Domes

They have been called "the kings of all roofs," and they cover some of our most
important buildings. Domes are curved structures -- they have no angles and no corners --
and they enclose an enormous amount of space without the help of a single column.
Despite their thinness, domes are some of the strongest and stiffest structures in existence
today.
Before domes, there were rectangular buildings.

Almost all ancient buildings had roofs supported by forests of columns.
The columns prevented the heavy roofs from collapsing, but they left
very little open interior space.
Columns and Soon, ancient engineers began experimenting with arches.

roof: Around 100 A.D., Roman builders rotated an arch in a circle and
Parthenon discovered that it created a strong three-dimensional shape -- the
monolithic dome. In time, they were capping churches and mosques
with this new and brilliant design.
The earliest domes were made of stone.

The earliest masonry dome, the Pantheon, was so heavy that engineers
carved intricate shapes, called coffers, along the walls to reduce the
weight of the enormous structure. They also gouged a hole, called an
oculus, at the top, which created a daily light show for which the
Pantheon is still famous.
Masonry dome:
As domes grew taller and taller, they became heavier and
Pantheon heavier.
By 532 A.D., ancient engineers realized that they could
lighten their domes by scooping out the spaces between the arches. This
design allowed sunlight to pour into the dome without weakening the
structure. The Mihrimah Mosque, built in 1555 by the great architect, Sinan, is
pierced with 161 windows! Mihrimah Mosque interior
Check out the forces that affect monolithic domes like the Mihrimah Mosque!
Sometimes, they become too heavy.

When the dome on St. Peter's Basilica began cracking in the early 18th
century, Vatican engineers tied several iron rings, called tension rings,
around the structure to prevent it from collapsing. Fortunately, their
Tension rings:
St. Peter's Basilica
emergency fix stood the test of time.
Take a look at the forces that affect ringed domes like St. Peter's!
In the quest for height, engineers came up with a few tricks.

By the early 1400s, Roman engineers began building two domes in one
to create the illusion of even greater height. The U.S. Capitol dome, built
in 1793, gets its height from this engineering sleight of hand. The large
outer dome is a thin shell, held up by a ring of curved iron ribs.
Underneath it all is a smaller, self-supporting dome, visible only from the
inside.
The U.S. Capitol dome is also one of the earliest domes made of pre- Double domes:
fabricated cast-iron ribs. The switch from heavy masonry to lightweight
metal ribs in the late 18th century greatly reduced the weight of domes U.S. Capitol
being built around the world.
But a 20th-century invention would change dome engineering

forever.
In the 1950s, a radical new design -- the geodesic dome -- changed
the way engineers looked at domes for the first time in 2,000 years.
Invented by American engineer and architect Buckminster Fuller,
the geodesic dome is a partial sphere shape structured from a series
Geodesic dome:
of triangles, rather than a series of arches.
"Windstar" dome
Today, geodesic domes come in an almost endless variety of shapes

and styles.
Possibly one of the most famous domes in the world, the Epcot Center
in Orlando, Florida, is a geodesic dome.
Geodesic dome:
Check out the forces that affect geodesic domes like the Epcot Center Epcot Center
dome!
A new generation of domes equipped with retractable roofs, like

the Toronto SkyDome, has become a popular choice for sports
stadiums throughout the world.
Retractable domed roof: Now that you know a bit about the history of domes, test your
Toronto SkyDome
knowledge in the Dome Challenge!
A dome is a common structural element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper
half of a sphere. Domes do not have to be perfectly spherical in cross-section, however;
a dome may be a section through an ellipse. If the baseline is taken parallel to the shorter
of an ellipse's two diameters, a tall dome results, giving a sense of upward reach. A
section across the longer axis results in a low dome, capping the volume instead. A very
low dome is a saucer dome (see below). All the surfaces of any dome are curved. A
spectacular innovation, one that is at the heart of Baroque style, is the oval dome, which
gives axial direction and movement to the space beneath it. Though the oval dome is
identified with churches of Bernini and Borromini, the first oval dome was erected by
Vignola for a small chapel, Sant'Andrea in via Flaminia often called Sant'Andrea del
Vignola, which was commissioned in 1552 by Julius III, and finished the following year
[1], the biggest oval dome was built in the basilica of Vicoforte by Francesco Gallo.
Domes that have been disproportionately influential in later architecture are those of the
Great Stupa in Sanchi (actually, a solid mound with stone facing), the Pantheon in Rome,
Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. In Western
architecture, the most influential domes built since the Renaissance have been those of St.
Peter's Basilica in Rome and Jules Hardouin-Mansart's dome at Les Invalides in Paris.
The dome of St. Paul's Cathedral in London was the inspiration for the United States
Capitol in Washington, which in turn inspired domes of most of the US state capitols. See
further influential domes below.
A cathedral is often referred to as a duomo in Italian or "dom" in German, not because so

many are crowned with crossing domes over the space where transepts intersect the
nave, but from the Latin "domus", house, in this case the "domus dei", the house of God.
A dome is a mark of palatial ambitions whenever it is seen crowning a residence. The
first residential domes were seen in Nero's Domus Aurea that covered the slope of the
Palatine Hill, built after the Great Fire of Rome of AD 64 with a lavishness that
scandalized the senatorial class.
In the 20th century, thin "eggshell" domes of pre-stressed concrete by architect-engineers

such as Nervi opened new directions in fluid vaulted spaces enclosed beneath freeform
domed space which now might be supported merely at points rather than in the traditional
constricting ring.
Astrodome
Choose another wonder
Vital Statistics:
Location: Houston, Texas, USA Click photo
for larger image.
Completion Date: 1966
Cost: $35 million
Diameter: 710 feet
Type: Ribbed
Purpose: Recreational
Materials: Concrete, steel
Engineer(s): Walter P. Moore; Lockwood, Andrews and Newman; John G. Turney;
Robert J. Cummins Office
The summers in Houston, Texas, are grotesquely hot and sticky -- too hot to play or
watch baseball. But in 1965, Judge Roy Hofheinz, the owner of the Houston Astros,
found a way to do the impossible: play baseball in air-conditioned comfort. It was
Hofheinz's idea to build a gigantic dome, large enough to cover a baseball field and
grandstands for 50,000 people without a single column obstructing the players' or the
spectators' view. The Houston Astrodome was the first ballpark in the world to have a
roof over its playing field. Upon its completion, Judge Hofheinz dubbed his creation "the
Eighth Wonder of the World." But there were problems with indoor baseball that no one
had ever anticipated.
The 4,007 skylights in the Astrodome acted like a lens, smearing

the sun into a blinding wall of light. It was almost impossible to
catch a fly ball! Work crews painted the skylights to block the
sun, but then the grass died from lack of sunlight. This led to the
installation of plastic grass, which later came to be known as
Click photo Astroturf. From then on, generations of ballplayers complained
for larger image. about the Astroturf ruining their knees.
Less than two decades after the Astrodome was built, a revolutionary new design led to
the introduction of the retractable domed roof. Domes with retractable roofs gave players
and spectators the best of both worlds: the ability to play in air-conditioned comfort when
necessary and under the open sky when possible. By the 1990s, the Houston Astros and
their spectators were longing for their own retractable roof.
The Astrodome lasted just 35 years as a working ballpark. On March 30, 2000, the Astros
began playing in Enron Field, their new retractable-roof stadium.
Here's how this dome stacks up against some of the biggest domes in the world.
(diameter, in feet)
Astrodome
710'
Fast Facts:
 During the 1965 season, the New York Mets claimed that the groundskeepers
were manipulating the air-conditioning system by using air currents to help the
Astros' longballs and hinder visitors' homers.
 On June 10, 1974, the Philadelphia Phillies' Mike Schmidt hit a public-address
speaker 117 feet above and 329 feet away from home plate. His hit could have
been a 500-plus-foot homer, but it ended up a single because the ball dropped in
center field.
 On June 15, 1976, a game was rained out because the Astrodome flooded.
Climatron
Vital Statistics:
Location: St. Louis, Missouri, USA
Completion Date: 1959, 1990 (renovation)
Cost: $700,000 ($6 million renovation)
Diameter: 175 feet
Type: Geodesic
Purpose: Greenhouse Click photo
Materials: Plastic (original design), aluminum, glass for larger image.
Engineer(s): Paul Londe (original); Marshall, Tyler, Rausch LLC;
Morgan & Assoc.; Ross & Baruzzini Inc. (renovation)
The Climatron, the major attraction of the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, is said
to be the first geodesic dome ever used as a greenhouse. In 1959, Frits W. Went, then
director of the Garden, wanted engineers to build a big, open, clear structure that would
house a laboratory. In this laboratory, he wanted to play with air circulation, temperature,
and humidity and grow a number of tropical plants. Went chose a geodesic dome, a
design inspired by architect-engineer Buckminster Fuller, and he coined the name
"Climatron" to emphasize the controlled climate in the greenhouse.
Unfortunately, Went wasn't concerned with the permanence of his

structure. Over time, the Climatron began to fall apart. The
dome's aluminum frame warped, allowing heat to escape and
condensation to form within the dome. The plastic panes mounted
on the aluminum frame were never meant to hold up more than
five years, 10 at the most. By the mid-1980s, they were discolored
Click photo and leaking.
for larger image.
In 1988, the Climatron was closed for a $6 million renovation in which all of the plastic
panes were replaced with glass. Glass is more expensive than plastic, but it requires less
maintenance over time. But because glass weighs an extra four pounds per square foot
than plastic, engineers had to come up with a stronger, more rigid dome design. How did
they do it? They built a dome within a dome! The outer structural frame consists of
intersecting aluminum pipes, six inches in diameter. Two feet inside the outer frame,
connected to it by rods, is another rigid frame of aluminum.
(diameter, in feet)
Climatron
175'
Fast Facts:
 There are 3,625 glass panes in the Climatron.
 The glass panes in the Climatron consist of 72 different triangular shapes.
 The Climatron houses a tropical rainforest, streams, waterfalls, and 1,200 species
of plants, including, banana, cacao, and coffee trees; lianas; bromeliads; cycads;
passionflowers; and orchids.
Georgia Dome
Vital Statistics:
Location: Atlanta, Georgia, USA
Cost: $214 million
Diameter: 840 feet
Type: Cable-supported roof (tensegrity)
Purpose: Recreational Click photo
Materials: Steel, Teflon-coated Fiberglas for larger image.
Engineer(s): Matthys Levy; Weidlinger Associates
On March 1, 1992, as workers placed the last fabric roof panel in place, the Georgia
Dome became the largest cable-supported fabric roof in the world. Stretching more than
395,000 square feet, the Teflon-coated Fiberglas fabric roof is quite an engineering
marvel. The roof weighs just 68 pounds, but it is strong enough to support a fully loaded
pickup truck. How? The answer lies with a fundamental engineering breakthrough, one
that architect-engineer Buckminster Fuller dubbed "tensegrity."
Put simply, tensegrity is a complex sequence of triangles. Short,

vertical posts carry the weight of the Georgia Dome roof. The
posts are held in place by pre-stretched cables, attached to the top
and bottom of each post with steel pins and welded connections.
The cables pull on the posts with equal force in all directions to
form strong, taut triangles. The cable roof is secured to a
Click photo reinforced concrete ring along the perimeter of the dome. The
for larger image. 2,750-foot concrete ring rests on slide-bearing Teflon pads that
allow the roof to flex slightly during high winds.
It is this precise dance of pulling and pushing that allows tensegrity roofs like the Georgia
Dome to soar far above the stands and the playing field below.
(diameter, in feet)
Georgia Dome
840'
Fast Facts:
 The Georgia Dome contains 110,000 cubic yards of concrete, enough to build a
sidewalk from Atlanta to Cincinnati.
 The dome is as tall as a 29-story building, as tall as an average redwood tree, and
three feet taller than the United States Capitol building.
 At a rate of 750,000 gallons of water per second, Niagara Falls would take 12
minutes to fill the Georgia Dome.
 The Georgia Dome contains 8,300 tons of reinforced steel -- more than the weight
of iron and steel used in the Eiffel Tower.
Hagia Sophia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

This article includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
in-text citations.
You can help Wikipedia by introducing more precise citations.
For other uses, see Hagia Sophia (disambiguation).
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia, (the Church of) Holy Wisdom, now known as the Ayasofya Museum, is
a former Eastern Orthodox church converted to a mosque in 1453 by the Turks, and
converted into a museum in 1935. It is located in Istanbul, Turkey. It is traditionally
considered one of the great buildings in history. Its conquest by the Ottomans at the fall
of Constantinople is considered one of the great tragedies of Christianity by the Greek
Orthodox faithful.
The name comes from the Greek name Ἁγία Σοφία, a contraction of Ναός τῆς Ἁγίας τοῦ
Θεοῦ Σοφίας, meaning "Church of the Holy Wisdom of God". It is also known as Sancta
Sophia in Latin and Ayasofya in Turkish. Although it is sometimes called "Saint Sophia"
in English, it is not named after a saint named Sophia — the Greek word sofia means
"wisdom."
Contents
[hide]
 1 Description
 2 Construction
 3 History
 4 20th-century restoration
 5 Restoration controversies
 6 Trivia
 7 Gallery
 8 See also
 9 External links
o 9.1 Photos and paintings
 10 References
 11 Notes
[edit] Description
Model at Miniatürk
Hagia Sophia is covered by a central dome with a diameter of 31 meters (102 feet) and 56
meters high, slightly smaller than the Pantheon's. The dome seems rendered weightless
by the unbroken arcade of arched windows under it, which help flood the colorful interior
with light.
The dome is carried on pendentives — four concave triangular sections of masonry

which solve the problem of setting the circular base of a dome on a rectangular base. At
Hagia Sophia the weight of the dome passes through the pendentives to four massive
piers at the corners. Between them the dome seems to float upon four great arches.
At the western (entrance) and eastern (liturgical) ends, the arched openings are extended
by half domes carried on smaller semidomed exedras. Thus a hierarchy of dome-headed
elements builds up to create a vast oblong interior crowned by the main dome, a sequence
unexampled in antiquity. All interior surfaces are sheathed with polychrome marbles,
green and white with purple porphyry and gold mosaics, encrusted upon the brick. On the
exterior, simple stuccoed walls reveal the clarity of massed vaults and domes.
[edit] Construction
A section of the original architecture of Hagia Sophia
Nothing remains of the first church that was built on the same site during the 4th century.
Following the destruction of the first church, a second was built by Constantius II, the
son of Constantine I, but was burned down during the Nika riots of 532. The building was
rebuilt under the personal supervision of Emperor Justinian I and rededicated on
December 27, 537. After the great earthquake in 989, which ruined the dome of St
Sophia, the Byzantine government sent for the Armenian architect Tirdat, creator of the
great churches of Ani and Agine, to repair the dome.[1]
Justinian chose Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, a physicist and a

mathematician, as architects; Anthemius, however, died within the first year. The
construction is described in Procopius' On Buildings (De Aedificiis). The Byzantine poet
Paulus the Silentiary composed an extant poetic ekphrasis, probably for the rededication
of 563, which followed the collapse of the main dome.
Hagia Sophia is one of the greatest surviving examples of Byzantine architecture. Of

great artistic value was its decorated interior with mosaics and marble pillars and
coverings. The temple itself was so richly and artistically decorated that Justinian
proclaimed "Solomon, I have surpassed thee!" (Νενίκηκά σε Σολομών). Justinian himself
had overseen the completion of the greatest cathedral ever built up to that time, and it was
to remain the largest cathedral for 1,000 years up until the completion of the cathedral in
Seville.
Interior of the Hagia Sophia, June 1994
Justinian's basilica was at once the culminating architectural achievement of late antiquity
and the first masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. Its influence, both architecturally and
liturgically, was widespread and enduring in the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and
Muslim worlds alike. Under Justinian's orders, eight Corinthian columns were
disassembled from Baalbek, Lebanon and shipped to Constantinople for the construction
of Hagia Sophia.[2]
The dome of the Hagia Sophia has spurred particular interest for many art historians and
architects because of the innovative way the original architects envisioned the dome. The
dome is supported by pendentives which had never been used before the building of this
structure. The pendentive enables the round dome to transition gracefully into the square
shape of the piers below. The pendentives not only achieve a pleasing aesthetic quality,
but they also restrain the lateral forces of the dome and allow the weight of the dome to
flow downward.
Although this design stabilizes the dome and the surrounding walls and arches, the actual
construction of the walls of the Hagia Sophia weakened the overall structure. The
bricklayers used more mortar than brick, which, of course, constitutes a weak wall. The
structure would have been more stable if the builders at least let the mortar dry before
they began the next layer; however, they did not do this. When the dome was placed atop
the building, the weight of the dome caused the walls to lean outward because of the wet
mortar underneath. When Isidorus the Younger rebuilt the original dome, he had to first
build up the interior of the walls so that they were vertical in order to support the weight
of the new dome. Another probable change in the design of the dome when it was rebuilt
was the actual height of the dome. Isidorus the Younger raised the height of the dome by
approximately twenty feet so that the lateral forces would not be as strong and the weight
of the dome would flow more easily down the walls.
A second interesting fact about the original structure of the dome was how the architects
were able to place forty windows around the base of the dome. The Hagia Sophia is
famous for the mystical quality of light that reflects everywhere in the interior of the
nave, which gives the dome the appearance of hovering above the nave. This design is
possible because the dome is shaped like a scalloped shell or the inside of an umbrella
with ribs that extend from the top of the dome down to the base. These ribs allow the
weight of the dome to flow between the windows, down the pendentives, and ultimately
to the foundation.
The anomalies in the design of the Hagia Sophia show how this structure is one of the
most advanced and ambitious monuments of late antiquity.
[edit] History
Hagia Sophia was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal
setting for Byzantine imperial ceremonies.
The structure has been severely damaged several times by earthquakes. The dome
collapsed after an earthquake in 558; its replacement fell in 563. There were additional
partial collapses in 989 after which an Armenian architect named Trdat was
commissioned to repair the damage. During the Latin Occupation (1204–1261) the
church became a Roman Catholic cathedral. After the Turks invaded Constantinople,
Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque in 1453. In 1935, under the orders of Turkish
president Kemal Atatürk, Hagia Sophia was turned into the Ayasofya Museum.
For almost 500 years the principal mosque of Istanbul, Ayasofya served as model for
many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and
the Rüstem Pasha Mosque.
Because Islam tends away from representational imagery, many mosaics were destroyed
and others were covered with plaster. The Ottoman Sultans, however, periodically
removed the plaster to service and maintain the mosaics, before replastering[citation needed].
Many restorations and repairs were done by Ottoman architects. The most famous and
extensive work was done by Mimar Sinan, one of the most famous Muslim architects in
history (who incidentally was converted to Islam from Christianity when he was young),
in the 16th century, which included the addition of structural supports to the exterior of
the building, the replacement of the old minarets with the minarets that stand today, and
the addition of Islamic pulpits and art.
The 19th century restoration of the Fossati brothers, which included the addition of a
pulpit (minbar) and the four medallions on the walls of the nave bearing the names of
Muhammad and the first caliphs, destroyed many of the original mosaics.
[edit] 20th-century restoration
The interior of the dome undergoing restoration.
Restoration work in the 20th century was begun in 1932 by the American Byzantine
Institute, during which most of the figures were uncovered.
Due to its long history as both a church and a mosque, a particular challenge arises in the
restoration process. The Christian iconographic mosaics are being gradually uncovered.
However, in order to do so, important, historic Islamic art would have to be destroyed.
Restorers have attempted to maintain a balance between both Christian and Islamic
cultures. In particular, much controversy rests upon whether the Islamic calligraphy on
the dome of the cathedral should be removed, in order to permit the underlying
Pantocrator mosaic of Christ as Master of the World, to be exhibited (assuming the
mosaic still exists).
Hagia Sophia
Vital Statistics:
Location: Istanbul, Turkey
Diameter: 102 feet
Type: Ribbed
Purpose: Religious
Materials: Concrete Click photo
Engineer(s): Anthemius of for larger image.
Tralles, Isidorus the Elder
Considered the finest example of Byzantine architecture

