassic to Jurassic
'S6rie de Khost' and 'S6rie d'Ahmadhkhel' of
Cassaigneau (1979) are tentatively included here
in this group. However, we exclude the Chale
Talao Kurram Formation of Meissner e/ a/.
(1975), which was correctly shown as Kirthar
limestone and Ghazij shale by Hemphill &
Kidwai (1973). Pillow lavas with red interpillow
sediments are present at several localities within
the Kurram Group. We consider the Kurram
Group to be Triassic to Late Cretaceous in age,
containing reworked Late Permian and Triassic
material (Cassaigneau 1979).
470 M. S. BADSHAH ET AL.
Both the ophiolite complex and the Kurram
Group are covered by latest Maastrichtian and
younger sedimentary rocks. These include the
Datta Khel Clastics (Tdk), the Ghazij Formation
(Tg) and the Speraghar Conglomerate, and the
Habib Rahi Limestone (Tcl). The Datta Khel
Clastics contain material derived locally from the
ophiolite complex and the Kurram nappe. The
unit unconformably overlies the ophiolite com-
plex and the Kurram Group and is itself
unconformably overlain by the Ghazij For-
mation or the Spera Ghar Conglomerate. This
relationship suggests a latest Maastrichtian to
Palaeocene age for post-ophiolite sedimentation.
The full outcrop extent of the Ghazij Fornation
is unknown. On the map the known small
outcrops are included with the Speraghar Lime-
stone/Speraghar Conglomerate. Nummulites
date the limestone at Speraghar as Early Eocene
(Adams, pers. comm. 1986).
Kohe Sulaiman, FR Dhera Ismail Khan
and FR Bannu
Jurassicto sub-Recent formations are found in
the southeastern part of the map area and
include, from base upward, the Chiltan Lime-
stone (Jc), Sembar Formation (Cs), Parh Lime-
stone (Cp), Mughal Kot Fonnation (Cmk), Pab
Sandstone (Cps), Dungan Formation (Td),
Ghazij Formation (Tg), Baska Formation (Tb),
Kirthar Formation, Chitarwata and Kamlial
formations (Tck), Siwalik Group and Gat Tang
Formation..The stratigraphy of this area is well
known and detailed descriptions were given by
Williams (1959), Jones (1960), Hemphill &
Kidwai (1973) and Badshah (1977c).
The Goru Formation that separates Sembar
and Parh in parts of Baluchistan (Jones 1960)
does not crop out in the map area. Badshah
(1977c) subdivided the Ghazlj Formation into
a lower Shinsang Shale Member, an upper
Karghal Shale Member, and the Baska Forma-
tion (Tb) into a lower Baska Shale Member
(Tbb) and an upper Zambvj Shale Member
(Tbz). This subdivision is used on the map.
Hemphill & Kidwai (1973) divided the Kirthar
Fomation into the Habib Rahi Limestone (Thr),
the Domanda Shale (Tdo), the Pir Koh Lime-
stone (Tpk), and the Drazinda Shale (Tdr)
Members. The Kirthar Formation should have
a Group status for possible further subdivision.
Rocks similar to the Kirthar Fonnation are
widespread in the Katawaz Basin to the west of
Waziristan ophiolite complex. The Kamlial
Formation is lithologically similar to the
Chitarwata Formation and hence is not distin-
guished on the map.
The Siwaliks in Dera Ismail Khan include,
from base upward, the Vihowa, Litra and the
Chaudhwan formations (Hemphill & Kidwai
1973). In Bannu, the Siwaliks include the Chinji,
Nagri and Dhok Pathan Malaghan formations
(Pilgrim 1913; Morris 1938). Because of their
continuity in both areas, these are treated as
Vihowa/Chinji, Litra/Nagri and Chaudhwan/
Dhok Pathan-Malaghan formations on the
map. The Gat Tang Formation, defined by
Badshah (1971c), seems to have a transitional
contact to sub-Recent and Recent deposits. It is
probably an equivalent to the Late Pleistocene to
sub-Recent Bostan Formation of Jones (1960).
The formation is not shown on the map.
South Waziristan
Rock units structurally underlying Ihe Zhob
Waziristan-Khost ophiolite complex in South
Waziristan show a low-grade metamorphic
overprint (e.g. Beck 1995). We consider the
Metamorphosed Limestone (Jm) to be the meta-
morphosed equivalent of the Chiltan limestone,
exposed in the Kohe Sulaiman to the southeast,
and that the Metamorphosed Sandstone (Css)
represents the metamorphosed Pab Sandstone as
no other massive sandstone is known in the
region. The Kurram Group (Kg), Ghazij Forma-
tion (Tg) and Speraghar Limestone (Tsl), struc-
turally overlying the ophiolite complex, are not
metamorphosed. Quaternary Lake deposits
similar to those of the Zhob area in Baluchistan
(Jones 1960) are present at the southern border
to Baluchistan. The following two units are
newly defined here.
The Wana Schist (Pw) consists of medium to
thin bedded, greenish-grey and dark schists and
phyllites covering a large area, and are part ofan
open N-trending anticline flanked by Mesozoic
sedimentary rocks. The schists are intensely
folded with well developed box and chevron
folds. Kink bands, crenulation cleavages and
intrafolial quartz veins are characteristic. Low
greenschist facies metamorphism is considered to
be due to the southward thrusting of the Zhob
Waziristan Kost ophiolite complex and Kurram
Group onto the Indian margin. The Wana Schist
could be Pal4eozoic in age.
The Kaniguram Slate (Trk) consists of green-
ish-grey and black, fine-grained, intensely frac-
tured, splintery, thin to thick bedded slates that
occupy the northeastern areas near the southern
ophiolite contact and a narrow strip along the
western margin of the ophiolite. They could be
 STRATIGRAPHIC AND TECTONIC EVOLUTION 471

