Engineering Structures 178 (2019) 436–443

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Investigation of energy storage in bolted joint components and the T

development of a geometry selection design tool for Belleville washers
⁎
Brian Carcaterra, Gracious Ngaile
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

A B S T R A C T

Despite the advantages and widespread use of bolted joints in manufacturing, one major problem is their tendency to loosen, which can ultimately cause the joint to
fail. This research evaluates strain energy storage in the Belleville washer, to determine how the washer's design could be modified to counteract relaxation in the
bolt, which causes loosening. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is used to study the strain energy, bolt preload, deflections, and other parameters of various geometric
configurations of Belleville washers and shows that the strain energy is not optimally utilized with conventional Belleville washers, which have constant wall
thickness. Tapering the Belleville washer reduces its weight significantly, thereby increasing the washer's energy storage capacity. The FEA data are used to develop a
tool for helping to design Belleville washer geometry that can prevent bolt loosening. One of the tool's inputs is the bolt deflection relaxation within the acceptable
bolt preload window. This work opens further research avenues for analyzing anti-loosening joints from the perspective of the elastic energy stored in the joint and
thereby predicting when the joint might fail.

1. Introduction
Most of the products we see today are composed of components,
which are assembled using techniques such as welding, brazing, sol-
dering, adhesive bonding, or mechanical fastening. The selection of a
joining method depends on factors such as types of material to be
joined, geometric complexity of the components, required joint
strength, joint service loads (thermal, chemical, mechanical), whether
the joint will be subjected to dynamic or static loading, and whether
any components will need periodic service.
For example, the components of a composite product made of glass-
fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP), which has gained acceptance in many
industries due to its higher strength-to-weight ratio, would typically be
joined by a bolted connection. However, a bolted connection results in
stress concentration at the holes and increases the risk of moisture
penetration in members [1]. Furthermore, the flexural capacity of the
beam-column connection of GFRP structures is usually less than 20% of
that of its members' [2–4].
The alternative of adhesive bonding of GFRP is now comparable or
superior to a bolted joint, owing to recent techniques [5–7]. However,
when periodic servicing is needed, particularly for products that require
disassembly, mechanical fasteners become the best option. Mechanical
fastening is one of the oldest and most common joining methods.
Threaded fasteners, such as screws or bolts, are popular because they
are easy to disassemble and cost less [8]. Bolted joints are used in many
applications in the automobile, aeronautics, bridge, and railroad in-
dustries for their ease of installation and removal for maintenance [9].
One of the most concerning problems with the threaded fastener is the
tendency to loosen over time, leading to joint failure. The self-loosening
causes a reduction in the clamp load, or preload, which results in the
joint's slipping. Self-loosening is largely attributed to rapid drop in the
bolt preload as a result of separation created between the joined parts,
due to thermal effects, surface finishes of the mating surfaces, or fret-
ting tendencies caused by cyclic loads [10]. Understanding these me-
chanisms behind the self-loosening of bolted joints is a prerequisite to
developing methods to reduce the risk of joint failure during use.
Goodier and Sweeny [11,12] were the first to study vibrational
loosening. They tested a dynamically loaded bolted joint and presented
an explanation of the partial loosening that they observed. They noted
that for an axially loaded joint, pulsating tension of a clamped bolted
connection created radial sliding between the threads of the bolt and
nut or at the interface of the clamped surfaces. Hongo [13] tried to
verify Goodier and Sweeny's results but was not able to observe any
relative motion between the nut and the bolt. Parland [11,14] tested
threaded fasteners under axial loading and concluded that a loaded nut
widens elastically in the radial direction near the bearing surfaces.
Junker [15,16] made a major breakthrough in vibrational loosening,
when he experimentally determined that the loosening in the joint was
generated by slip at the head and thread contacts. He also showed that
transverse joint movement can cause loosening, and he concluded that
the influence of transverse vibration is much larger than that of axial
vibrations. His setup and method for testing bolted connections became
known as the Junker vibration test. This test yields the relationship
between load and number of cycles, making evident how quickly and

⁎
Corresponding author.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.10.049
Received 9 March 2018; Received in revised form 6 October 2018; Accepted 17 October 2018
Available online 25 October 2018
0141-0296/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Carcaterra, G. Ngaile Engineering Structures 178 (2019) 436–443

how much the bolt preload drops.