in the world, the church of Hagia Sophia was constructed
on a scale unprecedented in human history. Under the rule
of Justinian the Emperor, and with a force of 10,000
workers, the dome atop the church of Hagia Sophia was
built in record time: it took just five years, ten months,
and four days to complete.
But when construction began, Anthemius found himself in

a geometric fix. How would he build a circular dome atop
a square base? Anthemius arrived at a revolutionary
solution. He built four massive columns at the corner of
each square. On top of the columns, he built four arches.
He then filled the spaces between the arches with masonry
to create curved triangular shapes called pendentives. The
pendentives and the tops of the arches combine to form a
strong base for the dome.
But it was the dome that made Hagia Sophia the most
complex building of antiquity. The shallow dome was
made from 40 equally spaced ribs. Forty windows were
then set at the dome's base, creating the sensation that the
dome actually floated over the church.
In 559 A.D., an earthquake tumbled the dome. It was

rebuilt to a smaller scale, and the whole church was
reinforced from the outside. After the Turkish conquest of
Constantinople (1453), Hagia Sophia became a mosque,
and the ornate interior mosaics were obscured by layers of
plaster and painted ornament. Today, all plaster removed,
Hagia Sophia is a museum of Byzantine Art.
Here's how this dome stacks up against some of the

biggest domes in the world.
(diameter, in feet)
Hagia Sophia
102'
Fast Facts:
 Hagia Sophia is a Greek name meaning "divine
wisdom."
 Today, the Hagia Sophia is the fourth largest
cathedral in the world.
 In 1935, Hagia Sophia was converted into a
museum, and it is now one of Turkey's two most
popular museums.
Pendentive -
a triangular shape
that adapts the circular ring of a dome to fit onto a flat supporting wall
Mihrimah Mosque
Vital Statistics:
Location: Istanbul, Turkey
Diameter: 66 feet
Type: Ribbed
Purpose: Religious
Materials: Concrete Click photo
Architect: Sinan for larger image.
The earliest great domes, like the Pantheon, were made of solid concrete for fear that
windows in a dome would lead to its collapse. In time, ancient engineers realized they
could think of a dome as a circular ring of arches, which meant they could open up the
spaces between the arches, creating windows. Sinan, one of the greatest architect-
engineers of the 16th century, pierced one of his most famous domes, the Mihrimah
Mosque, with more windows than any architect had ever dared before.
Rumors were that Sinan was in love with the Sultan's married
daughter, Princess Mihrimah. To express his love, Sinan constructed
a dome unlike any other. The Mihrimah Mosque was the lightest
structure Sinan had ever built, pierced all the way around with 161
windows. Four immense arches support the dome, and glass walls fill
the spaces between the arches. An elegant blend of art and
engineering, the Mihrimah Mosque still stands today, almost entirely
Click photo in its original form.
for larger image.
Here's how this dome stacks up against some of the biggest domes in
the world.
(diameter, in feet)
Mihrimah
Mosque
66'
Fast Facts:
 A single tower, called a minaret, stands to one side of the Mihrimah Mosque. As
the Sultan's daughter, Mihrimah was entitled to two minarets, but as legend has it,
she ordered Sinan to stop at one as a symbol of her desperate loneliness.
 During his lifetime, Sinan built 79 mosques, 34 palaces, 33 public baths, 19
tombs, 55 schools, 16 poorhouses, and seven madrasahs (religious schools).
Olympic Stadium
Vital Statistics:
Location: Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Cost: $1 billion
Diameter: 340 feet by 575 feet (elliptical)
Type: Cable-supported roof
Purpose: Recreational Click photo
Materials: Plastic, concrete, steel for larger image.
Engineer(s): Les Consultants du Stade de Montréal
Built for the 1976 Olympic Games, Montreal's Olympic Stadium was one of the first
sports stadiums to be capped with a plastic dome roof. But it wasn't an immediate
success. In fact, the stadium was only partially completed before Montreal hosted the
Olympic Summer Games. After the Olympics, the Quebec government attempted to
finish the structure, but cost overruns and unsolved engineering problems stopped the
project in its tracks.
Most of the problems stemmed from the retractable roof system

and its mast, a 556-foot leaning tower adjacent to the structure. In
1986, engineers were forced to change its structural system from
concrete to steel after a study showed that the tower would be too
heavy if completed in concrete. In 1987, engineers finally capped
Click photo the stadium with 60,696 square feet of orange and silver Kevlar
for larger image. fabric, a synthetic fiber used in some bulletproof vests. Hoisted by
26 steel cables, the enormous fabric roof was supposed to fold into the adjacent leaning
tower, much like a giant umbrella -- but it didn't. From mechanical failure to rips and
tears, the Kevlar membrane roof cost $700,000 in annual upkeep.
The roof of Montreal's Olympic Stadium remained permanently closed for several
seasons. Finally, by the spring of 1998, the problematic orange Kevlar roof was replaced
with a $26 million nonretractable, opaque blue Teflon-coated Fiberglas fabric. All told,
Montreal's Olympic Stadium cost more than a whopping $1 billion to build.
(diameter, in feet)
Olympic
Stadium
340' by 575'
(elliptical)
Fast Facts:
 The Canadian and American national anthems are sung before each game played
in the Olympic Stadium.
 The tower is one foot taller than the Washington Monument and is angled at 45
degrees. It is the world's tallest inclined structure.
 In the summer of 1991, Montreal's Olympic Stadium was closed after a 55-ton
concrete beam fell and crashed onto a walkway, forcing the Expos to play their
last 13 regular-season home games on the road.
Pantheon, Rome
Facade of the Pantheon
The Pantheon (Latin Pantheon[1], from Greek Πάνθεον Pantheon, meaning "Temple of
all the Gods") is a building in Rome which was originally built as a temple to the seven
deities of the seven planets in the state religion of Ancient Rome, but which has been a
Christian church since the 7th century. It is the best-preserved of all Roman buildings. It
has been in continuous use throughout its history. Although the identity of the Pantheon's
primary architect remains uncertain, it is largely assigned to Apollodorus of Damascus.
Contents
[hide]
 1 History
o 1.1 Ancient
o 1.2 Medieval
o 1.3 Renaissance
o 1.4 Modern
 2 Structure
 3 See also
 4 References
[edit] HistoryHistoric concrete shells

The oldest know concrete shell, the Pantheon in Rome, was completed about AD 125,
and is still standing. It has a massive concrete dome 43m in diameter. A monolithic
structure, it appears to have been sculpted in place by applying thin layers on top of each
other in decreasing diameter. Massively thick at the bottom and thinning at the top, the
Pantheon is a remarkable feat of engineering.
The interior of the Pantheon in the 18th century, painted by Giovanni Paolo Panini.
[edit] Ancient
The original Pantheon was built in 27 BC-25 BC under

the Roman Empire, during the third consulship of
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and his name is inscribed on
the portico of the building. The inscription reads
M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIUM·FECIT, "Marcus Agrippa,
son of Lucius, during his third consulate, built this". It
was originally built with adjoining baths and water
gardens.
Agrippa's Pantheon was destroyed along with other

buildings in a fire in 80, and the current building dates
from about 125, during the reign of the Emperor
Hadrian , as date-stamps on the bricks reveal. It was totally reconstructed, with the text
[2]
of the original inscription added to the new facade, a common practice in Hadrian's
rebuilding projects all over Rome. Hadrian was a cosmopolitan emperor who travelled
widely in the east and was a great admirer of Greek culture. He seems to have intended
the Pantheon, a temple to all the gods, to be a kind of ecumenical or syncretist gesture to
the subjects of the Roman Empire who did not worship the old gods of Rome, or who (as
was increasingly the case) worshipped them under other names.
The building was later repaired by Septimius Severus and Caracalla in 202, for which
there is another, smaller inscription.
[edit] Medieval
In 609 the Byzantine emperor Phocas gave the building to Pope Boniface IV, who
reconsecrated it as a Christian church, the Church of Mary and all the Martyr Saints
(Santa Maria ad Martyres), which title it retains.[2]
The coffers for the concrete dome were poured in molds, probably on the temporary
scaffolding; the oculus admits the only light (and rain).
The building's consecration as a church saved it from the abandonment and spoliation
which befell the majority of ancient Rome's buildings during the early mediaeval period.
Paul the Deacon records the spoliation of the building by the Emperor Constans II, who
visited Rome in July 663:
"Remaining at Rome twelve days he pulled down everything that in ancient times
had been made of metal for the ornament of the city, to such an extent that he
even stripped off the roof of the church [of the blessed Mary] which at one time
was called the Pantheon, and had been founded in honor of all the gods and was
now by the consent of the former rulers the place of all the martyrs; and he took
away from there the bronze tiles and sent them with all the other ornaments to
Constantinople."
Much fine external marble has been removed in the course of the centuries, and there are
capitals from some of the pilasters in the British Museum. The only other loss has been
the external sculptures, which adorned the pediment above Agrippa's inscription. The
marble interior and the great bronze doors have survived, although the latter have been
restored.
[edit] Renaissance
Under the portico, sometimes called by the Greek term pronaos, of the Pantheon. The
Corinthian order of the Pantheon's portico provided a standard for Renaissance and later
architects.
Since the Renaissance the Pantheon has been used as a tomb. Among those buried there
are the painters Raphael and Annibale Caracci, the architect Baldassare Peruzzi. In the
15th century, the Pantheon was adorned with paintings: the best-known is the
"Annunciazione" by Melozzo da Forlì. Architects, like Brunelleschi, who used the
Pantheon as help when designing the Duomo, looked to the Pantheon as inspiration for
their works.
During the reign of Pope Urban VIII (died 1644), the Pope ordered the bronze ceiling of
the Pantheon's portico melted down. Most of the bronze was used to make bombards for
the fortification of Castel Sant'Angelo, with the remaining amount used by the Apostolic
Camera for various other works. (It is also said that the bronze was used by Bernini in
creating the baldachino above the main altar of St. Peter's Basilica, but according to at
least one expert, the Pope's accounts state that about 90% of the bronze was used for the
cannon, and that the bronze for the baldachin came from Venice.[1]) This led to the Latin
proverb, Quod non fecerunt barbari, fecerunt Barberini ("What the barbarians did not do,
the Barberinis [Urban VIII's family name] did").
[edit] Modern
Also buried there are two kings of Italy: Vittorio Emanuele II and Umberto I, as well as
Umberto's Queen, Margherita. Although Italy has been a republic since 1946, volunteer
members of Italian monarchist organisations maintain a vigil over the royal tombs in the
Pantheon. This has aroused protests from time to time from republicans, but the Catholic
authorities allow the practice to continue, although the Italian Ministry of Cultural
Heritage [2] is in charge of the security and maintenance.
The Pantheon is still a church and masses are still celebrated in the church, particularly
on important Catholic days of obligation, and for weddings.
[edit] Structure
Floor plan of the Pantheon from Georg Dehio/Gustav von Bezold: Kirchliche Baukunst
des Abendlandes. Stuttgart: Verlag der Cotta'schen Buchhandlung 1887-1901.
The building is circular with a portico of three ranks of huge granite Corinthian columns
(eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment opening into the
rotunda, under a coffered, concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus), the Great Eye,
open to the sky. A rectangular structure links the portico with the rotunda. Though often
still drawn as a free-standing building, there was a library building at its rear into which it
abutted; of this building there are only archaeological remains.
In the walls at the back of the portico were niches, probably for statues of Caesar,
Augustus and Agrippa, or for the Capitoline Triad, or another set of gods. The large
bronze doors to the cella, once plated with gold, still remain, but the gold has long since
vanished. The pediment was decorated with a sculpture in bronze showing the Battle of
the Titans - holes may still be seen where the clamps which held the sculpture in place
were fixed.
The 4,535 metric ton (5,000 tn) weight of the dome is concentrated on a ring of voussoirs
9.1 metres (30 ft) in diameter which form the oculus while the downward thrust of the
dome is carried by eight barrel vaults in the 6.4 metre (21 ft) thick drum wall into 8 piers.
The thickness of the dome varies from 6.4 metres (21 ft) at the base of the dome to 1.2
metres (4 ft) around the oculus. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior
circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142.5 ft), so the whole interior would fit exactly within a
cube (alternatively, the interior could house a sphere 43 metres (142.5 ft) in diameter).[2]
The dome is the largest surviving from antiquity and was the largest dome in western
Europe until Brunelleschi's dome of the Duomo of Florence was completed in 1436. It
was covered with gilded bronze plates.
Antoine Desgodetz' elevation of the Pantheon in Les edifices antiques de Rome, Paris,
1779: engravings served designers who never travelled to Rome.
South east view of the Pantheon from Piazza Minerva, 2006.
The interior of the roof was probably intended to symbolize the arched vault of the
heavens.[2] The Great Eye at the dome's apex is the source of all light and is symbolic of
the sun. Its original circular bronze cornice remains in position. The oculus also serves as
a cooling and ventilation method. As wind passes over the dome of the Pantheon, it is
accelerated and creates a negative pressure zone called the Venturi effect. This pulls air
out of the oculus at the top of the dome, drawing more air in from the portico entrance.
The interior features sunken panels (coffers), which originally contained bronze star
ornaments. This coffering was not only decorative, but also reduced the weight of the
roof, as did the elimination of the apex by means of the Great Eye. The top of the rotunda
wall features a series of brick-relieving arches, visible on the outside and built into the
mass of the brickwork. The Pantheon is full of such devices - for example, there are
relieving arches over the recesses inside - but all these arches were, of course, originally
hidden by marble facing.
It may be noted that the proportions of the building are in discord with the classical ideal.
Most evident is the rather large pediment, which appears far too "heavy" for the columns
supporting it. The reason for this was the expectation that the building would be much
taller than it actually is, which would affect larger columns. However, by the time the
pediment was built, it was realised that the supply of imported stone for the columns was
not enough to build to its anticipated height, and thus the builders had to settle with a
building that is somewhat out of proportion.
The lower parts of the interior of the Pantheon are richly decorated in coloured marbles;
the coffered upper parts are unadorned concrete.
The exact composition of the Roman concrete used in the

dome remains a mystery. An unreinforced dome in these
proportions made of modern concrete would hardly stand
the load of its own weight, since concrete has very low
tensile strength, yet the Pantheon has stood for centuries. It
is known from Roman sources that their concrete is up of a
pasty hydrate lime; pozzolanic ash and lightweight pumice
from a nearby volcano; and fist-sized pieces of rock. In this, it is very similar to modern
concrete.[2] The high tensile strength appears to come from the way the concrete was
applied in very small amounts and then was tamped down to remove excess water at all
stages. This appears to have prevented the air bubbles that normally form in concrete as
the material dries, thus increasing its strength enormously.
As the best-preserved example of monumental Roman architecture, the Pantheon was

