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Background: What is a Foundry?

A foundry is:
A casting factory which equipped for making molds,
melting and handling molten metals, performing the
casting process and cleaning the finished casting..
 Casting is one of the oldest industrial processes
Some  There are different casting processes.
typical cast Aluminum Engine blocks,
metal pots axles
Turbine blades
objects: in jet engines

“low tech” “high tech”

 FOUNDRY/CASTING

“Foundry or casting is the process of producing

metal/alloy component parts of desired shapes by
pouring the molten metal/alloy into a prepared
mould/(of that shape) and then allowing the
metal/alloy to cool and solidify. The solidified piece
of metal/ally is known as a CASTING

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Casting

 is a manufacturing process by
which a liquid material is
usually poured into a mold,
which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape,
and then allowed to solidify.
The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is
ejected or broken out of the
mold to complete the process.

3
 Casting since about 4000 BC…

Ancient Greece; bronze Iron works in early Europe,

statue casting circa 450BC e.g. cast iron cannons from
England circa 1543

•First casting were made during 4000 – 3000 BC

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 SAND-CASTING
Basic materials & equipment for green sand-casting
Pattern 1
(a copy of the shape you
want to produce, made of Top & bottom
wood, plastic or metal)
mold forms
Sand, mixed with clay (made of
binder & water (so it will metal, open at
hold its shape) plus coal dust top and
to improve surface finish
bottom)
Container of molten metal

Rammer (tool to compact the sand; often a pressing machine is used)

 SAND-CASTING
A very basic summary of the sand casting process. . .

First of all,
mix the sand.
1 MOLDING:
THEN 2 Pattern placed into
MOLDING:
Sand placed mold
into bottom
mold form &
compacted
 A tube or pipe
MOLDING:
3 provides a path to
Add the top
mold form pour the metal in

Pattern is still
inside! 4 MOLDING: Fill
top form with
compacted sand.
 MOLDING:
Take the top In the middle of
the sand is a
5 mold off and
remove pattern cavity shaped
& pipe or post like the pattern!
Pouring
hole

6 MOLDING: Replace
the top mold and fasten
securely!
 8 Wait for the metal to
cool (minutes to days,
7 CASTING: depending on the size
Pour the metal (container is filled of the casting)
from furnace immediately before
9
you are ready to pour)
 A copy of the
pattern has now
been made in metal CLEANING. Sand
is cleaned off the
9 part, the “tab”
where metal flowed
in must be removed

10 Mold forms are reused

Sand is broken up,

8 SHAKE OUT: Break apart 11 screened to remove
the two halves of the mold & debris and clumps, and
take out the part—usually sent for remixing
requires vibrating or striking
the mold to break apart the
sand
Sand Casting
cope: top half

drag: bottom half

core: for internal cavities

pattern: positive

funnel  sprue 
 runners  gate 
 cavity 
 {risers, vents}

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12
Steps involved in making a casting: :
1. Make the pattern out of Wood , Metal or Plastic.
2. Prepare the necessary sand mixtures for mould and
core making.
3. Prepare the Mould and necessary Cores.
4. Melt the metal/alloy to be cast.
5. Pour the molten metal/alloy into mould and remove
the casting from the mould after the metal
solidifies.
6. Clean and finish the casting.
7. Test and inspect the casting.
8. Remove the defects, if any.
9. Relieve the casting stresses by Heat Treatment.
10.Again inspect the casting.
11.The casting is ready for shipping. 13
Process Advantages:

“Net Shape” or “Near-Net Shape”

•Complex geometry -external & internal
• No machining waste
•Can be mass produced
•Size variety-big & small
•Any metals

General Casting Disadvantages:

• Expensive and time-consuming patterns/molds/dies

• Solidification issues: shrinkage, porosity, ~low strength,
brittleness
• Some methods require many steps (e.g., Investment casting)
• Safety hazard
• Dimensional accuracy, surface finish
• Environmental problem 14
Engine blocks

 Cameras
 Cook ware
 ….
Patterns Types and their applications
A Pattern is a model or the replica of the object to be cast.
A pattern is a shaped form of wood or metal around which sand
is packed in the mold.
Except for the various allowances a pattern exactly resembles
the casting to be made.
Patterns may be in two or three pieces, where as casting are
in a single piece.
A pattern is required even if one object has to be cast.
The quality of casting and the final product will be effected to a
great extent by the planning of pattern.
When the pattern is removed the resulting cavity is the exact
shape of the object to be cast.
The pattern must be designed to be easily removed without
damage to the mold 16
Functions of Patterns: :

A Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the

purpose of making a casting.
A Pattern may contain projections known as
core prints if the casting requires a core and
need to be made hollow.
Risers, runners and gates may form a part of
the pattern.
Patterns properly made and having finished
and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
Properly constructed patterns minimize
overall cost of the casting.
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 Selection of Pattern Materials: :
The following factors assist in selecting proper
pattern material:

1) No. of castings to be produced.