equivalent to the Tani Formation of the Waziri- based on the compilation by Mennessier & Beun
stan-Khost-Kurram region. (1 e8s).
The Kabul Crystalline rocks (Pc) consist
of qnartz-garnet muscovite-biotite * kyanite
Katawaz Basin schist with intercalated hornblende plagioclase
layers and marbles, and intrusions of diorite,
This relatively young structure developed after
anorthosite and diabase. The crystalline base-
thrusting ol the Zhob-Waziristan-Khost ophio-
ment has an autochthonous, greenschist facies
lite complex and the Kurram Group nappe. The
sedimentary cover (Kingil Series and Altimur
basin formation started during Late Cretaceous/
Palaeocene (Jones 1960; Kaever 1967b; Ganss
Unit (P-S)). Fossils allow the units to be dated as
Late Permian to Senonian (Mennessier & Beun
1970; Cassaigneau 1979) with the main develop-
1985). The autochthonous sedimentary rocks
ment during the Late Palaeocene Miocene when
were overthnrst by the Kabul-Altimur ophiolite
more than 10000m of sedimentary rocks were
complex which includes the Kabul ophiolitic
deposited. Syntectonic internal discordances,
complex, Kotagae Series, Akhundkhel Series
slumps (olistostroms), syn-sedimentary faults
and folds are frequent. The tectonic environment
and Rokian Series of Mennessier & Beun
(1985). Only the Ultramafic rocks (Um) and
was transtensional in its initial stage and trans-
Lavas (V) are distinguished on the map. The
pressional since the middle Miocene when the
ophiolite complex consists of serpentinized harz-
Chaman Fault developed (Cassaigneat 1919).
burgite, lherzolite and dunite, and gabbroic
Miocene to Recent calc-alkaline and alkaline
rocks outside the map area. Dolerite dykes are
volcanic rocks and quartz microdioritic intru-
sions are associated with the Chaman Fault
frequent in the peridotite. Radiolarian cherts
yield Aptian to Turonian ages. The ophiolite
system along the western rim ofthe basin (Bordet
complex is also overprinted by greenschist facies
1975). After deposition of a basal conglomerate
metamorphism.
(Dab Series) marine deposition started with Late
Palaeocene to Late Eocene platform limestones
Non, or only weakly, metamorphosed sedi-
mentary rocks cover the Kabul Altimur ophio-
along the rims, and pelagic sediments (Urgun
lite complex. These include Late Cretaceous (C),
Formation) in the centre of the basin (Kaever
Palaeocene to Early Eocene Couches Rouges-
1967&; Mennessier 1977; Cassaigneau 1979). The
younger sediments are dominated by sandstone.
Azrao Flysch-Varigated Conglomerate Zin
Rocks older than Oligocene/Miocene show
Tiza Formation (Tc), and Early to Middle
vertical schistosity. The Katawaz Basin deposits
Eocene Nummulitic limestone (Tnl). The
Tertiary deposits are in continuation with units
are interpreted as the more proximal fan part of a
palaeo-Indus delta that continuously extended
in Western Pakistan, described above and thus
correlable (Fig. 3). For a detailed description of
into the more distal Makran Flysch part.
the units in Afghanistan, the reader is referred to
On the map the Basal Conglomerate (Tc),
Mennesier & Beun (1985).
Nummulitic Limestone (Tnl) and Urgun Forma-
tion (Tu) are shown separately, whereas the
Gomal, Sultani and Saraudza formations (Tgs) Stratigraphic correlations
are shown as one unit. Descriptions of the
Previous to this work, working stratigraphies had
different units found in the Katawaz Basin are
given in Cassaigneau (1979), Mennessier & Beun
been developed separately for each of the
(1985), Treloar & Izatt (1993), Jadoon & different sub-areas covered by the map. As a
result, individual units and formations have
Kurshid (1996), Quayy.um et al. (1996, 1997)
been given different names in different sub-
and Haq & Davies (1997).
areas. Figure 3 represents an attempt to develop
a stratigraphic overview for the whole region.
Existing names have been used where possible.
Kabul Block and the Altimur Range
The Kabul Block consists of a Late Proterozoic
I ectonlc evolutlon
crvstalline basement covered by Permian to
Senonian shelf sediments (Kingil Series) which, After a Late Permi4n incursion of the Tethyan
in turn, is overthrust by the Kabul Altimur sea'from the north over metamorphosed base-
ophiolite complex. The ophiolite is unconform- ment (E Afghanistan, Kaever 1967b) or Palaeo-
ably covered by the Santonian-Campanian Ali- zoic sediments (Spinghar), break-up of
Pai-Bel Limestone. The Altimur Range is litho- Gondwana started in the Triassic with marine
logically similar but with more internal thrusting sedimentation occurring as far south as the
and faulting. The descriptions below are mainly central Indus basin. Shallow to open marine
 M. S. BADSHAH ET AL.