enormously influential on European and American architects from the Renaissance
(starting with Brunelleschi's dome of the Duomo of Florence, completed in 1436) to the
19th century such as the Rotunda of Mosta. Numerous city halls, universities and public
libraries echo its portico-and-dome structure. Examples of notable buildings influenced
by the Pantheon include British Museum Reading Room, Thomas Jefferson's Rotunda at
the University of Virginia, Low Library at Columbia University, New York, The Marble
Hall of the Sanssouci palace in Potsdam, Germany, and the State Library of Victoria in
Melbourne, Australia. Some changes have been made in the interior decoration, however.
Pantheon
Vital Statistics:
Location: Rome, Italy
Diameter: 142 feet
Type: Ribbed
Purpose: Religious
Materials: Concrete, brick Click photo
Architect: Hadrian for larger image.
When Roman Emperor Hadrian decided to build a monument to reflect the power of his
empire, he built a dome -- but not just any dome. Hadrian constructed a building out of
bricks and concrete with a dome that was bigger and more extraordinary than anything
anyone had ever seen before. The enormous building, called the Pantheon, was built as a
temple to all the Roman gods almost 2,000 years ago. It still exists today, almost entirely
in its original form.
The Pantheon is remarkable for its size, its construction, and its
design. The enormous dome stretches 142 feet in diameter; that's the
same as the distance from the Statue of Liberty's sandals to her torch!
Given the dome's size and weight, Hadrian's engineers had to find
ways to lighten the heavy structure. They scooped out 140 waffle-like
depressions, called coffers, in five rows around the dome's base to
eliminate some masonry and reduce the dome's weight. They also
carved an opening, called an oculus, at the top of the dome, which
Click photo reduced some mass and created a daily light show for which the
for larger image. Pantheon is famous.
The result was an impossibly huge dome, one that would remain the world's largest for
1,300 years.
(diameter, in feet)
Fast Facts:
 Pantheon is a Greek word meaning "to honor all Gods."
 The oculus, or "eye" of the dome, is 27 feet wide -- five teenagers could stretch
across the hole!
 At its base, the dome is 23 feet thick, but only two feet thick at the rim of the
oculus.
SkyDome
Vital Statistics:
Location: Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Cost: $500 million
Diameter: 674 feet
Type: Retractable
Purpose: Recreational
Materials: Steel, plastic Click photo
Engineer(s): Ellis-Don Limited for larger image.
On fair weather days, the Toronto SkyDome can do something no other domed stadium
in the world can: open its roof completely. Constructed in 1989, the SkyDome is the first
and only stadium to have a fully retractable roof. Unlike any other sports stadium, the
roof of the SkyDome separates into pieces and disappears from sight in less than 20
minutes, completely uncovering the playing field and more than 91 percent of the seats.
How does it work?
The roof is made of four massive steel panels; one panel is fixed,
and the other three slide on a system of steel tracks. Each panel is
made from a pattern of steel trusses with a corrugated steel shell
and a weatherproof plastic membrane. Opening the roof requires
that two panels slide over each other and under a fixed panel
behind center field. A third panel, which starts behind home plate,
Click photo rotates on a circular rail. Despite its enormous weight -- the whole
for larger image. roof weighs more than 11,000 tons -- the roof panels slide at a
whopping rate of 71 feet per minute!
Today, the SkyDome is home to the American League's Toronto Blue Jays and the
Canadian Football League's Toronto Argonauts. The retractable roof was closed twice in
the Blue Jays' first year in the dome and has closed four or five times a year since then.
(diameter, in feet)
SkyDome
674'
Fast Facts:
 The SkyDome JumboTron is a 115-foot-by-33-foot video display board that has
420,000 light bulbs, making it the largest scoreboard in the world.
 A 348-room hotel is located in center field. Seventy of those rooms have views of
the field.
 When the roof is open, the closed end of the stadium causes a downdraft in the
outfield that tends to prevent home runs.
 516 elephants could fit on the SkyDome field!
Replacement Concrete
Concrete repairs made by bonding new concrete to repair areas without use of an
epoxy bonding agent or mortar grout applied on the prepared surface should be made
when the area exceeds 1 square foot and has a depth greater than 6 inches and when the
repair will be of appreciable continuous area. Replacement concrete repairs should also
be used for:
 Holes extending entirely through concrete sections
 Holes
in which no reinforcement is encountered, or in which the depth
extends 1 inch below or behind the backside of the reinforcing steel and which are
greater in area than 1 square foot and deeper than 4 inches, except where epoxy-
bonded concrete replacement is required or permitted as alternative to concrete
replacement
 Holes
in reinforced concrete greater than one-half square foot and extending
beyond reinforcement
Replacement concrete is the most common concrete repair material and will meet the
needs of a majority of all concrete repairs. Replacement concrete repairs are made by
bonding new concrete to the repair areas without the use of a bonding agent or portland
cement grout. The combination of a deep repair and good curing practices ensures
adequate hydration water will remain at the bonding surface zone for at least 28 days,
allowing the cement hydration process to develop good bond. Because the defective
concrete is being replaced with high quality concrete very similar to the surrounding
concrete, the repair is compatible in thermal expansion and in other physical and
chemical properties with the old concrete. For this reason, in many cases, the best repair
method is the use of replacement concrete. Only when an unusual increase in durability is
needed, or when placing conditions or dimensions dictate otherwise, should other
materials be considered.
Preparation
To obtain satisfactory results with the replacement concrete method, preparation
should be as follows:
 Reinforcement
bars should not be left partially embedded; concrete should
be removed to provide a clearance of at least an inch around each bar exposed
more than one-third its circumference.
 The
perimeter of the hole at the face should be saw cut to a minimum
depth of 1 inch. If the shape of the defect makes it advisable, the remainder of
the concrete removal may be chipped below the vertical saw cut and
continued until a horizontal surface is obtained. The top of the hole, if on a
vertical wall, should be cut on a 1:3 upward slope from the back toward the
face from which the concrete will be placed. This is essential to permit
vibration of the concrete without leaving air pockets at the top of the repair. In
some instances, where a hole extends through a wall or beam, it may be
necessary to fill the hole from both sides; the slope of the top of the cut should
be modified accordingly.
 The
bottom and sides of the hole should be cut sharply and approximately
square with the face of the wall. When the hole extends through the concrete
section, spalling and feather edges must be avoided by having perimeter saw
cuts from both faces. All interior corners should be rounded to a minimum
radius of 1 inch.
The construction and setting of forms are important steps in the procedure for
satisfactory concrete replacement where the concrete must be placed from the side of the
structure. To obtain a tight and acceptable repair, the following requirements must be
observed:
 Front
forms for wall repairs more than 18 inches high should be
constructed in horizontal sections so the concrete can be conveniently placed
in lifts not more than 12 inches deep. The back form may be built in one
piece. Sections to be set as concreting progresses should be fitted before
placement is started.
 To
exert pressure on the largest area of form sheathing, tie bolts should
pass through wooden blocks fitted snugly between the walers and the
sheathing.
 For
irregularly shaped holes, chimneys may be required at more than one
level; when beam connections are required, a chimney may be necessary on
both sides of the wall or beam. For such construction, the chimney should
extend the full width of the hole.
 Forms
should be substantially constructed so that pressure may be applied
to the chimney cap at the proper time.
 Forms
must be mortar tight at all joints between adjacent sections,
between the forms and concrete, and at tie bolt holes to prevent the loss of
mortar when pressure is applied during the final stages of placement. Twisted
or stranded caulking cotton, folded canvas strips, or similar material should be
used as the forms are assembled.
Surfaces of old concrete to which new concrete is to be bonded must be clean, rough, and
in saturated surface dry condition. Extraneous material on the joint resulting from form
construction must be removed prior to placement.
Materials
Concrete for repair should have the same water-cement ratio as used for similar
new structures but should not exceed 0.47, by weight. Aggregate of as large a maximum
size and slump as low as is consistent with proper placing and thorough vibration should
be used to minimize water content and consequent shrinkage. The concrete should
contain 3 to 5 percent entrained air. Where surface color is important, the cement should
be carefully selected or blended with white cement to obtain the desired results. To
minimize shrinkage, the concrete should be as cool as practicable when placed,
preferably at about 70 F or lower. Materials should, therefore, be kept in shaded areas
during warm weather. Use of ice in mixing water may sometimes be necessary. Batching
of materials should be by weight; but batch boxes, if of the exact size needed, may be
used. Since batches for this class of work will be small, the uniformity of the materials is
important and should receive proper attention.
Best repairs are obtained when the lowest practicable slump is used. This is about
3 inches for the first lift in an ordinary large form. Subsequent lifts can be drier, and the
top few inches of concrete in the hole and that in the chimney should be placed at almost
zero slump. It is usually best to mix enough concrete at the start from the entire hole.
Thus, the concrete will be up to 1-1/2 hours old when the successive lifts are placed. Such
premixed concrete, provided it can be vibrated satisfactorily, will have less settlement,
less shrinkage, and greater strength than freshly mixed concrete.
Structural concrete placements should be started with an oversanded mix

containing about a ¾-inch maximum-size aggregate; a maximum water-cement ratio of
0.47, by weight; 6 percent total air, by volume of concrete; and a maximum slump of 4
inches. This special mix should be placed several inches deep on the joint at the bottom
of the placement. A mortar layer should not be used on the construction joints.
Application
When placing concrete in lifts, placement should not be continuous; a minimum
of 30 minutes should elapse between lifts. When chimneys are required at more than one
level, the lower chimney should be filled and allowed to remain for 30 minutes between
lifts. When chimneys are required on both faces of a wall or beam, concrete should be
placed in only one of the chimneys until it flows to the other. Attempted placement in
both chimneys will result in air entrapment and/or voids in the structure.
The quality of a repair depends not only on use of low-slump concrete, but also on
the thoroughness of the vibration during and after depositing the concrete. There is little
danger of over-vibration. Immersion-type vibrators should be used if accessibility
permits. If not, this type of vibrator can be used very effectively on the forms from the
outside. Form vibrators can be used to good advantage on forms for large inaccessible
repairs, especially on a one-piece back form, or attached to a large metal fittings such as
hinge-based castings. Immediately after the hole has been completely filled, pressure
should be applied to the fill and form vibrated. This operation should be repeated at 30-
minute intervals until the concrete hardens and no longer responds to vibration. Pressure
is applied by wedging or by tightening the bolts extending through the pressure cap. In
filling the top of the form, concrete to a depth of only 2 or 3 inches should be left in the
chimney under the pressure cap. A greater depth tends to dissipate the pressure. After the
hole has been filled and pressure cap placed, the concrete should not be vibrated without
a simultaneous application of pressure. To do so may produce a film of water at the top of
the repair that will prevent bonding.
Addition of aluminum powder to concrete causes the latter to expand. Under
favorable conditions, this procedure has been successfully used to secure tight, well-
bonded repairs in locations where the replacement material had to be introduced from the
side. Time should not be allowed for settlement between lifts. When the top lift and the
chimney are filled, no pressure need be applied, but the pressure cap should be secured in
position so expanding concrete will be confined to and completely fill the hole
undergoing repair. There should be no subsequent revibration.
Concrete replacement in open-top forms, as used for reconstruction of the tops of
walls, piers, parapets, and curbs, is a comparatively simple operation. Only such
materials as will make concrete of proved durability should be used. The water-cement
ratio should not exceed 0.47, by weight. For the best durability, the maximum size of
aggregate should be the largest practicable and the percentage of sand the minimum
practicable. No special features are required in the forms, but they should be mortar tight
when vibrated and should give the new concrete a finish similar to the adjacent areas.
The slump should be as low as practicable, and dosage of air entraining agent should be
increased as necessary to secure the maximum permissible percentage of entrained air,
despite the low slump. Top surfaces should be sloped to provide rapid drainage.
Manipulation in finishing should be held to a minimum, and a wood-float finish is
preferable to a steel-trowel finish. Edges and corners should be tooled or chamfered. Use
of water for finishing is prohibited.
Forms for concrete replacement repairs usually may be removed the day after
casting unless form removal would damage the green concrete, in which even stripping
should be postponed another day or two. The projections left by the chimneys normally
should be removed the second day. If the trimming is done earlier, the concrete tends to
break back into the repair. These projections should always be removed by working up
from the bottom because working down from the top tends to break concrete out of the
repair. The rough area resulting from trimming should be filled and stoned to produce a
surface comparable to that of surrounding areas. Plastering of these surfaces should never
be permitted.
Some replacement concrete does not require forms. Full-depth replacement of
damaged or deteriorated paving or slabs involves procedures no different from those
required for best results in original construction. Contact edges at the perimeter should be
saw cut clean and square with the surface.
If, however, needed repairs are too small for the replacement concrete method
(including silica fume concrete), they should be made using the dry-pack procedure, the
epoxy-bonded epoxy mortar method, or the epoxy-bonded replacement concrete method.
Curing and Protection
The importance of curing replacement concrete repairs cannot be

overemphasized. Complete failure of repairs has been attributed to inadequate or
improper curing. Because of the relatively small volume of most repairs and the
tendency of old concrete to absorb moisture from new material, water curing is a highly
desirable procedure, at least during the first 24 hours. When forms are used for repair,
they can be removed and then reset to hold a few layers of wet burlap in contact with new
concrete. One of the best methods of water curing is a soil-soaker hose laid beneath a
plastic membrane covering the repair area.
When curing compound is used, the best curing combination is an initial water-
curing period of 7 days (never less than 24 hours) followed, while the surface is still
damp, by a uniform coat of the compound. It is always essential that repairs, even dry
packed cone bolt holes, receive some water curing and be thoroughly damp before the
curing compound is applied. If nothing better can be devised for the initial water curing
of the dry pack in cone bolt holes and similar repairs, a reliable workman should be
detailed to make the rounds with water and a large brush or spraying device to keep the
repaired surfaces wet for 24 hours prior to application of a curing compound. White
curing compound may be used only where its color does not create objectionable contrast
in appearance.
Epoxy-Bonded Epoxy Mortar
Epoxy-bonded epoxy mortar should be used where the depth of repair is less than
1-1/2 inches and the exposure conditions are such that relatively constant temperatures
can be expected. Epoxy mortars have thermal coefficients of expansion that may be
significantly different from conventional concrete. If such mortars are used under
conditions of wide and frequent temperature fluctuations, they will cause failure just
below the bond surface in the base concrete. For this reason, current practice precludes
the use of epoxy mortars under conditions of frequent or large temperature fluctuations.
The application of epoxy mortar to repair areas of concrete deterioration caused
by corroding reinforcing steel is also not recommended. The epoxy bond coat and epoxy
mortar create zones of electrical potential that are different from the electrical potential in
the surrounding concrete. This difference in potential can result in the formation of a
galvanic corrosion cell with accelerated corrosion at the repair perimeters.
The application of epoxy mortar to repair areas of concrete deterioration caused
by corroding reinforcing steel is also not recommended. The epoxy bond coat and epoxy
mortar create zones of electrical potential in the surrounding concrete. This difference in
potential can result in the formation of a galvanic corrosion cell with accelerated
corrosion at the repair perimeters.
Epoxy mortar is properly used to make thin repairs (1/2 inch to 1-1/2 inch
thickness) to concrete under relatively constant temperature exposure conditions. Such
applications could include tunnel linings, indoor or interior concrete, or the underside of
concrete structures such as bridge decks. Applications to concrete exposed to the daily
temperature fluctuations caused by exposure to direct sunlight are not appropriate for
epoxy mortar repair.

Preparation
Concrete to be repaired with epoxy mortar should be prepared. Prior to

application of the epoxy mortar, the concrete should be heated insufficient depth, when
necessary, so that the surface temperature (as measured by a surface temperature gage)
does not drop below 40 F during the first 4 hours after placement of an epoxy bond coat.
This may require several hours of preheating with radiant heaters or other approved
means. The concrete temperature during preheating should never exceed 200 F, and the
final surface temperature at the time of placing epoxy materials should never be greater
than 100 F.
Materials
Epoxy resins used to prepare epoxy mortar for use in concrete repair should be
two-component, 100-percent solids type meeting the requirements of specification ASTM
C-881 for type III, grade 2 class B or C. Class B epoxy is used between 40 and 60 F.
Class C epoxy is used about 60 F up to the highest temperature defined by the epoxy
manufacturer.
The sand used in epoxy mortar must be clean, dry, well graded, and composed of
sound particles. For most applications, sand passing a No. 16 screen and conforming to
the following limits should be used:

Screen Number Individual Percent,
by mass, retained
on screen
30 26 to 36
50 18 to 28
100 11 to 21
Pan 25 to 35