In the past 6 decades, numerous subsequent studies have been
conducted to better understand the mechanisms involved in bolt loos-
ening and potential solutions that could be used in industry. [17] used
finite element analysis (FEA) to study the influence of dynamic shear
load on bolt self-loosening and concluded that localized slip is the cri-
tical loosening process. Jiang et al. [18] found that application of cyclic
transverse load results in microslip between the engaged threads and
that variation in contact pressure is the main mechanism in bolt loos-
ening.
Dinger and Friedrich [19] used FEA to study rotational bolt self-
Fig. 1. Basic bolted joint force.
loosening. Their simulation featured three scenarios under which bolt
preload is generated: axial pre-tension preload with friction, pretension
without friction, and bold preload achieved by turning a screw head to clamped by a bolt and a nut. The tightening of the nut stretches the bolt
induce residual shank torque. They also studied the influence of dif- and produces a clamping force on the members. The clamping force is
ferent sinusoidal displacement magnitudes to mimic actual transverse also called the pretension or bolt preload. The preload persists after the
loading conditions on a bolt shank. They found that self-loosening was nut has been tightened, irrespective of whether an external tensile load
initiated by complete thread slip and localized slip at the screw head is exerted on the joint [26]. Fig. 1 depicts the forces in a basic bolted
surface. They also found that self-loosening caused by localized slip joint.
occurred at lower transverse displacement than did self-loosening When the clamped parts of a bolted joint start to separate, the
caused by complete slip. Jiang et al. [20] used FEA and experiments to stretched bolt begins to shorten toward its original length, reducing the
investigate self-loosening behavior of bolts in coupling joints, com- preload in the joint and ultimately leading to bolt loosening. Joint se-
monly referred to as curvic joints. They found that contact conditions paration (also known as relaxation) and joint loosening can occur for
on bolt heads and threads vary significantly and depend on bolt preload many reasons; shown in Fig. 2. Among them, some of the primary
and torque loads. They proposed that the contact surfaces of bolt head causes are (a) Vibration (transverse motion) of the clamped parts
and threads are always in stick-slip modes or localized slip at the single leading to self-loosening of the nut, (b) Embedment or Creep between
load point. the mating surfaces, (c) Irregularities in the surface finish of the mating
Numerous failures of mechanical systems due to self-loosening of parts, (d) Thermal expansion/contraction of the material, and (e) Sur-
threaded bolts or fasteners occur every year [21]. Avoid them requires face asperity flattening of the mating parts
periodic inspections and continuous monitoring of the leftover bolt Tightening a standard bolted joint that utilizes a flat washer yields
preload. Various methods for monitoring loose bolts have been pro- little compressional displacement; therefore, the relaxation of the bolt
posed. Some of them use linear and nonlinear features of acoustic can cause a minute gap in the joint. One method of countering this is to
waves to identify where a bolt is either loose or damaged. Zhang at al. utilize a spring washer, which will elastically deform when the joint is
[21] analytically and experimentally evaluated residual torque of loose tightened and store strain energy. When the joint tries to loosen and
bolts by applying wave energy dissipation and vibroacoustic modula- create a gap, the spring washer will use that stored energy to keep the
tion techniques. They found that the nonlinear vibro-acoustic method joint intact. When this occurs, the preload will still decrease, but it
better detects bolt loosening than does linear wave energy-based won’t be nearly as much as a standard joint. The reason why the preload
techniques. decrease is less when using a spring washer is because no gap will be
Some locknuts, lock washers, spring washers, and other products are created as long as the amount of separation is less than the initial de-
marketed as “anti-loosening” [22–24]. However, they don’t always flection of the spring washer. If the amount of separation is greater than
perform as well as desired and might still self-loosen under certain the deflection of the spring washer, the preload would drop drastically
conditions [25]. The mechanisms of bolt loosening discussed above just as it does with a standard bolted joint.
indicate that under certain loading conditions, the bolted joint is bound Although spring washers are common, there has been little analysis
to self-loosen during service. One of the main reasons for bolt self- of the strain energy stored in the joint and the associated deflection of
loosening to progress once it has started is the abrupt drop in the bolt the spring washer, factors that must be considered in designing a spring
preload, which also implies abrupt loss of stored elastic energy in the washer for a specific application. One of the most common spring
joint. However, if a joint is designed such that loss of elastic energy in washers is the Belleville washer; an angled washer that compresses
the joint is gradual, self-loosening can be postponed. The present study
is therefore focused on elastic energy stored in the joint and the po-
tential to design bolt joints that can sustain service loading conditions
within a predetermined preload window.
The study was conducted on a Belleville washer, which is a common
anti-relaxation component used in bolted joints, to show how it acts to
resist loss of preload, to devise ways that it can be improved, and to
spur the ultimate development of a tool for proper Belleville washer size
selection. The Belleville washer was chosen due to its widespread use.
The objectives set for this study were to (i) determine the factors that
affect the joint quality of a Belleville washer and understand its tigh-
tening and relaxation behavior, (ii) determine the Belleville washer
geometries that render maximum usage of the elastic strain energy
stored in the joint, and (iii) create a design tool that uses the energy
storage concept to select the proper dimensions for a Belleville washer.