2) Metal to be cast.
3) Dimensional accuracy & surface finish.
4) Shape, complexity and size of casting.
5) Casting design parameters.
6) Type of molding materials.
7) The chance of repeat orders.
8) Nature of molding process.
9) Position of core print.
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The pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked; shaped and joined.
2. Light in weight;
3. Strong; hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion; and to chemical
reactions;
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by
variations in temperature and humidity
7. Available at low cost.

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 Pattern materials
Materials for making patterns

a. Wood
b. Metal
c. Plastic
d. Plaster
e. wax
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 1. Wood Patterns: :
These are used where the no. of castings to be produced is small
and pattern size is large.
Advantages:
* Inexpensive
* Easily available in large quantities
* Easy to fabricate
* Light in weight
* They can be repaired easily
* Easy to obtain good surface finish
Limitations:
* Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling
* Possess, poor wear resistance
* abrade easily by sand action
* Absorb moisture, consequently get wrapped
* Cannot withstand rough handling
* life is very short 21
 2. Metal Patterns: :
These are employed where large no. of castings have to be
produced from same patterns.
Advantages:
* Do not absorb moisture
* More stronger Possess much longer life
* Do not wrap, retain their shape
* Greater resistance to abrasion
* Accurate and smooth surface finish,
* Good machinability
Limitations:
* Expensive
* Require a lot of machining for accuracy
* Not easily repair
* Ferrous patterns get rust
* Heavy weight , thus difficult to handle.
Commonly used metals for making patterns: Cast iron, Aluminium
and its alloys, Steel, White metal, Brass etc.. 22
 3. Plastic Patterns: :
Advantages:
Durable
Provides a smooth surface
Moisture resistant does not involve any appreciable
change in size or shape
Light weight
Good strength
Wear and corrosion resistance, Abrasion resistance
Easy to make
Good resistance to chemical attack
Limitations:
Plastic patterns are easily broken
may not work well when subject to conditions of
severe shock as in machine molding . 23
 4. Plaster Patterns: :
Plaster may be made out of Plaster of paris or Gypsum
cement.
Plaster mixture is poured into a mould made by a sweep
pattern or a wooden master pattern, in order to obtain a
Plaster pattern.

Advantages:

~It can be easily worked by using wood working tools,

~Intricate shapes can be cast without any difficulty.
~It has high compressive strength.

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 5. Wax patterns: :
Advantages:
Provide very good surface finish,
Impart high accuracy to castings.
After being moulded, the wax pattern is not taken
out of the mould like other patterns
rather the mould is inverted and heated; the molten
wax comes out and/or is evaporated.
Thus there is no chance of the mould cavity getting
damaged while removing the pattern.

Wax patterns find applications in Investment

casting process.

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 tyPes of Patterns
Types of patterns depend upon the following factors:

1. The shape and size of casting

2. No. of castings require
3. Method of moulding employ
4. Anticipate difficulty of moulding operation
Types of Patterns: :
1. Single piece pattern
2. Split piece pattern
3. Loose piece pattern
4. Match plate pattern
5. Sweep pattern
6. Gated pattern
7. Skeleton pattern
8. Follow board pattern
9.Cope and Drag pattern.
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28
 1. Single piece (solid) pattern: :

Made from one piece and does not contain loose pieces or
joints.
Inexpensive
Use for large size, simple castings.
Pattern is accommodated either in the cope or in the drag.
Examples: Bodies of regular shapes. stuffing box of steam
engine.