Range shown is applicable when 60 to 100 percent of pan is retained on No. 200
screen. When 41 to 100 percent of pan passes the No. 200 screen, the percent pan should
be within the range of 10 to 20 percent, and the individual percentages retained on the
Nos. 30, 50, and 100 screens should be adjusted accordingly.
Sand processed for use in concrete rarely contains the required quantity of pan-
size sand. As a result, problems often arise in obtaining additional pan size material to
supplement sand available on the job site. A sand graded as shown above and properly
mixed with an epoxy meeting ASTM C-881 specifications will provide a dense, high
strength, workable epoxy mortar.
The sand should be maintained in a dry area at not less than 70 F for 24 hours
immediately prior to the time of use. Filler materials other than sand, such as portland
cement, can be used. However, for general applications, a natural sand is recommended.
It is also acceptable to obtain and use brand-name prepackaged epoxy mortar
repair systems that contain resin and sand, provided that the resin systems meet the
ASTM C-881 specifications previously listed. Such mortar systems are manufactured
specifically for concrete repair and must be used in exact accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
Mixing
Preparation of epoxy mortar involves premixing proper quantities of epoxy resin
and hardener and then mixing the resin system with sand to make the epoxy mortar.
The epoxy resin used for mortar preparation is a two-component (part A and part
B) material that requires accurate combination of components and mixing prior to use.
Once mixed, the material has a limited pot life and must be used immediately. (Pot life
refers to the period of time elapsing between mixing of ingredients and their stiffening to
the point where satisfactory use cannot be achieved.) The repair resin should be prepared
by adding the required quantity of hardener (normally, part B) to the resin (normally part
A) in proportions recommended by the manufacturer, followed by thorough mixing.
Since the pot life of the mixture depends on the temperature (longer at low temperature,
much shorter at high temperature), the quantity to be mixed at one time should be that
quantity that can be applied within approximately 30 minutes. The addition of
nonreactive thinners or diluents to the resin mixture is not permitted since it weakens the
epoxy.
The epoxy mortar is composed of sand and epoxy resin suitably blended to
provide a stiff, workable mix. Mix proportions should be established, batched, and
reported on a weight basis, although the dry sand and mixed epoxy may be batched by
volume using suitable measuring containers that have been calibrated on a weight basis.
Epoxy meeting ASTM specification C-881 will require approximately 5-1/2 to 6 parts of
graded sand to 1 part epoxy, by weight. This is equivalent to a ratio of approximately 4 to
4-1/2 parts sand to 1 part epoxy, by volume. If equivalent volume proportions are being
used, care must be taken to prevent confusing them with weight proportions. It will be
necessary to adjust the mix proportions for the particular epoxy and sand being used. The
epoxy mortar should be thoroughly mixed with a slow-speed mechanical device. The
mortar should be mixed in small-size batches so that each batch can be completely mixed
and placed within approximately 30 minutes.
Application
Application of epoxy mortar repairs first requires application of a resin bond coat
followed by application and finishing of the epoxy mortar. Steel to be embedded in
epoxy mortar should be prepared, cleaned, and dried in the same manner as the concrete
being repaired. The exposed steel should be completely coated with epoxy bonding agent
when the agent is applied to the surfaces of the repair area.
A resin bond coat consisting of the same type epoxy resin used to mix the epoxy
mortar is applied to the prepared concrete surface immediately before placing the epoxy
mortar. After the bond-coat resin is mixed, it must be applied uniformly to the prepared,
dry, existing concrete at a coverage of not more than 80 square feet per gallon, depending
on surface conditions. The area of coverage per gallon of resin depends on the roughness
of the surface to be covered and may be considerably less than the maximum specified.
The epoxy bonding agent may be applied by any convenient, safe method such as
squeegee, brushes, or rollers which will yield an effective coverage. Spraying of the
material is permitted if an efficient airless spray is used and if the concrete surfaces to
receive the agent are at a temperature of 70 F or somewhat warmer. Before approving
spraying, it should be demonstrated that spraying will provide an adequate job with
minimum overspray. If spray application is used, the operator must wear a compressed
air-fed hood, and no other personnel should be closer than 100 feet if downwind of the
operator.
During application of the epoxy bond coat, care must be exercised to confine the
material to the area being bonded and to avoid contamination of adjacent surfaces.
However, the bond coat should extend slightly beyond the edges of the repair area.
The applied epoxy bonding resin must be in a fluid condition when the epoxy
mortar is placed. If the resin cures beyond this fluid state but is still tacky, a second bond
coat should be applied over the first coat. If any bond coat has cured beyond the tacky
state, it must be completely removed by sandblasting, the concrete properly cleaned, and
a new bond coat applied.
Special care must be taken to prevent the bond coat from being spread over
concrete surfaces not properly cleaned and prepared.
Appropriate solvents may be used to clean tools and spray guns, but in no case
should the solvents be incorporated in any bonding agent. All tools must be completely
dried before reuse.
The prepared epoxy mortar should be tamped, flattened, and smoothed into place
in all areas while the bonding resin is still in a fluid condition, except that on steep slopes,
the bond coat can be allowed to stiffen to a very tacky condition to assist in holding the
mortar in place. Special care must be taken to thoroughly compact the epoxy mortar
against the bond coat. The mortar should be worked to grade and given a steel trowel
finish. Special care must be taken at the edges of the area being repaired to assure
complete filling and leveling and to prevent the mortar from being spread over surfaces
not having the epoxy bond-coat application. Steel troweling should best suit prevailing
conditions; in general, it should be performed by applying slow, even strokes. Trowels
may be heated to facilitate the finishing, but the use of thinner, diluents, water, or other
lubricants on placing or finishing tools is not permitted. After leveling the epoxy mortar
to the finished grade where precision surfaces are required on sloping, vertical, or
overhead surfaces, the mortar should be covered with plywood panels smoothly lined
with polyethylene sheeting and weighted with sandbags or otherwise braced by suitable
means until the possibility of slumping has passed. When polyethylene sheeting is used,
no attempt should be made to remove it from the epoxy mortar repair before final
hardening.
Surfaces of all epoxy mortar repairs should be finished to the plane of surfaces
adjoining the repair areas. The final finished surfaces should have the same smoothness
and texture of surfaces adjoining the repair areas.
Curing
Epoxy mortar repairs should be cured immediately after completion at not less
than the temperature range prescribed by the class of the epoxy until the mortar is hard.
Postcuring, if required by the specifications, can then be initiated at elevated temperatures
by heating in depth the epoxy mortar and the concrete beneath the repair. Postcuring
should continue for a minimum of 4 hours at surface temperature generally not less than
90 F nor more than 110 F. The heat could be supplied by use of portable propane-fired
heater, infrared lamp heaters, or other approved sources positioned to attain the required
surface temperatures.
In no case should epoxy-bonded mortar be subjected to moisture until after the
specified postcuring has been completed.
Epoxy mortars generally produce patches that are darker than the surrounding
concrete. Some available epoxies produce a gray-colored mortar resembling concrete.
However, these materials will rarely produce an exact color match. Grinding hardened
epoxy mortar may lighten its color to about that of the surfaces adjoining the repair areas.
Epoxy mortars can be colored by the addition of such materials as iron oxide red,
chromium oxide green, lampblack and titanium dioxide white for gray, and ocher yellow,
although reclamation rarely uses any materials to color the epoxy other than the sand for
the mortar. Use of white silica sand in the mortar will produce a white-looking patch;
most natural riverborne sands will produce darker colored mortars. Whenever epoxy
mortar repair materials must be colored to match adjacent concrete, laboratory mixes
should be made to ascertain the proper quantities of coloring constituents.
Safety
All personnel must be carefully instructed to take every precaution in preventing
epoxy resins and their components from contacting the skin and in preventing the
breathing of epoxy fumes or vapors. Protective clothing must be worn, including gloves
and goggles, and protective creams for other exposed skin areas should be provided when
handling epoxies, as severe allergic reactions and possible permanent health damage can
result when these materials are allowed to contact and remain upon the skin. Any
deposits acquired through accidental contact of these materials with unprotected skin
must be removed immediately by washing with soap and water, never with solvents.
Solvents, such as toluene and xylene, may be used only for cleaning epoxy from tools
and equipment. Care must also be exercised to avoid contact of cleaning operations. All
safety equipment used must conform to the requirements of the Occupational Safety and
Health Standards of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
Epoxy-Bonded Replacement Concrete
Epoxy-bonded concrete is used for repairs to concrete that are between 1.5 and 6
inches thick. Shallow replacement concrete repairs, less than 6 inches thick, are subject to
poor curing conditions as a result of moisture loss to evaporation and to capillary
absorption by the old base concrete. Such repairs seldom develop acceptable bond
strength to the old concrete. The epoxy bonding resin is used to ensure a strong, durable
bond between the old concrete and the replacement concrete.
As with epoxy-bonded epoxy mortar, care should be exercised if epoxy-bonded

concrete is to be used to repair shallow deterioration resulting from corroding
reinforcement. The epoxy bond coat may create electrical potentials sufficiently different
from potentials in the surrounding concrete to result in accelerated corrosion at repair
perimeters.
Materials
The materials used in epoxy-bonded concrete repairs consist of conventional

portland cement concrete and epoxy resin bonding agent.
The concrete used for epoxy-bonded repairs is the same as that used for
replacement concrete repairs except that the slump of the concrete when placed should
not exceed 1-1/2 inches.
A number of proprietary epoxy formulations prepared for bonding new concrete
to old concrete are now available. Many of these materials are excellent high quality
products and can be used with reasonable certainty as to the results. However, some of
the resins available are unsuitable or untested for such repair applications, and care
should be taken to use only the epoxy bonding resins meeting the requirements of
specifications ASTM C-881 for a type II, grade 2, class B or C epoxy system. Class B
epoxy should be used when the temperatures are about 40 F but less than 60 F. Class C
epoxy should be used when concrete temperatures are from 60 F up to the maximum
temperature recommended by the epoxy manufacturer.
The epoxy resin used for epoxy-bonded concrete is a two-component, 100-percent
solids-resin system requiring accurate proportioning and thorough mixing prior to use.
The procedures should be followed during preparation and application of the resin.
Conventional concrete mixing procedures should be followed to mix the concrete.
Application
Use of epoxy-bonded concrete in repairs requiring forming, such as on steeply

sloped or vertical surfaces, can be permitted only when sufficient time has been allowed
to place concrete against the epoxy bonding resin while it is still fluid. If the resin cures
before placement of the concrete, no bond will develop between the old and new
concrete. It is a good idea to practice install such forms at least once before actually
applying the epoxy bond coat.
Immediately after application of the epoxy resin bonding agent and while the
epoxy is still fluid, uniform epoxy-bonded concrete should be spread evenly to a level
slightly above grade and compacted thoroughly by vibrating or tamping. Tampers should
be sufficiently heavy for thorough compaction. After being compacted and screeded, the
concrete should be given a wood-float or steel-trowel finish as required. Water, cement,
or a mixture of dry cement and sand should never be sprinkled on the surface. Troweling,
if required, should be performed at the proper time and with heavy pressure to produce a
smooth, dense finish free of defects and blemishes. As the concrete continues to harden,
the surface should be given additional trowelings.
The final troweling should be performed after the surface has hardened so that no
cement paste will adhere to the edge of the trowel, but excessive troweling cannot be
permitted.
Curing
Even though an epoxy bond coat is used, it still remains essential to properly cure
epoxy-bonded concrete. As soon as the epoxy-bonded concrete has hardened sufficiently
to prevent damage, the surface should be cured by spraying lightly with water and then
covering with sheet polyethylene or by coating with an approved curing compound.
Curing compound should be used whenever there is any possibility that freezing
temperatures will prevail during the curing period. Sheet polyethylene must be an
airtight, non-staining, waterproof covering that will effectively prevent evaporation.
Edges of the polyethylene should be lapped and sealed. The waterproof covering should
be left in place for at least 2 weeks. If a waterproof covering is used and the concrete is
subjected to any usage during the curing period that might rupture or otherwise damage
the covering, the covering must be protected by a suitable layer of clean, wet sand or
other cushioning material that will not stain concrete. Application of curing compound
must be in accordance with appropriate standard procedures as contained in the Concrete
Manual (Bureau of Reclamation, 1975).
Safety
All personnel must be carefully instructed to take every precaution in preventing
epoxy resins and their components from contacting the skin and in preventing the
breathing of epoxy fumes or vapors. Protective clothing must be worn, including gloves
and goggles, and protective creams for other exposed skin areas should be provided when
handling epoxies, as severe allergic reactions and possible permanent health damage can
result when these materials are allowed to contact and remain upon the skin. Any
deposits acquired through accidental contact of these materials with unprotected skin
must be removed immediately by washing with soap and water, never with solvents.
Solvents, such as toluene and xylene, maybe used only for cleaning epoxy from tools and
equipment. Care must also be exercised to avoid contact of cleaning solvents with the
skin and to provide adequate ventilation for mixing, placing, and cleanup operations. All
safety equipment used must conform to the requirements of the Occupational Safety and
Health Standards of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
Resin Injection
Resin injection is used to repair concrete that is cracked or delaminated and to
seal cracks in concrete to water leakage. Two basic types of resin and injection
techniques are used to repair concrete: epoxy resins and polyurethane resins.
Epoxy resins cure to form solids with high strength and relatively high moduli of
elasticity. These materials bond readily to concrete and are capable, when properly
applied, of restoring the original structural strength to cracked concrete. The high
modulus of elasticity causes epoxy resin systems to be unsuitable for rebonding cracked
concrete that will undergo subsequent movement. The epoxies, however, do not cure
very quickly, particularly at low temperatures, and using them to stop large flows of
water may not be practical. Cracks to be injected with epoxy resins should be between
0.005 inch and 0.25 inch in width. It is difficult or impossible to inject resin into cracks
less than 0.005 inch in width, while it is very difficult to retain injected epoxy resin in
cracks greater than 0.25 inch in width, although high viscosity epoxies have been used
with some success. Epoxy resins cure to form relatively brittle materials with bond
strengths exceeding the shear or tensile strength of the concrete. If these materials are
used to rebond cracked concrete that is subsequently exposed to loads exceeding the
tensile or shear strength of the concrete, it should be expected that the cracks will recur
adjacent to the epoxy bond line. In other words, epoxy resin should not be used to rebond
“working” cracks.
Epoxy resins will bond with varying degrees of success to wet concrete, and there
are a number of special techniques that have been developed and used to rebond and seal
water leaking cracks with epoxy resins. These special techniques and procedures are
highly technical and, in most cases, are proprietary in nature.
Polyurethane resins are used to seal and eliminate or reduce water leakage from
concrete cracks and joints. They can also be injected into cracks that experience some
small degree of movement. Such systems, with the exception of the two-part solid
polyurethanes, have relatively low strengths and should not be used to structurally rebond
cracked concrete. Cracks to be injected with polyurethane resin should not be less than
0.005 inch in width. No upper limit on crack width has been established for the
polyurethane resins at the time this is being written.
Polyurethane resins are available with substantial variation in their physical
properties. Some of the polyurethanes cure into flexible foams. Other polyurethane
systems cure to semi-flexible, high-density solids that can be used to rebond concrete
cracks subject to movement. Most of the foaming polyurethane resins require some form
of water to initiate the curing reaction and are, thus, a natural selection for use in
repairing concrete exposed to water or in wet environments. At the time this is written,
there are no standard specifications for polyurethane resins equivalent to the Standard
Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding Systems for Concrete, ASTM Designation
C-881. This current lack of standards, combined with the wide variations possible in
polyurethane physical properties, creates the necessity that great care be exercised in
selecting these resins for concrete repair. “Cookbook”-type application of these resins
will not be successful. Because of the high costs (generally about $200 per linear foot
of injected crack), resin injection is not normally used to repair shallow, drying shrinkage
or pattern cracking.
Preparation
Cracks, joints, or lift lines to be injected with resin should be cleaned to remove
all the contained debris and organic matter possible. Several techniques have been used,
with varying degrees of success, for cleaning such cracks. Once injection holes have been
drilled, repeated cycles of alternately injecting compressed air followed by water have
been very useful in flushing and cleaning cracks subject to water leakage. The successful
use of soaps in the flushing water has been reported by some practitioners. Complete
removal of such materials once injected into cracks is troublesome and may create more
problems than it is worth. The use of acids to flush and clean cracks is strongly
discouraged. Cracks subject to epoxy injection for purposes of structural rebonding
should not normally be injected with water. The epoxy resins will bond to wet concrete,
but they develop high bond strength when bonding to dry concrete.
Materials
Epoxy resin used for crack injection should be a 100-percent solids resin that
meets the requirements of specification ASTM C-881 for type I or IV, grade 1, class B or
C. If the purpose of injection is to restore the concrete to its original design load bearing
capabilities, a type IV epoxy should be specified and used. If the purpose does not
involve restoration of load bearing capabilities, a type of I epoxy is sufficient. No
solvents or unreactive diluents should be permitted in the resin.
Polyurethane resin used for crack injection should be a two-part system composed
of 100-percent polyurethane resin as one part and water as the second part. The
polyurethane resin, when mixed with water, should be capable of forming either a closed
cell flexible foam or a cured gel, dependent on the water to resin mixing ratio. However,
the resin should be such that, with appropriate water to resin mixing ratios, the resulting
cured resin foam can attain at least 20-psi tensile strength with a bond to concrete of at
least 20 psi and a minimum elongation at tensile failure of 400 percent. The
manufacturer’s certification stating that the product meets these requirements should be
required before the injection resins are accepted for use on the job.
Injection Equipment
Resins can be injected with several types of equipment. Small repair jobs
employing epoxy resin can use any system that will successfully deposit the epoxy in the
required zones. Such systems could use a prebatch arrangement in which the two
components of the epoxy are batched together prior to initiating the injection phase with
equipment such as a small paint pressure pot. The relatively short pot life of the epoxy
makes this technique rather critical as far as timing is concerned.
Large epoxy injection jobs generally require a single-stage injection technique in
which the two epoxy components are pumped independently of one another from the
reservoir to the mixing nozzle. At the mixing nozzle, located adjacent to the crack being
repaired, the two epoxy components are brought together for mixing and injecting. The
epoxy used in this injection technique must have a low initial viscosity and a closely
controlled set time. Several private companies have proprietary epoxy injection systems.
These organizations have developed epoxies and techniques which allow them to make
satisfactory repairs under the most adverse conditions.
Polyurethane resins have a very short pot life after mixing and are always
prepared and injected with multiple component, single stage proprietary equipment
similar to that used for large-scale epoxy repairs. Reclamation specifications do not
permit single component injection of 100-percent pure resin. In every instance, multiple
component water-resin mixtures or resin (part A)-resin (part B) mixtures must be used.
This equipment mixes the resin system components just prior to the point of crack
injection. The size of polyurethane injection equipment varies from small, hand-operated
pumps to full-size commercial equipment capable of discharging many cubic feet of resin
per hours. The pumping pressure required of polyurethane injection equipment may
exceed 3,000 psi. There are a number of high-quality, polyurethane-resin injection-
equipment manufacturers, and there is seldom any cause to attempt polyurethane
injection with equipment designed for, or adapted from, other operations. Such adaptation
is usually indicative of an inexperienced contractor and is highly discouraged.
Application
The success of resin injection repair projects is directly related to the experience
and knowledge of the injection contractor. An injection contractor have a minimum of
three years’ experience in performing injection work similar to that being contracted for
and that a minimum of five projects be included in that experience. An injection
contractor not having the required experience may be acceptable provided that the work
is performed under the full-time, direct technical supervision of the injection resin
manufacturer, provided the manufacturer has a minimum of five years’ experience
providing resins for applications similar to those specified.
Application of Epoxy Resin by Pressure Injection
The objective of epoxy resin injection is to completely fill the crack or
delamination being injected and retain the resin in the filled voids until cure is complete.
The first step in the resin injection process is to thoroughly clean the concrete surface in
the vicinity of the cracks of all loose or deteriorated concrete and debris. The area of
injection is then inspected and the injection port location pattern established. Several
different types of injection patterns can be used:
 If
the cracks are clearly visible and relatively open, injection ports can be
installed at appropriate intervals by drilling directly into the crack surface.
Care should be taken in drilling the ports to prevent drilling debris and dust
from blocking or sealing the openings. Special vacuum drill chucks are
available for this work. The surface of the crack between ports is then sealed
with epoxy paste, and the paste is allowed to cure. Epoxy injection begins at
the lowest elevation port and proceeds along and up the crack to the
uppermost port.
 A
more positive method is to drill holes on alternate sides of the crack,
angled to intersect the crack plane at some depth below the surface. This
method ensures that the crack will be intersected even if it strikes or dips in
unexpected directions. The top surface of the crack is then sealed with epoxy
paste, and injection is accomplished as described above.
The best method of ensuring quality epoxy injection work is to require the
contractor to prepare and submit for approval his overall, detailed injection plan and then
to obtain small diameter proof cores from the injected concrete. If more than 90 percent
of the voids in the cores are filled with hardened epoxy, the injection can be considered
complete. If not, the contractor should be required to reinject the concrete and obtain
additional cores.
Application of Polyurethane Resin by Pressure Injection
The basic procedure for polyurethane injection consists of first gaining control of
the leaking water, followed by pressure injecting resin to seal the cracks. In most
instances, the polyurethane injection procedure is almost identical to the processes
followed for cementitious grouting.
To gain control of the waterflow, holes are drilled to intercept the waterflow paths
as far as possible from the concrete surface. Valved drains known as “wall spears” are
installed in the drilled holes, opened, and used to relieve water pressure in the cracks near
the surface. The cracks are then temporarily sealed with wood wedges, lead wool, or
resin soaked jute rope to prevent excessive loss of injection resin.
Additional resin injection holes are then drilled on alternate sides of the crack at
maximum spacing of 24 inches. These holes are angled to intercept the crack at a dept of
8 to 24 inches (as concrete thickness allows, these holes should extend as deeply as
possible). Injection ports of various design or additional valved wall spears may be
installed in the drilled holes, depending on the injection plan and the presence of flowing
water.
Polyurethane resin injection should occur according to a preplanned sequence. A