2. Strain energy storage in bolted joints

A basic bolted joint consists of two or more members that are Fig. 2. Vibrational loosening mechanisms: (a) non-rotational, (b) rotational.

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B. Carcaterra, G. Ngaile Engineering Structures 178 (2019) 436–443

Fig. 4. ½ in. Belleville washer dimensions.

Fig. 3. Bolted joint schematic and Belleville washer geometry.

when tightened in a joint. The Belleville washer is used in the re-

mainder of this study, due to its relative simplicity and ease of analysis.
Fig. 3 depicts load path diagrams for a bolted joint with a Belleville
washer. As the nut is tightened to the washer with bolt preload P, the
nut compresses, and the force is distributed throughout the nut-facing
surface of the washer. Fig. 5. ½ in. Belleville washer ANSYS 2D model and mesh.
Given that the inner diameter of a Belleville washer is fixed, the
washer's geometry is determined by three variables: outer diameter,
washer. For the contact regions between joint components, a default
height, and thickness, as shown in Fig. 3. A change in any of these
bonded connection was set between the outer face of the bolt body and
variables could yield different stored strain energy. Generally, the more
the inside face of the nut, to simulate threads. This contact setting as-
deflection that occurs during tightening, the more strain energy will be
sumes that there is no sliding or separation between the selected faces,
stored in the Belleville washer. This is the main difference between a
eliminating the need to simulate the rotating of threads as the joint is
Belleville washer and a standard flat washer. The various configurations
tightened. A default frictional connection with a coefficient of 0.2 (re-
of a Belleville washer can be simulated and analyzed using FEA. This
commended for most metal-to-metal contact) was applied between the
data can then be used to find out how much loss of energy and preload
top face of the washer and the bottom face of the nut, as well as to the
will be experienced in a joint prior to entering the joint loosening
bottom face of the washer and the top face of the plate. The bottom face
phase. In this study, finite element analysis was utilized to simulate and
of the plate was fixed, and the load was applied in two steps. First, a
analyze various configurations of a Belleville washer as discussed in the
displacement was applied to the bolt head to put the bolt in tension and
next section
engage the contact regions. Second, a force was applied to the bolt head
until reaching the desired 3,500 lb. (15,569 N) preload (the maximum
3. Finite element simulations recommended preload for a ½ in. grade 1 bolt).

The ANSYS 17 FE software package was used to conduct simulations

on different sized Belleville washers in order to determine how varying
the geometry can affect the amount of deformation and the amount of
stored strain energy. The washer was assumed to fit a bolt having a
diameter of ½ in. (12.7 mm) and will therefore be referred to as a 0.5
in. Belleville washer, even though its inner diameter was a constant
0.53 in. (13.46 mm). The FE models were created for three variables
that directly affect the geometry of the Belleville washer namely, the
outer diameter, the overall height, and the thickness. The washer di-
mensions considered are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 4. Three geo-
metries each with three different dimensions yielded 27 different
combinations of solid models to be simulated.
3.2. FE simulation results
After the simulations were run, the results were used to determine
how the deflection and strain energy stored in the Belleville washer was
affected by changes in the outer diameter, height, and thickness. The
stress (psi) and strain energy (BTU) distributions for the simulation of a
Belleville washer with a 1.5″ outer diameter, 0.17″ height, and 0.145″
thickness are shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, respectively. The stress and
strain energy distributions were non-uniform. The section in the center
of the washer is not under stress and is thus not storing strain energy.
This part of the washer is simply excess material that adds weight.
As expected, the data extracted from the simulations show that a

3.1. FE models and simulation setup

Because of the rotational symmetry of the models, 2D axisymmetric

simulations were run in order to reduce computation time. The default
ANSYS properties for steel (elastic modulus: 200 GPa, Poisson’s ratio:
0.3) were applied. Fig. 5 shows the FE model for the 0.5 in. Belleville

Table 1
½ in. Belleville washer dimensions.
Outer diameter 1″ (25.4 mm) 1.5″ (38.1 mm) 2″ (50.8 mm)
Overall height 0.165″ (4.2 mm) 0.17″ (4.3 mm) 0.175″ (4.4 mm)
Thickness 0.14″ (3.6 mm) 0.145″ (3.7 mm) 0.15″ (3.8 mm)
Fig. 6. ½ in. Belleville washer stress distribution [psi].