-&;; -'-- ---rimih;

,'%, n".-*"\ !
"/%:", € I i-:.;,; dt -.-:-=_;
l'///zVzZ/Z
U\ i--"ri*T, -
!
E

--!!:8"-,,-
7..77V22
////,////////.///.///l
TZ//././t
V:///////;///1,2

6 t* 7/,//.///,////:/t.
'./////////////////,

l"'-'"" t-
t!
E<

E ?

.l
d-t ,'*
s / s'.is

Fig.3. Correlation table showing formation names and corresponding age ranges used on the map and in the text
Hatched areas are stratigraphic gaps. A wavy line indicates an unconformable contact, and a dashed line an
approximate limit.

conditions, deepening to the east, with high
energy carbonates dominant along the western
side of Greater India, are recorded through the
Triassic to Middle Jurassic (Jones 1960). Plant
relics are common in the Lower Jurassic (Stuart
1922; Kaever 1967al- Beck et al. 1996) and
ammonites in the Upper Jurassic (Kaever
1967a; Hemphill & Kidway 1973; Beck et al.
1996)- E-W sedimentation differences became
strongly accentuated with the separation of East
and West Gondwana in the Late Jurassic (e.g.
Cochran 1988). This is marked in the map area
by erosion of Middle to Late Jurassic strata along
the whole.length of the western Indian margin,
and transgression of the Lower Cretaceous
Sembar Formation with common development
of a transgressive conglomerate at its base.
The closure rate of Neo-Tethys increased with
increasing separation of India-Seychelles from
Madagascar between c. 100 and 84 Ma, initiating
 STRATIGRAPHIC AND TECTONIC EVOLUTION
the Zhob-Waziristan Khost subduction zone
(Gnos er a/. in press). Common limonitic
beds, as in the Aptian to lower Cenomanian
Lumishiwal sandstone of the Indian shelf,
indicate a regressive deltaic facies and subaereal
exposure. In Southern Pakistan the stratigraphic
record over this time period is continuous. This
late Cretaceous unconformity was followed
by the transgressive Coniacian-Campanian
Kawagarh Formation and the Mughal Khot
Formation (Beck el al. 1996; Burris 1996). The
latter contains large olistoliths of Jurassic shal-
low-water limestones which are probably corre-
lated with a similar olistolithic layer of Jurassic
shallow-water limestones that form the youngest
(Campanian) beds in the lower ophiolitic unit.
We interpret this as a result of the collision of
the Indian passive margin with the Zhob-
Waziristan-Khost trench, resulting in crustal
flexure and a depositional break. Final ophiolite
obduction thus occurred in Campanian or
Maastrichtian time.
Late ophiolite emplacement or nappe
thrusting in the Kabul-Altimur and Zhob-
Waziristan-Khost areas was toward the SE.
However, this direction may not indicate the
original direction of obduction because the folds
may have been rotated in a counter-clockwise
sense during the southwestward extrusion of
the Afghanistan continental block and formation
of the Katawaz Basin (Cassaigneau 1979;
Tapponnier et al. l98l Beck et al. 1996).
During the late Maastrichtian to Palaeocene