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 2 . Split piece pattern: :
Patterns of intricate shaped castings cannot be made in
one piece because of the inherent difficulties associated
with the molding operations (e.g. withdrawing pattern
from mould).
The upper and the lower parts of the split piece patterns
are accommodated in the cope and drag portions of the
mould respectively.
Parting line of the pattern forms the parting line of the
mould.
Dowel pins are used for keeping the alignment between
the two parts of the pattern.
Examples: Hallow cylinder Taps

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 3. Loose piece pattern: :
Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are embedded in
the molding sand. Such patterns are usually made with one or more
loose pieces for facilitating from the molding box and are known
as loose piece patterns.
Loose parts or pieces remain attached with the main body of the
pattern, with the help of dowel pins.
The main body of the pattern is drawn first from the molding box
and thereafter as soon as the loose parts are removed, the result is
the mould cavity.

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 4. Match plate pattern: :
It consists of a match plate, on either side of which each
half of split patterns is fastened.
 A no. of different sized and shaped patterns may be
mounted on one match plate.
The match plate with the help of locator holes can be
clamped with the drag.
After the cope and drag have been rammed with the
molding sand, the match plate pattern is removed from in
between the cope and drag.
Match plate patterns are normally used in machine
molding.
By using this we can eliminate mismatch of cope and
drag cavities.

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 5. Sweep pattern: :
is just a form made on a wooden board which sweep the
shape of the casting into the sand all around the circumference.
The sweep pattern rotates about the post.
Once the mould is ready, Sweep pattern and the post can be
removed.
Sweep pattern avoids the necessity of making a full, large
circular and costly three-dimensional pattern.
Making a sweep pattern saves a lot of time and labour as
compared to making a full pattern.
A sweep pattern is preferred for producing large casting of
circular sections and symmetrical shapes.

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 6. Gated pattern: :
The sections connecting different patterns serve as runner & gates.
This facilitates filling of the mould with molten metal in a better
manner and at the same time eliminates the time and labour
otherwise consumed in cutting runners and gates.
A gated pattern can manufacture many casting at one time and
thus it is used in mass production systems.
Gated patterns are employed for producing small castings.

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 7. Skeleton pattern:
is the skeleton of a desired shape which may be S-bend pipe or
a chute or something else. The skeleton frame is mounted on
a metal base
The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is rammed.
A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired shape to the sand
and removes extra sand.
Skeleton patterns are employed for producing a few large
castings.
A skeleton pattern is very economical, because it involves
less material costs.

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 8. Follow board pattern: :
A follow board is a wooden board and is used for
supporting a pattern which is very thin and fragile
and which may give way and collapse under pressure
when the sand above the pattern is being rammed.
With the follow board support under the weak
pattern, the drag is rammed, and then the fallow board
is with drawn, The rammed drag is inverted, cope is
mounted on it and rammed.
During this operation pattern remains over the
inverted drag and get support from the rammed sand of
the drag under it.
Follow boards are also used for casting master
patterns for many applications.

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 9. Cope and Drag patterns: :
A cope and drag pattern is another form of split pattern.
Each half of the pattern is fixed to a separate metal/wood plate. -
Each half of the pattern(along the plate) is moulded separately in
a separate molding box by an independent moulders.
The two moulds of each half of the pattern are finally
assembled and the mould is ready for pouring.
Cope and drag patterns are used for producing big castings
which as a whole cannot be conveniently handled by one
moulder alone.

37
 Pattern allowances, Pattern materials
and Color coding
Pattern Allowances: :

A pattern is larger in size as compared to the final

casting, because it carries certain allowances due to
metallurgical and mechanical reasons.

For example, shrinkage allowance is the result of

metallurgical phenomenon
where as machining, draft, distortion,
shake and other allowances are provided on the
patterns because of mechanical reasons.

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Types of Pattern Allowances: :

The various pattern allowances are:

1. shrinkage or contraction allowance.
2. Machining or finish allowance.
3. Draft of tapper allowances.
4. Distortion or chamber allowance.
5. Shake or rapping allowance.

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 1. Shrinkage Allowance: :
The metal shrinkage is of two types:
 Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when
liquid state  solid state at the solidus temperature.
To account this, riser, w/c feed liquid metal to the casting,
are provided in the mould.
 Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused
when metal loses temperature in solid state.
* Freezing temp to Room temp
Therefore, the pattern to obtain a particular sized casting is
made oversize by an amount equal to that of shrinkage or
contraction.

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The metal shrinkage depends upon:
a) The cast metal or alloy
b) Pouring temp. of the metal/alloy
c) Casted dimensions(size), Casting design aspects.
d) Molding conditions(i.e., mould materials and
molding methods employed)
e) Shrinkage allowances are usually 1-2%.

Different metals shrink at different rates because

shrinkage is the property of the cast metal/alloy.