system of split spacing similar to cementitious grouting is often successful. In such a
system, the primary holes are injected first, followed by drilling and injection of
secondary holes located between the primary holes. Similarly, tertiary holes, located
between the secondary holes and primary holes are then drilled and injected. Injection
pressures should be the minimum pressures necessary to accomplish resin travel and
filling. Even so, pressures of 1,500 to 2,000 psi are common in this work. Closure of each
injection hole should be accomplished by holding injection pressure for a period of 10 to
15 minutes after injection flow has ceased. This technique of “closure to absolute refusal”
ensures that the resin attains maximum density in the crack and becomes a permanent
repair. It is usually a mistake to stop injection as soon as the water leakage is stopped. If
such a procedure is followed, the partially cured, low-density resin can be pushed out of
the crack system by hydrostatic pressure, and repeat injection will be required to seal the
resulting leakage.
It is also common practice to intermittently inject resin into a port in order to
accomplish sealing of large waterflows. With this technique, a preselected quantity of
resin is slowly injected into a port, followed by a 15-minute to 2-hour waiting period
before repeat injection. Several such cycles of injection may be necessary to control and
seal large waterflows. It is still necessary that closure to absolute refusal be
accomplished with the final injection cycle.
Polyurethane resin injection is accomplished with varying water to resin ratios. In
cases of high waterflows, it may be desirable to inject water to resin ratios as low as
0.5:1. Alternatively, the water and resin may be introduced and mixed in a “residence
tube” 1 to 5 feet before the point of injection so the foaming reaction may be well
underway upon entering the crack network. Special downhole packers can be utilized to
inject resin at points deep within a structure. If resin components are mixed and injected
at the surface of such deep holes, the reaction will occur within the drill hole before
reaching the desired point of injection into the cracks. These special packers allow
separation of the resin components until the reach the downhole point of crack injection.
The necessity of using experienced injection contractors or technical advisors for
work of this nature cannot be overemphasized.
Clean-up
At the completion of resin injection, all injection ports, excess resin, and crack
surface sealer should be removed from surfaces that are visible to the public. This can be
accomplished by scraping, high pressure water blasting, or grinding. The use of dry pack
or other replacement repair material necessary to fill injection holes should be anticipated
and provided by the specifications.
St. Peter's BasilicaSt. Peter's Basilica

(Redirected from St Peter's Basilica)

Coordinates: 41°54′8″N, 12°27′12″E
This article is about the famous building in Rome. For other meanings, see St. Peter's
(disambiguation page).
Saint Peter's Basilica
Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano
The Basilica of Saint Peter, officially

known in Italian as the Basilica di
San Pietro in Vaticano and
colloquially called Saint Peter's
Basilica, ranks second among the four
major basilicas of Rome (St John
Lateran, St Peter's, Santa Maria
Maggiore and St Paul outside the
Walls). It is the most prominent
building inside the Vatican City. Its
dome is also a dominant feature of the
The Basilica of Saint Peter from Castel
Roman skyline. Saint Peter's Basilica
Sant'Angelo. The basilica is perhaps the largest
incidentally is also the patriarchal church in Christendom and is often used by the
basilica of Constantinople whereas the Pope.
Lateran Basilica is the patriarchal
Basic information
basilica of Rome. Possibly the largest
church in Christianity (see Location Vatican City
Yamoussoukro), it covers an area of Geographic 41°54′8″N, 12°27′12″E
5.7 acres (2.3 ha) and has a capacity coordinates
of over 60,000 people. One of the Religious Roman Catholic
holiest sites of Christendom in the affiliation
Catholic tradition, it is traditionally Ecclesiastical Basilica
the burial site of basilica namesake status
Saint Peter, who was one of the
twelve apostles of Jesus, first Bishop Architectural description
of Antioch, and later first Bishop of Architect/s Donato Bramante, Antonio da
Rome. Although the New Testament Sangallo the Younger (1520 -
does not mention Peter either in 1546), Michelangelo (1546
Rome, or martyred there, ancient - ?), Giacomo della Porta
tradition holds that his tomb is below Architectual Church
the baldachino and altar; for this type
reason, many Popes, starting with the Year completed 1626
first ones, have been buried there. Specifications
Construction on the current basilica
Capacity 60,000 +
began on April 18, 1506 and was
completed in 1626, and was built over
the Constantinian basilica.[1]
Although the Vatican basilica is not the Pope's official ecclesiastical seat (Saint John
Lateran), it is most certainly his principal church, as most Papal ceremonies take place at
St Peter's due to its size, proximity to the Papal residence, and location within the Vatican
City walls. The basilica also holds a relic of the Cathedra Petri, the episcopal throne of
the basilica's namesake when he led the Roman church, but which is no longer used as
the Papal cathedra. It is believed that a piece of this cathedra, or chair, is contained
within the altarpiece, designed by Bernini.
Contents
[hide]
 1 Details
o 1.1 Burial site of St Peter
o 1.2 Old St. Peter's
o 1.3 Other burials
o 1.4 St Peter's Square
o 1.5 Dome
o 1.6 Entrances
o 1.7 Gallery
o 1.8 Interior
 2 Notes
 3 References
[edit] Details
The Basilica of Saint Peter, portrayed by Viviano Codazzi in a 1630 painting. Note the
two bell towers, later removed.
[edit] Burial site of St Peter
Main article: Saint Peter's tomb
[edit] Old St. Peter's
Main article: Old Saint Peter's Basilica

[edit] Other burials
There are over 100 tombs located within St. Peter's Basilica. These include 91 popes, St.
Ignatius of Antioch, and the composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Exiled Catholic
British royalty James Francis Edward Stuart and his two sons, Charles Edward Stuart and
Henry Benedict Stuart, are buried here, due to being granted asylum by Pope Clement XI.
The most prominent woman entombed is Christina of Sweden, who abdicated her throne
in order to convert to Catholicism. The most recent interment was Pope John Paul II, on
April 8, 2005.
[edit] St Peter's Square
Piazza di San Pietro
Directly to the east of the church is St Peter's Square (Piazza di San Pietro), built by Gian
Lorenzo Bernini between 1656 and 1667. It is surrounded by an elliptical colonnade with
two pairs of Doric columns which form its breadth, each bearing Ionic entablatures. This
is an excellent example of Baroque architecture, where creativity is coupled with flexible
guidelines. In the center of the colonnade is a 25.5 metre (83.6 ft) tall obelisk. Domenico
Fontana finished moving the obelisk to its present location on September 28, 1586 by
order of Pope Sixtus V. The obelisk dates back to the 13th century BC in Egypt, and was
moved to Rome in 37 to stand in the Circus of Nero some 250 metres (820 ft) away.
Including the cross on top and its base, the obelisk reaches 40 metres (131 ft). The
Vatican obelisk is notable for being the second largest standing obelisk and the only one
that remained standing since it was erected during the Roman Empire. An original bronze
globe on top of the structure was removed when the obelisk was re-erected in St Peter's
Square by Domenico Fontana. There are also two fountains in the square, the north one
by Maderno (1613) and the southern one by Bernini (1675). The square is reached mainly
through the Via della Conciliazione built by Mussolini after the conclusion of the Lateran
Treaties.
[edit] Dome
There is a widespread assumption that the dome, or cupola, as it presently stands, was
designed by Michelangelo, who became chief architect in 1546. In fact, Michelangelo's
design called for a spherical dome. At the time of his death (1564), only the drum, the
base on which a dome rests, had been completed. The dome proper was redesigned and
vaulted, between 1585 and 1590, by the architect Giacomo della Porta, with the
assistance of Domenico Fontana, who was probably the best engineer of the day. Fontana
built the lantern the following year, and the ball was placed in 1593.
The dome, as designed by Michelangelo.
As built, the double dome is brick, 42.3 metres (138.8 ft) in interior diameter (almost as
large as the Pantheon), rising to 120 metres (394 ft) above the floor. In the mid-18th
century, cracks appeared in the dome, so four iron chains were installed between the two
shells to bind it, like the rings that keep a barrel from bursting. (Visitors who climb the
spiral stairs between the dome shells can glimpse them.) The four piers of the crossing
that support it are each 18 metres (59 ft) across. It is not simply its vast scale (136.57 m
or 448.06 ft) from the floor of the church to the top of the added cross) that makes it
extraordinary. Della Porta's dome is not a hemisphere, but a paraboloid: it has a vertical
thrust, which is made more emphatic by the bold ribbing that springs from the paired
Corinthian columns, which appear to be part of the drum, but which stand away from it
like buttresses, to absorb the outward thrust of the dome's weight. The grand arched
openings just visible in the illustration but normally invisible to viewers below, enable
access (but not to the public) all around the base of the drum; they are dwarfed by the
monumental scale of their surroundings. Above, the vaulted dome rises to Fontana's two-
stage lantern, capped with a spire.
The dome, redesigned and completed by Giacomo della Porta in 1590.
The egg-shaped dome exerts less outward thrust than a lower hemispheric one (such as
Mansart's at Les Invalides) would have done. The dome conceived by Donato Bramante
at the outset in 1503 was planned to be carried out with a single masonry shell, a plan
discovered to be infeasible. San Gallo came up with the double shell, and Michelangelo
improved upon it. The piers at the crossing, which were the first masonry to be laid, and
which were intended to support the original dome, were a constant concern, too slender in
Bramante's plan, they were redesigned several times as the dome plans evolved.
Other domes around the world, built since, are always compared to this one which served
as model: Saint Joseph's Oratory in Montreal, Quebec, St Paul's Cathedral in London, Les
Invalides in Paris, United States Capitol in Washington, DC, the Pennsylvania State
Capitol in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, Missouri State Capitol in Jefferson City, Missouri,
the Texas Capitol in Austin, Texas,and the more literal reproduction at the Basilica of
Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro, Cote d'Ivoire.
[edit] Entrances
Above the main entrance is the inscription,
“
IN HONOREM PRINCIPIS APOST PAVLVS V BVRGHESIVS ROMANVS PONT MAX
AN MDCXII PONT VII
(In honor of the prince of apostles; Paul V Borghese, a Roman, Supreme
Pontiff, in the year 1612 and the seventh year of his pontificate). ”
The façade is 114.69 metres (376.28 ft) wide and 45.55 metres (149.44 ft) high. On top
are statues of Christ, John the Baptist, and eleven of the apostles; The statues of St Peter
and St Paul are in front of the parish. Two clocks are on either side of the top, the one on
the left has been operated electrically since 1931, its oldest bell dating to 1288.
Holy Door, the northern most entrance at St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican.
Between the façade and the interior is the portico. Mainly designed by Maderno, it
contains an 18th century statue of Charlemagne by Cornacchini to the south, and an
equestrian sculpture of Emperor Constantine by Bernini (1670) to the north. The
southernmost door, designed by Giacomo Manzù, is called the "Door of the Dead". The
door in the center is by Antonio Averulino (1455), and preserved from the previous
basilica.
The northernmost door is the "Holy Door" in bronze by Vico Consorti (1950), which is
by tradition, only opened for great celebrations such as Jubilee years. Above it are
inscriptions, the top reading PAVLVS V PONT MAX ANNO XIII, and the one just above the
door reading GREGORIVS XIII PONT MAX. In between are white slabs commemorating the
most recent openings.
Choose another wonderThe brick dome 138 feet in diameter rises 452 feet above the
street, and 390 feet above the floor, with four iron chains for a compression ring. Four
internal piers each 60 feet square.The dome is 452 ft high (above the pavement) and is
buttressed by the apses and supported internally by four massive piers more than 18
meters (60 feet) thick.
Vital Statistics:
Location: Vatican City, Italy
Diameter: 138 feet
Type: Ribbed
Purpose: Religious
Materials: Concrete
Architect: Donato Bramante, Michelangelo
By 1506, St. Peter's Basilica, the main church at the Vatican, was too small and decrepit
to impress anyone. Following the examples set by emperors and sultans, Pope Julius II
decided to crown the old church with a dome. He hired Italian architect Donato Bramante
to do the job. Bramante's vision for the Basilica was simple: a Greek cross with equal-
sized arms around a central dome. But Bramante and the Pope died before much could be
built. In 1546, a young artist from Florence named Michelangelo gained total control of
the construction of St. Peter's, the largest church in Christendom.
Michelangelo designed a dome that would actually dwarf the nearby

Pantheon. It would be smaller than the Pantheon in diameter, but
stand much, much higher. Made almost entirely of heavy masonry,
the dome stretches 138 feet in diameter and rises 452 feet above the
street. To support such a giant dome, builders placed three iron rings
within the masonry of the dome. But even the rings couldn't hold
back the outward thrust of tension; significant cracks eventually
Click photo developed around the dome's base. By the early 18th century, the
for larger image. cracks became serious enough for Vatican engineers to add several
more tension rings as an emergency fix. Fortunately, this solution has
stood the test of time.
(diameter, in feet)
St. Peter's
Basilica
138'
Click photo
for larger image.
Fast Facts:
 Despite designing the majority of St. Peter's Basilica, the 71-year-old
Michelangelo refused to be paid for his work on the church.
 Before his death, Bramante persuaded the Pope to order Michelangelo to paint the
ceiling of the Sistene Chapel. Bramante expected Michelangelo, a sculptor and
not a painter, to botch the job. He was wrong. The frescoes on the Sistene Chapel
ceiling are considered some of the greatest achievements in Western art.
United States Capitol

Vital Statistics:
Location: Washington, D.C., USA
Cost: $1 million
Diameter: 96 feet
Type: Ribbed
Purpose: Political
Materials: Cast iron Click photo
Engineer(s): Montgomery C. Meigs, William B. Franklin for larger image.
One of the first great domes to crown a wholly political building, the United States
Capitol dome in Washington, D.C. has had quite an eventful history. Since George
Washington laid the cornerstone in 1793, the Capitol has been built, burnt, rebuilt,
extended, and restored.
The Capitol's first dome was completed in 1824 to the design of

Boston architect Charles Bulfinch -- and it was a profound
disappointment. Aside from its appearance, which no one liked, the
dome was a fire hazard and in constant need of repair. In 1855,
Philadelphia architect Thomas U. Walter was ordered to replace the
old dome with a bigger, better, fireproof dome.
A taller, heavier dome whose walls would not crack or push outwards
would require massive walls like the Pantheon or lots of iron chains
like St. Peter's Basilica. But Walter didn't want that. So he designed a
double dome -- a small dome inside a taller dome -- that created the
Click photo illusion of height. The tall exterior dome is really a thin shell,
for larger image. supported by a ring of 36 curved iron ribs. Underneath is a smaller
dome, open at the top like the Pantheon. Though it looks like it's
made of stone, every bit of the Capitol dome is made of cast iron.
The dome was finally completed in December 1863, and it stands today as the
consummate symbol of American democracy.
(diameter, in feet)
United States
Capitol
96'
Fast Facts:
 The United States Capitol building contains approximately 540 rooms and has
658 windows (108 in the dome alone) and approximately 850 doorways.
 The dome was constructed with 8,909,200 pounds of iron.
 The bronze Statue of Freedom is the crowning feature of the dome of the United
States Capitol. It stands 19 feet 6 inches tall and weighs approximately 15,000
pounds.
Characteristics
A dome can be considered as an arch which has been rotated around its vertical axis. As
such, domes have a great deal of structural strength. A small dome can be constructed of
ordinary masonry, held together by friction and compressive forces. Larger domes built
after Brunelleschi's dome that triumphantly spanned the crossing of Santa Maria del
Fiore, the duomo of Florence, have all been built as double domes, with inner and outer
shells.
Interior of the dome, San Francisco City Hall
The concave triangular or trapezoidal sections of vaulting that provide the transition
between a dome and the square base on which it is set and transfer the weight of the
dome are called pendentives. (A less sophisticated version of a pendentive is a squinch.)
Under the dome illustrated at left, the pendentives bear circular medallions in bas relief.
The church of Hagia Sophia (literally "Holy Wisdom") in Constantinople, now Istanbul, was first dedicated in 360 by Em
son of the city's founder, Emperor Constantine. Hagia Sophia served as the cathedra, or bishop's seat, of the city. Orig
Ekklesia (Great Church), the name Hagia Sophia came into use around 430. The first church structure was destroyed d
second church, built and dedicated in 415 by Emperor Theodosius II, burned down during the Nika revolt of 532, which
destruction and death throughout the city.
Immediately after the riots, Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–65) ordered the church rebuilt. The new building was inaugurate
537. Architects Anthemios of Tralles and Isidoros of Miletos most likely were influenced by the mathematical theories o
287–212 B.C.) and Heron of Alexandria's writings on vaults and arch support (first century A.D.).
The vast, airy naos, or central basilica, with its technically complex system of vaults and semi-domes, culminates in a h
a diameter of over 101 feet (31 meters) and a height of 160 feet (48.5 meters). This central dome was often interpreted
commentators as the dome of heaven itself. Its weight is carried by four great arches, which rest on a series of tympan
which in turn rest on smaller semi-domes and arcades. This complicated structural system was prone to problems: the
in 558, to be rebuilt in 562 to a greater height. Earthquakes and earth subsidence have also taken their toll on the build
although the surviving main structure is essentially that which was first built between 532 and 537.
The interior of Hagia Sophia was paneled with costly colored marbles and ornamental stone inlays. Decorative marble
from ancient buildings and reused to support the interior arcades. Initially, the upper part of the building was minimally d
a huge cross in a medallion at the summit of the dome. After the period of Iconoclasm (726–843), new figural mosaics
which have survived to the present day.
After Mehmed II's conquest of the city in 1453, Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque (Ayasofya Camii), which it re
the Ottoman empire in the early twentieth century. A view of Hagia Sophia during the conquest is conveyed in a woodc
van Aelst depicting the procession of Süleyman the Magnificent through the Hippodrome (28.85.7a). During this period
around the perimeter of the building complex, Christian mosaic icons were covered with whitewash, and exterior buttre
structural support. In 1934, the Turkish government secularized the building, converting it into a museum, and the origin
restored.