the Zhob-Waziristan Khost ophiolite was
thrust beneath a nappe of deep-marine to pelagic
sediments (Kurram Group). The thrust stack was
then folded and thrust further cratonward and
exposed to subaerial weathering (Cassaigneau
1979; Beck et a|.1995). During rapid Palaeocene
subsidence of the Kurram region, lower to
middle Palaeocene strata (up to P3) became
tilted. Whether this was caused by collision of the
India Kabul margin with Asia or with an
intraoceanic trench is still unclear. Two scenarios
are possible. Cassaigneau (1979), Tapponnier
et al. (1981) and Treloar & lzatt (1993) inter-
preted the Kabul Block as a fragment of
Gondwana that collided with India Seychelles
at the end of the Cretaceous. They inferred that
the Kabul Altimur ophiolite obduction was
Palaeocene in age. Critical to this model is that
obduction of the Kabul-Altimur ophiolites
occurred in the Palaeocene and thus postdates
the Campanian-Maastrichtian age of obduction
for the Zhob-Waziristan-Khost ophiolite. The
biostratigraphic data constrain the age of obduc-
tion to the Maastrichtian-Palaeocene interval.
Alternatively, Beck et al. (1996) interpreted the
473
Kabul Block as representing the leading part of
the Indian plate that was sheared offand pushed
to the southwest during early India-Asia colli-
sion. We suggest that the Kabul-Altimur ophio-
lite complex may be the deformed and
metamorphosed equivalent of the Zhob
Waziristan-Khost ophiolite complex, and that
the allochthonous Kurram Group represents a
nappe rooting on the Eurasian plate (Meissner
et al. 1975). Radiometric data from the Kabul-
Altimur ophiolite and palaeomagnetic data from
the Late Cretaceous/early Tertiary sedimentary
rocks of the Kabul Block are needed to solve the
problem. Ongoing collison resulted in the extru-
sion of the Kabul B1ock, formation of the
Chaman Fault system, and formation of the
Katawaz Basin that was filled up with the fan
deposits of an early 'Indus river' (Cassaigneau
1979;Treloar &Izatt 1993; Quayyam et al. 1996,
1997).
Subduction of the India Plate margin during
Himalayan collision resulted in the Miocene-
aged southward thrusting of the Spinghar
Crystalline unit and cover rocks over the Murree
Formation. Greenschist facies metamorphism in
the northern parts of the Kabul Block, along the
southern border of the Waziristan ophiolite
complex and beneath the Spinghar Thrust,
seems to have developed locally as a result of
southward thrusting of northern units over
southern units.
Many angular unconformities, well documen-
ted in eastern Kurram and Waziristan, record a
series of stratigraphically discrete episodes of late
Palaeocene, early Eocene and Neogene deforma-
tion during Himalayan contractional tectonism
(Beck el al. 1995). Present earthquakes are
frequent on thrust planes and on strike-slip or
normal faults in the map area (e.g. Lawrgnce
et al. 1992).
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