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42
 2. Machining Allowance: :
A Casting is given an allowance for machining because
a) Castings get oxidized in the mould and during heat
treatment; scales etc., thus formed need to be removed.
b) It is the intended to remove surface roughness and
other imperfection from the castings.
c) It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions.
d) Surface finish is required on the casting.
How much extra metal or how much machining
allowance should be provided, depends on the factors
listed below:
i. Nature of metals
ii. Size and shape of casting.
iii. The type of machining operations to be employed for
cleaning the casting.
iv. Casting conditions.
v. Molding process employed 43
44
 3. Draft or Taper Allowance: :
To withdraw pattern from mould with out damaging the
mould cavity
It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line.

The amount of taper depends upon:

i. Shape and size of pattern in the depth direction in contact
with the mould cavity.
ii. Moulding methods.
iii. Mould materials.

Draft allowance is imparted on internal as well as external

surface of course it is more on internal surfaces.
The taper provide by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of
the pattern so that it can be removed from the sand without
tearing away the sides of the sand mould and without excessive
rapping by the moulder.
The draft angle is commonly 1-3deg 45
46
4. Distortion or cambered allowance: :
A casting will distort or wrap if
i. it is of irregular shape
ii. All it parts do not shrink uniformly i.e., some
parts shrinks while others are restricted.
iii. It is u or v-shape
iv. The arms possess unequal thickness
v. It has long, rangy arms
vi. It is a long flat casting
vii. One portion of the casting cools at a faster rate as
compared to the other.

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5. Shake allowance: :

A patter is shaken or knock by striking the same

with a wooden piece from side to side. This is done
so that the pattern a little is loosened in the mould
cavity and can be easily removed
In turn, therefore, knocking enlarges the mould
cavity which results in a bigger sized casting.

Hence, a –ve allowance is provided on the pattern

i.e., the pattern dimensions are kept smaller
in order to compensate the enlargement of mould
cavity due to knocking.
The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced
by increasing the tapper.
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 Pattern Layout: :
Steps involved:
Get the working drawing of the part for
which the pattern is to be made.
Make two views of the part drawing on a
sheet, using a shrink rule. A shrink rule is
modified form of an ordinary scale which has
already taken care of shrinkage allowance
for a particular metal to be cast.
Add machining allowances as per the
requirements.
Depending upon the method of molding,
provide the draft allowance.
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 Pattern Construction
Study the pattern layout carefully and establish,
a) Location of parting surface
b) No. of parts in which the pattern will be made.
-Using the various hand tools and pattern making
machines fabricate the different parts of the pattern.
Inspect the pattern as regards the alignment of
different portions of the pattern and its dimensional
accuracy.
Fill wax in all the fillets in order to remove sharp
corners.
Give a shell coatings (3 coats) to pattern.
Impart suitable colors to the pattern for
identification purposes and for other information.
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Pattern Colours: :
Patterns are imparted certain colours and shades in order to:

i. Identify quickly the main body of pattern and

different parts of the pattern.
ii. Indicate the type of the metal to be cast
iii. Identify core prints, loose pieces, etc.
iv. Visualise the surfaces to be machined, etc.

The patterns are normally painted with different colours such

that the mould maker would be able to understand the functions
clearly.

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The colour code used is,

*Red or orange on surface not to be finished and left

as cast,
*Yellow on surfaces to be machined,
*Black on core prints for unmachined openings
*Yellow stripes on black on core prints for
machined openings
*Green on seats for loose pieces and loose core print
*Diagonal black strips with clear varnish on to
strengthen the weak patterns or to shorten a casting.

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Pattern Design suggestions

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More Pattern
Design
suggestions

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Pattern Design Issues (Alum)

 Shrinkage Allowance .13mm/m

 Machining Allowance 1/16”
 Minimum thickness 3/16”
 Parting Line
 Draft Angle 3 to 5%
 Uniform Thickness

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 Pattern Design

Normal Shrinkage Allowance for

Some Metals Cast in Sand Molds
Metal. Percent
Gray cast iron 0.83 – 1.3
White cast iron. 2.1
Malleable cast iron. 0.78 – 1.0
Aluminum alloys . 1.3
Magnesium alloys . 1.3
Yellow brass 1.3 – 1.6
Phosphor bronze 1.0 – 1.6
Aluminum bronze . 2.1
High-manganese steel 2.6