[edit] Description
Model at Miniatürk
Hagia Sophia is covered by a central dome with a diameter of 31 meters (102 feet) and 56
meters high, slightly smaller than the Pantheon's. The dome seems rendered weightless
by the unbroken arcade of arched windows under it, which help flood the colorful interior
with light.
The dome is carried on pendentives — four concave triangular sections of masonry

which solve the problem of setting the circular base of a dome on a rectangular base. At
Hagia Sophia the weight of the dome passes through the pendentives to four massive
piers at the corners. Between them the dome seems to float upon four great arches.
At the western (entrance) and eastern (liturgical) ends, the arched openings are extended
by half domes carried on smaller semidomed exedras. Thus a hierarchy of dome-headed
elements builds up to create a vast oblong interior crowned by the main dome, a sequence
unexampled in antiquity. All interior surfaces are sheathed with polychrome marbles,
green and white with purple porphyry and gold mosaics, encrusted upon the brick. On the
exterior, simple stuccoed walls reveal the clarity of massed vaults and domes.
[edit] Construction
A section of the original architecture of Hagia Sophia

Nothing remains of the first church that was built on the same site during the 4th century.
Following the destruction of the first church, a second was built by Constantius II, the
son of Constantine I, but was burned down during the Nika riots of 532. The building was
rebuilt under the personal supervision of Emperor Justinian I and rededicated on
December 27, 537. After the great earthquake in 989, which ruined the dome of St
Sophia, the Byzantine government sent for the Armenian architect Tirdat, creator of the
great churches of Ani and Agine, to repair the dome.[1]
Justinian chose Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, a physicist and a

mathematician, as architects; Anthemius, however, died within the first year. The
construction is described in Procopius' On Buildings (De Aedificiis). The Byzantine poet
Paulus the Silentiary composed an extant poetic ekphrasis, probably for the rededication
of 563, which followed the collapse of the main dome.
Hagia Sophia is one of the greatest surviving examples of Byzantine architecture. Of

great artistic value was its decorated interior with mosaics and marble pillars and
coverings. The temple itself was so richly and artistically decorated that Justinian
proclaimed "Solomon, I have surpassed thee!" (Νενίκηκά σε Σολομών). Justinian himself
had overseen the completion of the greatest cathedral ever built up to that time, and it was
to remain the largest cathedral for 1,000 years up until the completion of the cathedral in
Seville.
Interior of the Hagia Sophia, June 1994
Justinian's basilica was at once the culminating architectural achievement of late antiquity
and the first masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. Its influence, both architecturally and
liturgically, was widespread and enduring in the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and
Muslim worlds alike. Under Justinian's orders, eight Corinthian columns were
disassembled from Baalbek, Lebanon and shipped to Constantinople for the construction
of Hagia Sophia.[2]
The dome of the Hagia Sophia has spurred particular interest for many art historians and
architects because of the innovative way the original architects envisioned the dome. The
dome is supported by pendentives which had never been used before the building of this
structure. The pendentive enables the round dome to transition gracefully into the square
shape of the piers below. The pendentives not only achieve a pleasing aesthetic quality,
but they also restrain the lateral forces of the dome and allow the weight of the dome to
flow downward.
Although this design stabilizes the dome and the surrounding walls and arches, the actual
construction of the walls of the Hagia Sophia weakened the overall structure. The
bricklayers used more mortar than brick, which, of course, constitutes a weak wall. The
structure would have been more stable if the builders at least let the mortar dry before
they began the next layer; however, they did not do this. When the dome was placed atop
the building, the weight of the dome caused the walls to lean outward because of the wet
mortar underneath. When Isidorus the Younger rebuilt the original dome, he had to first
build up the interior of the walls so that they were vertical in order to support the weight
of the new dome. Another probable change in the design of the dome when it was rebuilt
was the actual height of the dome. Isidorus the Younger raised the height of the dome by
approximately twenty feet so that the lateral forces would not be as strong and the weight
of the dome would flow more easily down the walls.
A second interesting fact about the original structure of the dome was how the architects
were able to place forty windows around the base of the dome. The Hagia Sophia is
famous for the mystical quality of light that reflects everywhere in the interior of the
nave, which gives the dome the appearance of hovering above the nave. This design is
possible because the dome is shaped like a scalloped shell or the inside of an umbrella
with ribs that extend from the top of the dome down to the base. These ribs allow the
weight of the dome to flow between the windows, down the pendentives, and ultimately
to the foundation.
The anomalies in the design of the Hagia Sophia show how this structure is one of the
most advanced and ambitious monuments of late antiquity.
[edit] History
Hagia Sophia was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal
setting for Byzantine imperial ceremonies.
The structure has been severely damaged several times by earthquakes. The dome
collapsed after an earthquake in 558; its replacement fell in 563. There were additional
partial collapses in 989 after which an Armenian architect named Trdat was
commissioned to repair the damage. During the Latin Occupation (1204–1261) the
church became a Roman Catholic cathedral. After the Turks invaded Constantinople,
Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque in 1453. In 1935, under the orders of Turkish
president Kemal Atatürk, Hagia Sophia was turned into the Ayasofya Museum.
For almost 500 years the principal mosque of Istanbul, Ayasofya served as model for
many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and
the Rüstem Pasha Mosque.
Because Islam tends away from representational imagery, many mosaics were destroyed
and others were covered with plaster. The Ottoman Sultans, however, periodically
removed the plaster to service and maintain the mosaics, before replastering[citation needed].
Many restorations and repairs were done by Ottoman architects. The most famous and
extensive work was done by Mimar Sinan, one of the most famous Muslim architects in
history (who incidentally was converted to Islam from Christianity when he was young),
in the 16th century, which included the addition of structural supports to the exterior of
the building, the replacement of the old minarets with the minarets that stand today, and
the addition of Islamic pulpits and art.
The 19th century restoration of the Fossati brothers, which included the addition of a
pulpit (minbar) and the four medallions on the walls of the nave bearing the names of
Muhammad and the first caliphs, destroyed many of the original mosaics.
[edit] 20th-century restoration
The interior of the dome undergoing restoration.
Restoration work in the 20th century was begun in 1932 by the American Byzantine
Institute, during which most of the figures were uncovered.
Due to its long history as both a church and a mosque, a particular challenge arises in the
restoration process. The Christian iconographic mosaics are being gradually uncovered.
However, in order to do so, important, historic Islamic art would have to be destroyed.
Restorers have attempted to maintain a balance between both Christian and Islamic
cultures. In particular, much controversy rests upon whether the Islamic calligraphy on
the dome of the cathedral should be removed, in order to permit the underlying
Pantocrator mosaic of Christ as Master of the World, to be exhibited (assuming the
mosaic still exists).
Why the Hagia
Sophia is special
Modern-day architects marvel how their 6th century counterparts could design the
immense Hagia Sophia and its "impossibly" high-&-wide domed ceiling.
Forty windows ring the base of the 16-story-high dome, making it seem to upward-
gazing viewers 16 floors below that the dome is levitating. Photos could never give us
a sense of that illusion or of the enormity of the Hagia Sophia's internal space. We
have to see this 1400-year-old wonder in Istanbul, Turkey firsthand.
How the Hagia Sophia

building evolved
The Hagia Sophia was built between 532 and 537 by the Christian Emperor JustinianI
as a Byzantine church, which it functioned as for the next 900 years.
In 1453, the Islamic-faithed Ottomans took over Constantinople (now Istanbul).
They wasted little time in converting the Hagia Sophia into a mosque. It served the
Muslims for almost 500 years.
The Ottomans painted over the Christian mosaics - and erected the four defining
minarets we see today.
In 1934, Turkey changed the Hagia Sophia's status from mosque to museum and
uncovered the priceless Byzantine mosaics.
The Hagia Sophia needs a major restoration

Parts of the Hagia Sophia building are currently in regrettable condition due to
centuries of neglect. A major effort is afoot to save and restore this masterpiece of the
ages.
With its huge dome

and immense dimensions, Hagia Sophia was a real challenge for the Ottoman architects.
It was an inspiration source and also a representative of a conquered culture, which was
to be surpassed. Sinan accomplished this difficult task. He reached to an excellence far-
surpassed Hagia Sophia's heavy monumentality (see Suleymaniye and Selimiye
Mosques). The achievement of Anthemios and Isidoros was the placement of a huge
dome (32.5 m.) over an oblong basilica. Entrance vestibules (narthex) lead to a
breathtaking central space. Four exedrae, apse and two semidomes on the east and west,
the gallery arcades on the north and south, and the dome above circumscribe this lofty
space. Four huge pillars and bulky buttresses attached to them on the outside support the
dome. The use of a basilica that stretch below the dome with narthexes, a nave, aisles and
galleries causes the fragmentation of the interior space. Aside the nave, the components
of this basilica are dark and secondary spaces without direct interrelationship with the
domed central piece. However, the building is really imposing from the centre. Its dome
is like a shell soaring in the sky. The windows at its edges (clerestory windows) and the
enormous height and width of the dome create this impression. The dome of Hagia
Sophia substantiates a cosmological notion: heavenly dome. It is configurated as a
disjunct segment of the structure. Together with all other subsidiary sections attached to
the nave it participates in the "detached space" of the building. Contrastingly, the dome
of a monumental Ottoman mosque limits and fixes an interior space. It is an inseparable
part of the architectural composition. Unlike the dome of Hagia Sophia, Ottoman dome
intermingles with the lower structure. Sinan's Selimiye is a very good example to
illustrate this. In Sinan's structures, the subsidiary spaces are diminished and
amalgamated to the central space. Even in Suleymaniye, which is the closest mosque to
Hagia Sophia, the fragmented space understanding is suppressed (see Suleymaniye
Mosque). It is erroneous to say that classical Ottoman mosques copied Hagia Sophia.
But, it is true to say that Hagia Sophia's monumentality was a source of inspiration. Hagia
Sophia is a summation of Roman and Early Christian architecture in a huge scale. There
are also some decorative elements borrowed from Sassanian art. But, its architecture is
essentially Roman in style. Ottoman architecture of the sixteenth century created a style
of its own, which is called "classical". The Ottoman architect of this period employed
almost every architectural and decorative element flourished in the lands along the
Mediterranean Sea. His main sources were Roman, Early Islamic, Seljukid and early
Ottoman inventions. The architects of Hagia Sophia and Ottoman Classical mosques had
distinct aspirations, which helped the accomplishment of two different types of
monumentality. Therefore, in a single city, we have an unbelievably rich heritage of local
traditions expressed in such gigantic dimensions.

Of special interest has long been the massive dome atop the Hagia Sofia. The original
dome was destroyed by an earthquake in 558, just 21 years after construction. A slightly
higher-arching dome was created to replace it and this is what we see today.
The current dome measures 33 meters across and

rises 55 meters above the ground. Supported by
massive triangular pendentives above four arches
that are set upon stone piers along the central
aisle. To the east and west are semi-domes that
help support the entire structure in a manner
similar to that achieved by the flying buttresses
employed for Gothic cathedrals in Europe. The
lower part of the dome contains 40 small windows
which illuminate the massive oval nave below. Because this ring of windows goes all the
way around, they give the dome itself an appearance of weightlessness.
The dome was put in danger by a large earthquake in 14th century, so huge buttresses
were installed at the north and south sides to reinforce the building.
Writing around 560, Byzantine history Procopius described the dome thus:
"[U]pon this circle rests the huge spherical dome which makes the structure
exceptionally beautiful. Yet it seems not to rest upon solid masonry, but to cover the
space with its golden dome suspended from Heaven. All these details, fitted together with
incredible skill in mid-air and floating off from each other and resting only on the parts
next to them, produce a single and most extraordinary harmony in the work, and yet do
not permit the spectator to linger much over the study of any one of them, but each detail
attracts the eye and draws it on irresistibly to itself. So the vision constantly shifts
suddenly, for the beholder is utterly unable to select which particular detail he should
admire more than all the others. But even so, though they turn their attention to every
side and look with contracted brows upon every detail, observers are still unable to
understand the skilful craftsmanship, but they always depart from there overwhelmed by
the bewildering sight."
Founder: Emperor Justinian

Architects: Isidorus of Miletos , Anthemius of Tralles
This building is one which marks a turning point in world

architecture. Hagia Sophia is a building in which the
plan of a basilica is combined with a central layout to
Hagia Sophia form a type of 'domed basilica'. With its scale and
Sultanahmet, Istanbul splendour in its decoration it is a symbol of the power of
537 Emperor Justinian. It is a unique building of Late
Roman- Early Byzantine period. In Hagia Sophia the
traditional basilica type is covered by a huge dome. The
structural system which supports the dome marks a
great step forward in building technology.
The Hagia Sophia of today is the third to be built on the

site. The first building, having a wooden roof and built
on the plan of a basilica, was founded by the Emperor
Constantine in the year 360 but was burned down
during the uprising of 404.The second Hagia Sophia,
built during the reign of Theodosius II, was consecrated
in 415 but burned down as the result of an uprising
against Justinian in 532. In the same year, Justinian
began to build in place of the burned-down building the
Hagia Sophia which is seen on that site today.
The atrium seen in the plans of Hagia Sophia does not

exist today. The outer narthex, consisting of nine
transverse-vaulted sections, leads to the inner narthex
via 5 doors, one of which is higher than the others. In
this part, the arches are covered with mosaics in
geometric patterns and the walls are faced with slabs of
coloured stone. To the north of the inner narthex a ramp
leads to the gallery. The South Door, known as the
Horologion, was reserved for the emperor to enter by
on special occasions. Three of the doors opening into
the naos were imperial doors.
The main body of the church is divided into three aisles

by columns. The east end has an apse which projects
outwards and is covered by a half-dome. The central
area is covered by a huge dome 31 m in diameter, the
weight of which is supported by pendentives resting on
four columns. The pressure exerted by the main dome
on the east and west was lessened by the construction
of two half domes on these axes. The pressure exerted
on the north and south of the dome was counteracted in
time by the construction of buttresses. Light enters the
central space from the tympanum and dome. All the
walls are covered with slabs of stone and veined
marble. The pillars were brought from the temple of
Diana at Ephesus and many other pagan temples. The
capitals are decorated in the typical pierced openwork
style of the early period.
The upper galleries, approached by a ramp, stretch
over the narthex and side aisles.
There is a square baptistery to the south and to the
northeast a circular building which is taken to be the
treasury.
The mosaics seen in Hagia Sophia today date from the