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 Core
Core:-is sand or metal shape that is inserted into the mold
to create internal features
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold
cavity and the core to form the casting's external and
internal surfaces
May require supports to hold it in position in the mold
cavity during pouring, called chaplets

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Should have similar properties as the mold.
Shaken out after finished casting is produced.
castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc of
various sizes and shapes

the core print is an added projection on the pattern and

it forms a seat in the mold on which the sand
core rests during pouring of the mold.
the core print must be of adequate size and shape so
that it an support the weight of the core during the casting
operation.
depending upon the requirement a core can be placed
horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside the mold
cavity.
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60
Chaplet

61
Core –is portion of mould w/c form the hollow
interior of the casting or hole through the casting.
- is a mass of dry sand w/c prepared separately,
baked in an oven and placed in the mould.
-also used to reduce the metal erosion in gates and
runner
-retard foreign matter in the melt
- provide a cup on the top of the mould

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Type of cores
Cores may be classified according to
1. The state/condition of core
2. Nature of core materials employed
3. Type of core hardening process
4. Shape and position of the core

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1. the state/condition of core
a) Green sand core b) Dry sand core

2. nature of core mts employed

a) Oil bonded cores b) resin bonded cores
c) Shell cores d) sodium silicate cores

3. type of core hardening process

a) CO2 process d) Fluid / castable process
b) Hot box process e) Nishiyama process
c) Cold set process f) Furan no bake system
g) Oil no bake system

4. shape and position of the core

a) Horizontal core b) vertical core
c) Hanging or cover core d) balanced core
e) Drop core f) ram up core
g) Kiss core 64
shape and position of the core
the horizontal and vertical cores are used in foundry work
frequently.
a horizontal core placed in horizontal in the mould the ends
of the rest in the seat provides by the core print on the pattern
vertical core placed vertically in the mould.
--upper end in cope, lower end in drag
balanced core used when the casting has opening only on
one side and only one core print available.
cover core extends vertically downward ,
it is suspended from the top of the mould( extended vertically
down
hanging core hangs from the top and does not have any
support at the bottom of the drag
ram up core is set in the mould with the pattern before
ramming.
Used when the core detail is located inaccessible position.
65
-when the pattern is not provided with core prints
and no seat is available for the core to rest, the core
is held in position b/n the cope and drag simply due to
the pressure of the cope. Such core known as kiss core.
-used when no of hole required in casting.

Characteristics of core
1. it should be strong and hard to support its weight
and withstand force of molten metal.
2. should be permeable to escape core gases
3. should be withstand the temp of molten metal
4. should be capable of collapsing shortly after the
molten metal has solidified around it.
5. should produce min amount of gas when in
contact with molten metal.
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 Core making
cores are made separately in a core box.
Core boxes are made of wood or metal and designed in several
type to aid in core removal.
 cores are made either by hands or by machines designed for
this purpose
core making basically consists of the following four steps
a) core sand preparation
b) core making
c) core baking
d) core finishing

 usually core prints are provided with the core to support the
core in the mould.
- are the projected portion , it rest in the moulding sand
- designed to locate the core accurately, prevent the
slagging and resist the pressure of the molten metal. 67
Core boxes
 is basically a pattern for making cores
are employed for ramming cores in them
core boxes impact the desired shape to core sand
 are range from simple wooden structure to precision
metal assemblies

A few commonly used type of core boxes are

1. half core box 2. slab core box
3. split core box 4. left & right hand core box
5. strickle core box 6. gang core box
7. loose pieces core box

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 chaPter two --
MoUlDinGProcesses
 Mold ----------a forming tool.
 The process of forming moulds called
moulding
• Good castings cannot be made without good
molds.
• importance operation involved in casting
• Prepare mold making the core & pattern
assembly the mould for pouring.

69
 Mould sand
 Sand is the principal moulding material in
foundry shop
 The important characteristic of sand
refractoriness
chemical resistivity
 permeability

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 Classification of moulding processes

 Moulding processes( based on whether the mould

is prepared by hand tools or with the aid of some
moulding machine) are broadly classified as
1. Hand mounding 2. machine moulding
(hand operated moulding m/c) (power operated molding m/ch)

 HAND OPERATED MOULDING M/C

One or more operation of the operation such as
ramming, pattern drawing and mold rolling over,
are performed by the m/ch w/ch is manually
operated either by hand lever or pedal control.
 Equipments and tools
 Magnetic separator for sand preparation
 Riddle, Muller, aerator
 Sand storage silo
 Sieve shaking m/ch
 Sand moisture drying device
 Mould hardness tester
 Direct reading moisture indicator
 Moisture teller using calcium carbide
 Sand rammer for sample preparation
 strength tester 72
 MoUlDinG tools
 Shovel-mixing molding sand & moving purpose
 Riddle-screen to remove foreign mts from sand
 Rammer-for ramming/packing the sand in the mould
 Strike off bar- C.I or wrought iron bar, used to
remove surplus sand from the mould after ramming.
 Vent wire- for opening the mould
 Sprue pin- taper pin or rod rammed in the cope
through w/ch metal poured
 Lifter-used for patching deep section of the mould
and remove loose sand from pocket of the mould.
 Slick—used for repairing and finishing mould.
74
Trowel- flat and thick metal sheet with upward
projected handles at one end. Used for making joint and
finishing flat surface of a mould.
Swab-- used for applying water to the mould around the
edge of the pattern.
Draw Spike(metal rod with a pointed or screwed end)
–used to remove the pattern from the mould
Rawhide Mallets—to loosen the pattern in the mould by
striking slightly
gate cutter –to connect the tee sprue with mould cavity
Bellows- air blower, make sand out of the mould
Rapping plate/lifting plate-used to facilitate shaking and
lifting large pattern from the mould.
spirit level-used to check that sand bed, moulding box or
table of moulding m/ch is horizontal
clamps– used to hold cope and drag
moulding box 75
(1) Vent wire for sticking vent holes through the sand of the mould.
(2) Pattern lifter.
(3) Joint trowel and (4) heart trowel for smoothing and finishing the
parting and flat surfaces of the mould.
(5) Gate cutter and pattern lifter.
6) Slick and oval spoon for finishing mould surfaces.
(7) (8) Sand lifters and slicks.
(9) Yankee heel lifter and flat slick.
(10) Flange and bead slick.
(11) Corner slick.
(12) Edge slick.
(13) Bound corner slick.
(14) Pipe slick.
(15) Button slick. (16.) Oval Slick.
(17) Hand rammer for ramming sand in flasks (not shown).
(18) Spirit level for leveling open sand moulds (not shown).

76
 COMPOSITION OF MOULDING SAND
The principal ingredients of moulding sands are
1. silica sand
2. clay
3. moisture
silica sand
-consist 80-90% silica
-SiO2( obtain from quartz rock) impart refractoriness,
chemical resistivity and permeability of the sand.
-specified according to average size and shape of sand
-fine grain more strength to the mould, desirable
for small and intricate casting
medium grain
course grain  used for large casting, where
accuracy not so important
77
Clay
-important ingredient in the mixture of moulding
sand
-holds the sand together
-bonding quality depends on
the amount
quality

 as amount of clay , permeability of mold

# normally the amount of clay found in silica
sand varies from 6 to 10%
clay impart strength to sand in presence of
moisture 78
 MoistUre
 Clay acquires its bonding action only in the
presence of the requisite amount of moisture
 If the water added is the exact quantity
required to form the film, the bonding action
is best.
 If it is excess strength is reduce and mould
get weak
 Thus, moisture content is one of the most
important parameter affecting mould and core
characteristics and consequently the quality
of the sand products
79
 Type of moulding sand
According to moulding mts used, the moulding processes are
classified as
1. Green sand moulding
2. Dry sand moulding
3. Loam moulding
DSM-similar to GSM but
4. Metal moulding
mould dried or baked before
GSM-mould in moist state pouring
while pouring metal -used for large work i.e engine
-widely used for all ferrous block, cylinder, rolls, intricate
and non ferrous alloys & special smoothness,
accuracy.

MM-mould made up of metal

LM- is sand and clay, water -used for production of large
mixture then dried numbers of identical casting
-is used for large sized casting
 Type of moulding sand
1. Green sand mix of silca sand, clay(18-30%)
and water(6-8%)
-casting small and medium size
2. Dry sand not contain water in it
-mould first prepared by green sand
then dried/baked to remove moisture
3. Loam sand mix of clay & sand milled with water. It
also consist fire clay (50%), H2O-(18-20%)
4.Facing sandvery thin & fine, used for the face of mold
5. Backing sand repeatedly used moulding sand
-used to fill in the mould at back of facing layer
-after it used no times, it became weak in
bonding strength and thrown away
81
6. Parting sand dry, clean, clay free silica sand
- spread b/n two molding boxes the form of
thin layer. (thin cloth)
-prevent two part from adhering and also green
sand from sticking to the pattern