Iconoclastic Period. The only decoration to survive from
the time of Justinian is some starry surfaces. Above the
Imperial door is a scene showing Leon VI prostrating
himself before the Pantocrator, while over the
Horologion Door Constantine and Justinian are seen
presenting, respectively, models of Constantinople and
Hagia Sophia to Jesus enthroned on Mary's lap. On the
half-dome of the apse there is a representation of Mary
and the infant Jesus, in the south gallery those of the
Deisis, Constantine XI Monomachus and his wife the
Empress Zoe presenting gifts to Jesus, and John
Comnenus II and his wife the Empress Irene presenting
gifts to Mary. These form some of the most outstanding
examples of Byzantine mosaic art.
Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque

immediately after the conquest of Istanbul and various
additions were made to its architecture at this time and
later in accordance with its new function. The minbar
and the gallery for the muezzin are important examples
of 16th century Ottoman art. During the reign of
Mahmud I many additions were made to the building,
the most important of which is the library. This important
structure occupies a space between two pillars to the
south of the building. The library is separated from the
mosque itself by a finely crafted bronze lattice in
Baroque style.
During the reign of Sultan Abdülmecid, Hagia Sophia

underwent extensive restoration under the supervision
of Gaspare T. Fossati. The mosaics, which had been
covered over when the building became a mosque,
were then revealed. Fossati also built a horologe room
in the courtyard.
Hagia Sophia (Church of Holy Wisdom), now known as the Ayasofya Museum, is a former
Eastern Orthodox church converted to a mosque in 1453, converted into a museum in 1935, in
the Turkish city of Istanbul. It is universally acknowledged as one of the greatest buildings of the
world and sometimes considered the Eighth Wonder of the World. Its conquest by the Ottomans
at the fall of Constantinople is considered one of the great tragedies of Christendom by the Greek
Orthodox faithful.
The name comes from the Greek name , a contraction of (Church of the Holy Wisdom of God). It
is also known as in Latin and in Turkish.
The doors of the entrance to Justinian's Hagia Sophia are not decorated with ancient
Byzantine motifs. The main entrance leads to the exonarthex which is 60.9 metres long
and 6.03 metres wide, and its ceiling is covered with groined vaulting. During the
Byzantine era, the exonarthex was reserved for those who had not yet been baptized.
Doors to the minarets added in the Ottoman era, are found at the northern and southern
ends.
Originally there were seven doors from the atrium to the exonarthex. Today, two of
these are not used, and another two lead into rooms which were added later. Most of the
archaeological treasures exhibited in the exonarthex are Byzantine objects found in
various places in Istanbul. Among these are the three rows of plaster moulage of tablets
upon which the decisions of the 1166 Council were inscribed. From the exonarthex there
are five entrances to the inner narthex. The oak doors covered with bronze plates belong
to the Byzantine era. The three middle doors have been cleaned recently, and it was
found that once they were gilded. They are exquisitely decorated. The other two doors
have been modified.
The groined vaulted ceiling of the inner narthex is completelycovered with mosaic, and
the walls are of veined marble. The colourful mosaics of floral and geometric motifs on a
gold background, create a magnificent appearance. The characteristics of Justinian's time
are best preserved in the inner narthex. The cross motif is used throughout the mosaic
design of the ceiling. As ancient sources indicate, during this period there were no figural
mosaics. However the figural mosaic decoration of the imperial door is a very important
work of art. After it was uncovered and its discovery was published in 1933, its age and
identification became the subject of debate for historians.
This scene depicts Jesus sitting on a magnificent celestial throne. His right hand is raised
in a gesture of blessing, and in His left hand He holds an open book bearing the
inscription: "Peace is with you. I am the Light of the World." On either side of Jesus,
there are roundels. The one on the left portrays the Virgin Mary, and that on the right
portrays the angel Gabriel. Jesus, potrayed here as the Pantocrator (King of the World), is
dressed in white hiton and himation, and his features resemble Zeus, the king of gods.
The latest research revealed that the bearded emperor prostrateon Jesus' lower left
represents Emperor Leon VI. Although the scene is uncharacteristic of Byzantine
iconography, the emperor is depicted imploring Christ's forgiveness.
The subject of the scene is the three marriages of Leo VI, a situation contrary to the
doctrine of the Orthodox Church. Since the emperor was still without a male heir even
after three marriages, he was allowed to marry his mistress Zoe, the mother of his
illegitimate son, after a long dispute.
Thus, his son Porphyrogenitus became the legal heir to the throne. Emperor Constantine
VII Porphyrogenitus is famous for his "Book of Ceremonies': which describes the
religious ceremonies per-formed in Hagia Sophia. The mosaic is dated after the death of
the emperor, around 920 AD.
The large door at the northern side of the inner narthex opens to the kochlias which leads
to the upper gallery. The door on the south side opens into a vestibule, which leads to
what has been the main entrance of the building since the 10th century.
There are nine doors leading from the narthex to the main halls. Of these, the three
southern doors were used by the public, and those seeking sanctuary used the three
northern doors. Although these doors are simply designed, the three middle doors used by
the emperor and his procession have elaborate decorations. The most impressive is the
Imperial Gate in the centre. The sources indicate that, originally the doors were covered
with gold and silver plates which were stripped off by the Fourth Crusaders. As a matter
of fact, when the large door was cleaned, traces of gold were found. According to a
legend, the doors were made of wood taken from Noah's Ark. None of the present doors
are original.
Over the Imperial Gate there is a bronze cornice which has been the subject of many
interesting legends. The scene in the middle of the cornice depicts a throne with an open
book and a pigeon.
HAGIA SOPHIA
Visiting Hagia Sophia Museum

The entrance to the museum is at the front of the
building. Before entering the museum, the ruins of
the second Hagia Sophia found outside in front of
the building, are worth seeing.
The excavations carried out in front and only to the

left of the building, so as not to endanger it,
unearthed the remains of the facade of Hagia Sophia
built by Theodosius II. The steps and the door of the
portico can he seen here, in the great hollow. The
Hagia Sophia / Istanbul roofing material of the portico and other remains of
the facade, are found both in the hollow, and in an
area a few metres to the north. These architectural pieces bear the
The Exonarthex characteristics of the 5th century.
The Inner Narthex
The General The facade of the building has heen reconstructed with finds such as rafters,
Characteristics of the Edifice arches, alcoves, columns and capitals. Carved on the rafter seen in the hollow,
The Dome is a scene of lambs which, according to Christian iconography, represent the
The Wall believers. Undoubtedly, the rest of the scene is still buried. Excavations
revealed mosaic decorations on the floor but these have heen removed.
The Apse Justinian's Hagia Sophia was built on top of these remains. The German
Columns and Capitals professor A.M. Schneider carried out the excavations in 1936.
The Main Nave
The Southern Nave
The Northern Side Nave
Hagia Sophia Library
Special thanks to Net Holding

for providing us with these
documents.
The Exonarthex
The doors of the entrance to Justinian's Hagia Sophia are not decorated with ancient Byzantine motifs. The main
entrance leads to the exonarthex which is 60.9 metres long and 6.03 metres wide, and its ceiling is covered with
groined vaulting. During the Byzantine era, the exonarthex was reserved for those who had not yet been baptized.
Doors to the minarets added in the Ottoman era, are found at the northern and southern ends.
Originally there were seven doors from the atrium to the exonarthex. Today, two of these are not
used, and another two lead into rooms which were added later. Most of the archaeological treasures
exhibited in the exonarthex are Byzantine objects found in various places in Istanbul. Among these are
the three rows of plaster moulage of tablets upon which the decisions of the 1166 Council were inscribed. From the
exonarthex there are five entrances to the inner narthex. The oak doors covered with bronze plates belong to the
Byzantine era. The three middle doors have been cleaned recently, and it was found that once they were gilded. They
are exquisitely decorated. The other two doors have been modified.
Go to Top ........................ Go to Bottom
The Inner Narthex
The groined vaulted ceiling of the inner narthex is completelycovered with mosaic, and the walls are of veined
marble. The colourful mosaics of floral and geometric motifs on a gold background, create a magnificent appearance.
The characteristics of Justinian's time are best preserved in the inner narthex. The cross motif is used throughout the
mosaic design of the ceiling. As ancient sources indicate, during this period there were no figural mosaics. However
the figural mosaic decoration of the imperial door is a very important work of art. After it was uncovered and its
discovery was published in 1933, its age and identification became the subject of debate for historians.
This scene depicts Jesus sitting on a magnificent celestial throne. His right hand is raised in a gesture of blessing, and
in His left hand He holds an open book bearing the inscription: "Peace is with you. I am the Light of the World." On
either side of Jesus, there are roundels. The one on the left portrays the Virgin Mary, and that on the right portrays the
angel Gabriel. Jesus, potrayed here as the Pantocrator (King of the World), is dressed in white hiton and himation, and
his features resemble Zeus, the king of gods.
The latest research revealed that the bearded emperor prostrateon Jesus' lower left represents Emperor Leon VI.
Although the scene is uncharacteristic of Byzantine iconography, the emperor is depicted imploring Christ's
forgiveness.
The subject of the scene is the three marriages of Leo VI, a situation contrary to the doctrine of the Orthodox church.
Since the emperor was still without a male heir even after three marriages, he was allowed to marry his mistress Zoe,
the mother of his illegitimate son, after a long dispute.
Thus, his son Porphyrogenitus became the legal heir to the throne. Emperor Constantine VII
Porphyrogenitus is famous for his "Book of Ceremonies': which describes the religious ceremonies
per-formed in Hagia Sophia. The mosaic is dated after the death of the emperor, around 920 AD.
The large door at the northern side of the inner narthex opens to the kochlias which leads to the upper
gallery. The door on the south side opens into a vestibule, which leads to what has been the main
entrance of the building since the 10th century.
There are nine doors leading from the narthex to the main halls. Of these, the three southern doors were used by the
public, and those seeking sanctuary used the three northern doors. Although these doors are simply designed, the three
middle doors used by the emperor and his procession have elaborate decorations. The most impressive is the Imperial
Gate in the centre. The sources indicate that, originally the doors were covered with gold and silver plates which were
stripped off by the Fourth Crusaders. As a matter of fact, when the large door was cleaned, traces of gold were found.
According to a legend, the doors were made of wood taken from Noah's Ark. None of the present doors are original.
Over the Imperial Gate there is a bronze cornice which has been the subject of many interesting legends. The scene in
the middle of the cornice depicts a throne with an open book and a pigeon.
The General Characteristics of the Edifice
The Imperial Gate leads to the central nave of Hagia Sophia. He magnificent view created hby the high dome, marble
columns and arches is overwhelming. The dome is 55.6 metres high and approximately 31.4 metres wide. Due to
repairs and earthquakes over the centuries, the large dome is not completely circular any more. The ceiling is
completely covered with mosaics. The dome rests on four large arches, and these arches are supported by four pillars.
Some of the weight of the dome is transmitted to the semi-domes in the north and south, and to the lower sections.
The interior of Hagia Sophia contains 107 columns. 40 of these are found on the ground floor and the rest are up in
the gallery. Over the years, buttresses have been built outside, against almost every wall, to lessen the stress of the
building and to counteract the damage caused by earthquakes.
As mentioned before, Hagia Sophia was built on a domed basilica plan. Accordingly, it has a central nave, northern
and southern side naves, and two narthexes in the west. Only in the central nave is it possible to see all the way up to
the dome. A second storey, the gallery, was built over the two side naves and the inner narthex. The distance from the
Imperial Gate to the apse is 79.3 metres. The length of the edifice is approximately 100 metres. The width of the main
nave is 32.3 metres and together with the side naves, the total width is 70 metres. From these measurements we
conclude that Hagia Sophia covers an area of 7.500 square metres and is the fourth largest, as well as being the oldest
church in the world after St. Peter's in Rome, Seville Cathedral and Milan Cathedral.
The Dome
The dome is constructed of light bricks and its interior discovered with mosaics. Decorative mosaic hands radiate
from the crown to the base of the dome. Documents indicate that the crown was previously decorated with a mosaic
representation of Christ the Pantocrator.Today, it is replaced by an inscription from the Koran which was created by
Kazasker Izzet Efendi in the 19th century. The forty windows at the base of the dome are decorated with multicolored
mosaics. Four-winged cherubims are depicted in the pendentives.
The cherubims in the eastern pendentives are of mosaic, those in the western pendentives are frescoes. Since figural
representations are against the Islamic code, the faces of the cherubims were covered with gold leaf medallions in the
19th century during the last major restoration.
Architecture
Hagia Sophia is the supreme masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. Its spacious
nave is covered by a lofty central dome carried on pendentives, a device not
previously employed in monumental construction. Pendentives make possible
support of the dome on a square framework of four huge equal arches resting on
huge piers. The arches at the east and west are extended and buttressed by great
half domes, while the half domes in turn are carried on smaller semi domed exedrae.
A vast oblong interior, 102 ft (31 m) by 265 ft (81 m), is thus created from a
succession of domical elements that build up to the main dome, 102 ft (31 m) in
diameter and 184 ft (56 m) high, in which a corona of 40 arched windows sheds a
flood of light on the interior.
At the east end of the nave is the vaulted sanctuary apse and at the west end a
great narthex or vestibule, beyond which an exonarthex opens to the forecourt, or
atrium. Flanking the nave to the north and south are side aisles with galleries over
them. Their massive vaults, carried at both levels by monolithic columns of green
and white marble and purple porphyry, serve as buttresses to receive the thrust of
the great dome and its supporting arches. The vast interior is thus wholly free of
suggestion of ponderous load, and its effect is that of a weightless golden shell that
seems to possess a miraculous inherent stability.
In this one structural organism the Roman methods of construction are epitomized,
modified and enriched by new aesthetic theories and realized in strikingly colorful
materials and ornamental techniques. These materials and techniques are often
considered Eastern, but they are in fact the logical outgrowth of trends already
apparent in Roman imperial buildings of the first three centuries A.D. All interior
surfaces are sheathed with polychrome marbles and gold mosaic, encrusted upon the
brick core of the structure; most of the magnificent figure mosaics have been
cleaned and restored to view. Externally, the broad, smooth surfaces of stuccoed
walls and the great unconcealed masses of vaults and domes pile up impressively.
Hagia Sophia served as model for several of the great Turkish mosques of
Constantinople.
A tremendous domed space. Relieving arches and arched collonades.

Pendentive in the Hagia Sophia
A pendentive is a constructive device permitting the placing of a circular dome over a

square room or an elliptical dome over a rectangular room. The pendentives, which are
triangular segments of a sphere, taper to points at the bottom and spread at the top to
establish the continuous circular or elliptical base needed for the dome. In masonry the
pendentives thus receive the weight of the dome, concentrating it at the four corners
where it can be received by the piers beneath. Prior to the pendentive's development, the
device of corbelling or the use of the squinch in the corners of a room had been
employed. The first attempts at pendentives were made by the Romans, but full
achievement of the form was reached only by the Byzantines in Hagia Sophia at
Constantinople (6th cent.). Pendentives were commonly used in Renaissance and baroque
churches, with a drum often inserted between the dome and pendentives.
A half-dome forms the head of an exedra or its smaller version, a niche. In Late
Antiquity, the exedra developed into the apse, with separate developments in
Romanesque and Byzantine practice.
Many domes are topped by a lantern, a structure with openings (or windows) to admit
light in the cupola.
Many sports stadiums are domed, especially in climates that have widely-variable
summer and winter weather. The first such stadium was the Astrodome in Houston,
Texas. A major improvement to the domed stadium was accomplished with the
construction of Sky Dome in Toronto, Ontario, the first domed stadium with a retractable
roof.
Gandon's Four Courts, Dublin, with a saucer dome.
[Edit] Saucer dome
The golden dome of Imam Reza holy shrine, covered with gold-coated bricks, built in
1333 A.D., Mashhad, Iran.
A saucer dome is the architectural term used for a low pitched shallow dome. Described
geometrically as being of circular base and a segmental (less than a semicircle) section.
Gaining in popularity from the 18th century onwards, the saucer dome is often a feature
of interior design, viewed from below it resembles the shallow concave shape of a saucer.
The dome itself being often contained in the space between ceiling and attic is invisible
externally. These domes are usually decorated internally by ornate plaster-work,
occasionally they are frescoed.
They are seen occasionally externally in Byzantine churches and mosques.
St. Basil's Cathedral, with onion domes.
[Edit] Onion dome
Main article: Onion dome.
The onion dome resembles more than half of a sphere, exemplified by Saint Basil's
Cathedral in Moscow and the Taj Mahal. They are found mostly in eastern architecture,
particularly in Russia, Turkey, India, and the Middle East.
[Edit] Dome theater
Dome theater at Colombian interactive museum Molokai

Structures designed to fit a panoramic movie format.
[edit] Cupola
Main article: Cupola
A cupola is a dome-shaped ornamental structure located on top of a larger roof or dome,

often used as a lookout or to admit light and provide ventilation. The word comes,
through Italian, from the lower Latin cupula (classical Latin cupella from the Greek
kupellon), small cup, indicating a vault resembling an upside-down cup.
Famous domes
Listed in order of their completion:
 c. 1250 BC - Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae, Greece (a corbel dome).