7. Core sand silca sand mix with core oil

( linseed, light mineral oil, other binder)
-used to make core sand

82
Chemical composition of typical moulding sand

composition percentage
silica(SiO2) 81.4- 92.4
Alumina(Al2O3) 3.94-8.84
oxide of iron 0.5-2.9
TiO2 0.12- 0.43
CaO 0.12-2.82
MgO 0.16- 1.56
Alkalia(Na2O,K2O) 1.7-4.37

83
 Molding Materials and their properties

Mold materials include molding sand, backing sand,

Facing sand, core sand etc. The important Properties
are:
• refractoriness
• permeability
• green strength
• dry strength
• hot strength
• collapsibility
Molding sand composition
• base sand
• binder
• moisture
 Refractoriness
It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temp.
of the liquid metal to be poured so that it does not get fused
with the metal. The refractoriness of silica sand is highest.
Permeability
During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a
large amount of gases and steam is generated. These
gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during
melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam
generated by the molding and core sand. If these gases are
not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be
entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects.
To overcome this problem the molding material must be
porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping
the gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.
85
 Green Strength

The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as

green sand. The green sand particles must have the ability
to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the
mold. The green sand must have enough strength so that
the constructed mold retains its shape.

Dry Strength

When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand

around the mold cavity is quickly converted into dry sand
as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the
molten metal. At this stage the molding sand must posses
the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the
mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to
withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material. 86
 Hot Strength
As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would
reach at a high temperature when the metal in the mold
is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is
required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot
strength.

Collapsibility
The molding sand should also have collapsibility so
that during the contraction of the solidified casting
it does not provide any resistance, which may result
in cracks in the castings. Besides these specific
properties the molding material should be cheap,
reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.
87
Base Sand
Silica sand is most widely used. Also zircon sand,
chromite sand and olivine sand can be used.
Binders
• clay binders
Clay binders are most commonly used binding
agents mixed with the molding sands to provide the
strength

Most common clay binders are:

•Kaolinite /fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) &
•Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)
Bentonite has higher moisture absorbing power
Moisture required for bonding action of the clay
Influence of ingredients on properties
 1. Grain size of sand
 fine grain--more strength to the mould
desirable for small and intricate casting
 course grain  used for large casting, where
accuracy not so important
 2. Grain shape of the sand
round, angular, compound shape determine
by observing the grain under microscope.
=> Rounded grain-least contact with one another
in rammed structure. , thereby making sand
highly permeable to gases. lack strength & do
not pack up to the optimum extent 89
=> Angular grain -they produce higher strength and
lower permeability in mould than subangular grain
=>compound grains- grains cemented together
2. clay content

-as the quality of the clay increase, the permeability

of the mould decrease.
-silica is a high fusing mt & make moulding sand
capable of withstanding high temp but it has no bond.
-clay necessary to bond the moulding sand
-too much clay in sand cause cracking of the mould
after drying.
-when sand is used and reused for moulding work,
clay particle being subject to high temp, lose their
combined water & become incapable of bonding. 90
 3, Moisture content
If the water added is the exact quantity required
to form the film, the bonding action is best.
If it is excess, strength is reduce and mould get
weak
Thus, moisture content is one of the most
important parameter affecting mould and core
characteristics and consequently the quality of
the sand products

91
 sand preparation and control
 The preparation of moulding sand consists of two
operation
 1. sand tempering 2. sand conditioning
 The process by w/c the water is added to the
sand in the required quantity.
 The process by w/c the moulding sand is made
suitable for ramming in flasks
 The sand may be prepared for moulding by mixing the
ingredients sand , clay, water and other mts as may be
required.
 To obtain good casting, sand used for moulding must be
correctly conditioned.
92
 Proper sand conditioning and
preparation helps as follows
 1.Binder uniformly distributed around the sand grain
 2.Moisture evenly dispersed in the sand mixture and
moisture content properly controlled
 3.Sand gets aeration, causing sand grains to separate
and increase flowability of sand
 4.Sand delivered at proper temp
 5. Foreign particle separated from sand

93
Equipment used for sand preparation
 1. Magnetic Separator
 2. Riddle
 3. Muller
 4. Aerator after sand conditioned in the
muller, it is sent to an aerator where sand
grains are separated and each grain is made to
flow freely and smoothly.

94
 Testing of moulding sand
 Testing used to control sand properties
 1.moulding hardness
 affected by ingredient in the sand and
degree of ramming. It tested by dial gauge
 2. permeability
 depend primarily on size and shape of sand
grains and clay content, sand rammed.
 3. strength
 strengh tester used to estimate the
compressive, tensile, & shear strength of sand
95
 4. deformation and toughness
 Plasticity of the sand, is indicated by decrease in
length of the sand specimen during its green
compressive strength test before it fail
measured.
 High deformation value of the sand relates to better
capacity of the mould to withstand hydrostatic
pressure
 Toughness –give idea about the quality of sand mix
 sand toughness no= deformation x σc
 5. shatter test
 Measure sand toughness, particularly capacity of
sand to withstand rough handling and strain
during pattern withdrawal. 96
 6. high temperature characteristics
 Useful to evaluate the high temp characteristics of
sand.
 Specimens subjected to high temperature tests to
evaluate for their
  hot compressive strength tests carried out using
 hot deformation dilatometer
 expansion, refractoriness

 dilatometer in w/c the specimen is heated to

testing temp, soaking at that temp for fixed period
and then subjected to the compressive test, tensile
test. 97
 Types of moulding machines
mould is prepared by hand tools or with the aid of some
moulding machine
1 .Hand mounding 2. machine moulding
(hand operated moulding m/c) (power operated molding m/ch)
hand moulding –economical when casting small number
disadvantage:- more time consume, laborious and
become expensive for large quantities, skill needed
machine moulding
advantage: save time, overall cost per piece
works out lower than hand moulding
casting obtained more uniform in size and shape
 more accurate
Semi-skill worker can do the m/ch job
98
core making machine
 Commonly used production of core
 1.core blowing machine
 2. core shooter machine

 Hand core making

99
Moulding procedure- for two box beach moulding
 Place drag & pattern on the moulding board & ram sand
in drag
 Roll over drag on the board
 Assemble pattern and place cope over the drag
 Keep sprue pin and riser pin in position, fill sand in cope
 Vent mould, remove sprue and riser pin & part off mould
 Withdraw pattern, clean mould cavity & cut gate in drag
 Place core in position
 Reassemble and clamp mould

100
 Mold Filling

Bernouli’s Equation:
p v2
h   Const.
pg 2 g

h
Reynold’s Number:
vDP
Re 

•Short filling times
•Potential Turbulence

101
Mold Filling Example (1 of 2)

102
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
 Centrifugal casting refers to several
casting methods in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so that
centrifugal force distributes the molten
metal to the outer regions of the die
cavity.
The group include
(1) true centrifugal casting,
(2) semi centrifugal casting, and
(3) centrifuge casting.
 True Centrifugal Casting
 In true centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into a
rotating mold to produce a tubular part. Examples of parts
made by this process include pipes, tubes, bushings, and
rings.
 One possible setup is illustrated in Figure 11.15. Molten
metal is poured into a horizontal rotating mold at one end.
In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring has occurred rather than beforehand.
 The high-speed rotation results in centrifugal forces that
cause the metal to take the shape of the mold cavity. Thus,
the outside shape of the casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, and so on.
 However, the inside shape of the casting is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to the radially symmetric forces at
work.
FIGURE 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting.
 Semi-centrifugal Casting
 In this method, centrifugal force is used to produce solid
castings, as in Figure 11.16, rather than tubular parts.
 The rotation speed in semi centrifugal casting is usually
set so that G-factors of around 15 are obtained, and the
molds are designed with risers at the center to supply
feed metal.
 Density of metal in the final casting is greater in the outer
sections than at the center of rotation. The process is
often used on parts in which the center of the casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion of the casting
where the quality is lowest.
 Wheels and pulleys are examples of castings that can be
made by this process. Expendable molds are often used
in semi centrifugal casting, as suggested by our
illustration of the process.
FIGURE 11.16 Semi centrifugal casting
Centrifuge Casting
 In centrifuge casting, Figure 11.17, the
mold is designed with part cavities
located away from the axis of rotation, so
that the molten metal poured into the
mold is distributed to these cavities by
centrifugal force.
 The process is used for smaller parts,
and radial symmetry of the part is not a
requirement as it is for the other two
centrifugal casting methods.
FIGURE 11.17 (a) Centrifuge casting—centrifugal force
causes metal to flow to the mold cavities away from the
axis of rotation; and (b) the casting