 125 AD - The Pantheon, Rome, Italy.
 537 - Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey.
 691 - Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem
 1312 - Dome of Soltaniyeh, Iran.
 1436 - The Duomo, Florence, Italy.
 1502 - The Tempietto, Rome, Italy.
 1557 - Suleiman Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey.
 1574 - Selimiye Mosque, Edirne, Turkey.
 1593 - St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, Italy.
 1616 - The Blue Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey.
 1653 - The Taj Mahal, Agra, India.
 1659 - Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur Karnataka India.
 1708 - Les Invalides, Paris, France.
 1708 - St Paul's Cathedral, London, England.
 1733 - Basilica Regina Montis Regalis, Vicoforte, Italy.
 1749 - The Radcliffe Camera, Oxford, England.
 1858 - St Isaac's Cathedral, St Petersburg, Russia.
 1850s - The United States Capitol, Washington, DC, USA.
 1965 - The Astrodome, Houston, TX, USA.
 1975 - The Louisiana Superdome, New Orleans, LA, USA.
 1983 - BC Place Stadium, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
 1989 - Stockholm Globe Arena - Ø 110 m
 1989 - SkyDome aka Roger's Centre , Toronto, ON, Canada.
 2000 - The Eden Project, Cornwall, UK.
Make Your Own Dome Models

Fold a Tent ™
One of the best ways to get an idea of what your Shelter Systems' dome will be like is to
make a model of it. A model will allow you to hold and turn the structure in your hands.
You will be able to see it in 3D. You can cut out a photo of yourself to scale and "get"
inside the dome. Show and share. Models are fun!
A license is granted to the viewer of this page to make the copies of this page that are
needed to create two cardboard models of each of the structures below. No other license
is either granted or implied.
This Model is easy to make. First, print out four copies of this page on card stock. Then
cut them out and, using a ballpoint pen, score the interior lines. Fold and tape (use 3M's
Mystic tape on the inside) the interior cuts of each of the four. Last, tape the four
assembled units together.
Pattern for a Model for 14, 18, 20'ers and for all Bubble Domes ™
You can compare two different sized domes more easily by making one model of each
dome. You can print the pattern to the scale of two different sized domes by using a
scaling program such as Photoshop, a copy machine, or your "Page Setup" before
printing. Assembled, these models will help you to appreciate the large increase in
volume that occurs when the diameter goes up in size.
You can remove an arch of panels to get an idea of how your dome will work in its Arch
Dome ™ form. Make two domes and join them together to create a full sphere. Can you
figure out how to make the BubbleDomes?
Pattern for Model of 8 and 11 ' Yurt, Domes ™ and Shelters

Pattern for Crystal Cave ™ 9 & 11
Print and cut out pattern. Fold downward on the blue lines and upward on the green. Then
bend the model into shape.
Origami Dome ™ FoldingTent

This is a model of our Amazing Folding Dome shelter of rigid panels that folds flat when
not needed! It can also be made as a Folding Tent with poles on the edges that folds into
a tight bundle. Make one of cardboard. To make the model, print the above on card stock,
cut and fold on lines and tape together. See how it folds up. Origami Tensegrity Dome ™
Tent.
Permission is granted to electronically copy, print and make two hard copies of each
of the above models, no larger than 1.5' in diameter. No other license is either
granted or implied.
Other models: Kayak model.
Still more models
1 1/2-YEAR GUARANTEE. If for any reason you're not completely pleased with your
purchase, return it in original, clean condition within 30 days of receipt for a full refund
or exchange as you wish. All items in this catalog have a warranty against defects in
materials and workmanship for 1 1/2 years. Should any product prove defective we will
repair or replace it at no cost to you. Special Orders are not returnable. Read Snow and
Wind Warnings.
Order online with our Secure Order Form!
For fast credit card orders call 866-777-1066
Questions? Orders & Customer Service: 866-777-1066 eleanor@shelter-systems.com

Technical: 650-323-6202 bob@shelter-systems.com. Copyright © Shelter Systems 1996
- 2006 All Rights Reserved

Structural Engineering Slide Library
Historic domes
Image-GoddenE2 The Pantheon. The present
building was built in the reign of the Emperor
Hadrian (AD 75-138), in spite of the inscription
on the portico: "Marcus, son of Lucius, Consul
for the third time, built this." With a diameter of
43.30m, the dome was the largest in the world
until modern times (St. Peter's Rome, 42.52m;
St. Paul's London, 31m) (Rome, Italy)
Image-GoddenE3 The Pantheon from floor level

to base of dome. The building is a circular drum
in form, capped with the dome. Walls are
concrete faced with brick, and the dome is
concrete. (Rome, Italy)
Image-GoddenE4 The Pantheon showing the

dome from its base to the open 8.9m diameter
oculus at the top. The dome varies in thickness
from 5.9m at the base to 1.5m at the apex.
Height of the dome is 22m above its base. The
apex is 37m above the floor and this is the same
dimension as the inside diameter of the drum.
The exact method of construction has never
been determined. (Rome, Italy)
Image-GoddenE5 The Pantheon showing the

brick facing at the top of the drum. Walls of the
drum are 6m thick, and as shown here are
strengthened by large brick arches and piers.
The mortar is high quality and the aggregate
was carefully selected and varies from heavy
basalt at the base of the drum to light pumice at
the top of the dome. (Rome, Italy)
Image-GoddenE6 The Sultan Ahmet Mosque
(Blue Mosque) built 1609-1616, is at the center
of a complex of Ottoman buildings. The central
dome rests on four pointed arches with corner
pendentives. These in turn rest on four very
large piers, each about 5 ft. in diameter. There
are six minarets: 4 at the corners of the main
structure and 2 at the outer wall of the
courtyard. The Blue Mosque, like other
Ottoman monuments, was built in emulation of
the Byzantine Hagia Sophia built 532-537 AD.
(Istanbul, Turkey)
Image-GoddenE7 Inside the Hagia Sophia
looking upward into the dome. One of the
world's great domes, built in 563, it has a
diameter of 107 ft., a rise of 50 ft. at the crown,
and covers a 107-ft. square crossing. It is
constructed of bricks 27 in. square at the base
and 24 in. square at the apex, all 2 in. thick, with
approximately 2 in. thick mortar joints. and the
apex is 180 ft. above the floor. The 40 radial
curved ribs terminate through the 40 windows at
the base of the dome. This dome replaced the
original and flatter dome, with a rise of
approximately 41 ft., which collapsed in an
earthquake in 558. (Istanbul, Turkey)
Image-GoddenE7.1 Exterior view of the Hagia
Sophia, built 532-537 AD under the direction of
Justinian I, and considered a masterpiece of
Byzantine architecture. It was the first large
rectangular building with crossing to be covered
with a dome. The 107-ft. square crossing has
four massive stone piers supporting four semi-
circular arches and four pendentives upon which
the dome rests. The apex of the dome is 180 ft.
above the floor. The large half dome seen on the
side ofs the building acts as a buttress. (Istanbul,
Turkey)
Image-GoddenE8 St. Mark's Basilica. Fine
example of Byzantine architecture. Built in the
form of a Greek cross, with a 42 ft. diameter
dome in the center and smaller domes rising
over each arm. It was completed in 1071.
(Venice, Italy)
Image-GoddenE9 St. Mark's Basilica. View
upwards into one of the smaller domes. The
inner surfaces of all the domes are covered with
Biblical pictures in glass mosaics. The inner
shells of the domes are less than half the height
of the outer shells which are supported on
circular drums. (Venice, Italy)
Image-GoddenE10 Piazza dei Miracoli. This
square, as well as including the famous 'leaning
tower' (in the background) contains two
buildings, each with interesting domes: the
Baptistry (foreground) and the Romanesque
Cathedral completed in AD 1118. The cathedral
dome is elliptical in form. (Pisa Italy)
Image-GoddenE11 View of the Baptistry

(background) and the Cathedral domes of Pisa
taken from the top of the Campanile. Due to the
subsequent closing of the Campanile this view
can no longer be seen. The 60 ft. diameter
Baptistry is covered with an outer hemispherical
roof that is pierced by a conical dome covering
the interior space. (Pisa, Italy)
Image-GoddenE12 The Santa Maria Del Fiore

Cathedral dome (Il Duomo)(background) and
base of the Campanile (foreground). Florence,
Italy. The dome is difficult to photograph due to
the proximity of surrounding buildings. The
design of the dome was awarded in 1421 to
Filippo Brunelleschi, a goldsmith by training, in
a competition. It took 14 years to build.
(Florence, Italy)
Image-GoddenE13 Santa Maria del Fiore

Cathedral Dome (Il Duomo), Florence. The
diameter of the dome is 45.4 m, its apex is 90 m
above the floor and is capped with a 26 m high
lantern. The dome, built on an octagonal drum,
consists of inner and outer shells and is Gothic
in form. It is considered one of the masterpieces
of engineering. (Florence, Italy)
Image-GoddenE13.1 Dome of St. Peter's.
Associated with the name of Michelangelo,
though considerably altered from his original
design. Completed in 1590, the dome is 138 ft.
in diameter, and its apex is 400 ft above floor
level. The external ribs can be seen. The lantern
was a later addition. (For Piazza, see GoddenF5)
(Rome, Italy)
Image-GoddenE14 Close-up view of St. Peter's

dome taken from the roof of the basilica.
Completed in 1590, the dome is 138 ft. in
diameter, and its apex is 400 ft above floor
level. The external ribs can be seen. Lantern was
a later addition. (Rome, Italy)
Image-GoddenE15 Inside St. Peter's. The

building is in the form of a cross with the dome
supported above the crossing. Slide shows the
four massive 60 ft. square columns that support
the weight of the dome. (Rome, Italy)
Image-GoddenE16 Inside St. Peter's, looking up

into the dome. It can be seen that the dome rests
on a short drum which includes the windows.
The drum, but not the dome, was completed at
the time of Michelangelo's death in 1564. Iron
chains have been added to the dome at different
times since its construction to prevent it
spreading at the base. (Rome, Italy)
Image-GoddenE17 St. Paul's Cathedral.
Designed in classical Baroque style by Sir
Christopher Wren (see also Wren's beam grid in
GoddenF71 - F72). Built in 1710, it replaced
Old St. Paul's which was destroyed in the Great
Fire of 1666. (London, England)
Image-GoddenE18 Dome of St. Paul's

Cathedral. The dome is 112 ft in diameter and
the cross on top is 365 ft above the floor. It is a
complex structure consisting of an outer shell,
intermediate brick cone strengthened with a
double chain and which supports the heavy
lantern, and an inner shell. (London, England)
Image-GoddenE19 View inside St. Paul's

Cathedral showing the structure of the crossing
that supports the dome. Eight columns are used
in this design, in contrast to the four columns
used in St. Peters, Rome. (London, England)
Image-GoddenE20 View inside St. Paul's

Cathedral looking upward into the dome
(compare to a similar view of St. Peter's dome in
GoddenE16). Seen in this slide is the separate
inner shell which was made shorter for aesthetic
reasons. (London, England)
Image-GoddenE21 U.S. Capitol Building.
Completed in 1863, the 287 ft. high cast iron
dome on top of the building was based on
Michelangelo's design for the dome in St. Peter's
Basilica, Rome. (Washington, D.C.)
Image-GoddenE22 Gallery Vittorio Emanuele

II. Constructed in 1865, this large covered
arcade has a dome at the crossing in the style of
a cathedral. The dome apex is 160 ft above the
floor, and is a good example of a d
The major featured historical domes include:
 Pantheon, Rome, 123 AD

o Architect: Hadrian
o Diameter: 142 feet
o Innovations: arch2dome, steps
 Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul), 537
o Architect: Anthemius of Tralles, Isidorus the Elder
o Innovations: Pendentives from square base --> round dome
 Mihrimah Mosque, Constantinople (Istanbul),1555
o Diameter: 66 feet
o Architect: Sinan
o Innovations: Maximum window piercing
o Aside: Inspired by love
 St. Peter's Basilica (Architects: Donato Bramante, Michelangelo), 1626
o Innovation: chain ring reinforcement
o Aside: Brumante-Michelangelo competition, Sistine Chapel
 U.S. Capitol Dome, Washington D.C. 1863
o Architects: M.C. Meigs, Wm. B. Franklin
o Diameter: 96 feet
o Innovation: Cast Iron understructure
o Aside: How can you get a tour *between* the two domes?
Origins of the Dome
Over many centuries and in many cultures, domed structures have served as revered and
sacred sites. Historians believe that the dome originated in primitive societies as a
circular building with a curved roof, constructed out of pliable materials such as thatch,
earth, or animal skins. While these early structures may have had utilitarian functions,
they gradually came to represent a more abstract concept for many cultures: the homes of
their ancestors. Since many early societies venerated their ancestors as gods, they viewed
these ancestral houses as earthly homes of the gods - or miniature versions of the cosmos.
As the dome assumed symbolic importance, it was often translated into more permanent
materials such as stone, brick, and wood.
The ancient Romans are credited with systematizing the construction of the dome. They
designed structural framing techniques, also known as formwork, to support immense
vaults while they were under construction. They also developed a material that was both
pliable and permanent - concrete - and engineered a stable dome shape - the hemisphere -
capable of spanning enormous spaces in masonry. Roman buildings such as the Pantheon
(A.D. 120-127) and the Baths of Caracalla (A.D. 212-16) represented domed structures of
an unprecedented scale.
The circular form of the dome had

particular significance for the ancient
Romans. Its perfect geometry
represented order and harmony; its lack
of beginnings and ends, corners and
seams, suggested continuity. Raised to a
great height and enclosing a vast space
underneath, the dome became the
symbol of inclusion and unity for the
Roman Empire.
During the Renaissance in 14th- and

15th-century Europe, there was a revival
of interest in ancient classical forms and
culture. Domes were deemed appropriate
for the most important temples and cathedrals, which represented the seat of religious
authority. As government became distinct from religious authority in 17th- and 18th-
century Europe, domes made the transition from sacred to civic buildings, appearing on
structures such as legislative halls, theaters, and palaces. Neoclassicists appropriated
ancient forms for new uses and adapted their meanings to suit contemporary needs,
setting a pattern for America's early architects and builders.
America’s Search for Symbols

In creating public buildings for their new nation, America's founders sought an
architectural language that would convey unity and establish a national identity for the
diverse collection of colonies. Thomas Jefferson, the country's first secretary of state,
recommended the use of classical forms in order "to improve the taste of my countrymen,
to increase their reputation, to reconcile them to the rest of the world, and to procure them
its praise."
The choice of classicism established symbolic links between

this new democratic republic and the great civilizations of the
past, thereby giving America immediate heritage and stature. It
not only placed the nation firmly in the continuum of world
history, but also suggested that it was building on the ancient
civilizations of Greece and Rome. The use of the word
“capitol" (from the ancient Roman “Capitolium") to describe
structures housing the national and state legislatures reinforced
this connection.
Because of its association with ancient Rome's most mon-

umental buildings, the dome figured prominently in America's
search for symbols of authority. Its historical connection with temples for divinities was
transposed to the new nation's secular interests. America's capitol domes represented a
new kind of temple - a temple of liberty. As the nation evolved, the dome became the
most popular symbol used to indicate the seat of authority - for the states as well as the
federal government. The architectural treatment of many capitol domes dramatizes their
symbolic value. Massachusetts' famous gold dome, for instance, is purely decorative and
does not enclose the ceremonial space one would expect. Many other capitols follow the
pattern of the United States Capitol, whose enormous size is scaled to the nation it
represents rather than the building beneath it.
Some capitols actually have two

completely separate domes: an
outer one scaled to the skyline
and an inner one enclosing the
space below. The outer dome is
usually as large and impressive
as possible. Often modelled on
famous prototypes, such as St.
Peter's Basilica in Rome, it
proclaims the capitol's place as
the symbolic center of the state,
as well as its allegiance to the
Union.
The inner dome typically forms

the ceiling of a central rotunda,
the most ceremonial space in the
building. This "hall for the people," as the space under the U.S. Capitol dome was first
described, serves as a public gathering space for important civic ceremonies. Rotundas'
decorative features often include murals and sculpture that depict the state's history and
heroes, such as the statue of George Washington in North Carolina's rotunda, statues of
Abraham Lincoln and Henry Clay in Kentucky's rotunda, and paintings of ancestral
pioneers - the Indian chief, the miner, the trapper, and the cowboy - in the Montana
capitol.
While America's capitol domes share many common themes, they also express
architectural diversity and the differing identities of the states they represent. No two
domes are alike, and it is possible to see each state's attempt to make the symbol its own.
This was sometimes accomplished by the choice of style - Gothic Revival for Louisiana's
Old State Capitol dome and Native American for New Mexico's, for instance. Other
capitol domes, in Texas and Michigan, were intended to impress visitors with their
architectural and structural daring. Still other states modernized and reinterpreted the
dome form. Nebraska's dome crowns a 20th-century office tower. Hawaii's is ribbed and
open to the sky, evoking the islands' volcanic origins.
Together, the domes of America's state capitols represent both the diversity and unity of
the states. They also present a testimonial to the dome's enduring symbolism of authority
and democrac

Domes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Domes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

They have been called "the kings of all roofs," and they cover some of our most

Before domes, there were rectangular buildings.

Columns and Soon, ancient engineers began experimenting with arches.

The earliest domes were made of stone.

Sometimes, they become too heavy.

In the quest for height, engineers came up with a few tricks.

But a 20th-century invention would change dome engineering

Today, geodesic domes come in an almost endless variety of shapes

A new generation of domes equipped with retractable roofs, like

A cathedral is often referred to as a duomo in Italian or "dom" in German, not because so

In the 20th century, thin "eggshell" domes of pre-stressed concrete by architect-engineers

The 4,007 skylights in the Astrodome acted like a lens, smearing

Unfortunately, Went wasn't concerned with the permanence of his

Put simply, tensegrity is a complex sequence of triangles. Short,

Jump to: navigation, search

The dome is carried on pendentives — four concave triangular sections of masonry

A section of the original architecture of Hagia Sophia

Justinian chose Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, a physicist and a

Hagia Sophia is one of the greatest surviving examples of Byzantine architecture. Of

The interior of the dome undergoing restoration.

Considered the finest example of Byzantine architecture

But when construction began, Anthemius found himself in

In 559 A.D., an earthquake tumbled the dome. It was

Here's how this dome stacks up against some of the

Most of the problems stemmed from the retractable roof system

Jump to: navigation, search

Facade of the Pantheon

[edit] HistoryHistoric concrete shells

The original Pantheon was built in 27 BC-25 BC under

Agrippa's Pantheon was destroyed along with other

South east view of the Pantheon from Piazza Minerva, 2006.

The exact composition of the Roman concrete used in the

As the best-preserved example of monumental Roman architecture, the Pantheon was

 Holes extending entirely through concrete sections

Structural concrete placements should be started with an oversanded mix

Curing and Protection

The importance of curing replacement concrete repairs cannot be

Epoxy-Bonded Epoxy Mortar

Concrete to be repaired with epoxy mortar should be prepared. Prior to

Screen Number Individual Percent,

Epoxy-Bonded Replacement Concrete

As with epoxy-bonded epoxy mortar, care should be exercised if epoxy-bonded

The materials used in epoxy-bonded concrete repairs consist of conventional

Use of epoxy-bonded concrete in repairs requiring forming, such as on steeply

Application of Epoxy Resin by Pressure Injection

Application of Polyurethane Resin by Pressure Injection

Polyurethane resin injection should occur according to a preplanned sequence. A

and provided by the specifications.

St. Peter's BasilicaSt. Peter's Basilica

(Redirected from St Peter's Basilica)

The Basilica of Saint Peter, officially

[edit] Burial site of St Peter

Main article: Saint Peter's tomb

[edit] Old St. Peter's

Main article: Old Saint Peter's Basilica

[edit] St Peter's Square

Piazza di San Pietro

The dome, as designed by Michelangelo.

Above the main entrance is the inscription,

Michelangelo designed a dome that would actually dwarf the nearby

United States Capitol

The Capitol's first dome was completed in 1824 to the design of

Interior of the dome, San Francisco City Hall