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B. Carcaterra, G. Ngaile
Fig. 7. ½ in. Belleville washer energy distribution [BTU].
Fig. 8. ½ in. Belleville washer energy-displacement curve.
larger outer diameter yields greater deflection. Also, greater thickness
yields lower deflection. Finally, greater height yields slightly lower
deflection for the 1″ and 1.5″ outer diameters but yields greater de-
flection for the 2″ outer diameter. This is because the washers with
smaller outer diameters are bending rather than deflecting, whereas the
washer with 2″ outer diameter is sliding outward. A sensitivity analysis
found that changing the OD (outer diameter) has the largest impact on
the results, followed by changing the height, and finally by changing
the thickness. Since strain energy is related to deflection, it can be ex-
pected that the former should follow the same trends as the latter, and
the results confirm this. With larger outer diameters, the amount of
energy stored was greater. The few exceptions are when the washer was
flattened out before the preload was reached, in which there would be
no further energy stored while the rest of the preload was applied. The
thickness affected the energy in the same way as deflection did. When
the thickness was greater, the amount of energy stored was less. For the
lower outer diameters, greater height yielded slightly less energy
stored, whereas the 2″ outer diameter resulted in more energy stored.
Fig. 8 plots stored strain energy against displacement, at a maximum
preload of 3,500 lb. obtained from all simulated Belleville washer
geometries.
The trendline fit to these data has an R-squared value of 0.9782.
Therefore this curve can be used to approximate the displacement re-
quired to yield a given energy stored and vice versa, and it will later be
used in the code for the design tool for Belleville washer selection.
Fig. 9 shows the energy-displacement curves for three representative
Belleville washer configurations having small OD, medium OD, and
large OD. Table 2 gives the geometries for these configurations. For
comparison, Belleville washers are plotted along with a standard flat
washer with 1.5 in. OD and 0.145 in. thickness.
For the representative Belleville washers (small OD, medium OD,
large OD) and a standard flat washer, Fig. 10 is created to show the
force-displacement curves exhibited by each washer. The figure also
shows a bolt preload window for which the joint is expected to function
properly. The minimum preload is taken as 2,500 lb., and the maximum
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Engineering Structures 178 (2019) 436–443
Fig. 9. ½ in. Belleville washer energy-displacement curves.
Table 2
Small OD, medium OD, and large OD Belleville washer geometries.
OD Height Thickness
Small OD 1.0″ (25.4 mm) 0.175″ (4.4 mm) 0.140″ (3.6 mm)
Medium OD 1.5″ (38.1 mm) 0.170″ (4.3 mm) 0.145″ (3.7 mm)
Large OD 2.0″ (50.8 mm) 0.175″ (4.4 mm) 0.140″ (3.6 mm)
Fig. 10. ½ in. Belleville washer force-displacement curves and representative
preload window.
preload is 3,500 lb. From this figure, the effectiveness of the size of the
washer can be assessed by the magnitude of the elastic relaxation of the
washer, designated by δFlat = 0.0 in., δS = 0.0018 in. (0.046 mm), δM
= 0.005 in. (0.127 mm), and δL = 0.009 in. (0.229 mm).
These values represent the maximum gap openings that are not
quite large enough to allow the joint to start to loosen. Depending on
the functions of the joint, multiple factors may co-exist at the joint,
leading to large gap creation. If these factors are known, the designers
could select a suitable washer accordingly. More discussion of a design
tool for Belleville washer selection is given in Section 5.
4. Belleville washer geometry modifications based on strain
energy
Having determined earlier that part of the washer constitutes excess
material, removing at least some of it would reduce the weight and cost
of the washer as well as potentially enhancing its performance. Two
potential methods of accomplishing this are (i) to have a Belleville
washer that is further tapered and therefore thinner in the less stressed
section, or (ii) to punch holes through the top of the washer. FE si-
mulations were carried out to determine the effectiveness of these
modified Belleville washers.
B. Carcaterra, G. Ngaile Engineering Structures 178 (2019) 436–443

Fig. 11. 2D tapered Belleville washer model and mesh.

Fig. 13. Energy-displacement curves for tapered and standard Belleville
4.1. Tapered Belleville washer washers.

A model of a Belleville washer with increased tapering (angle of 30°)

that reduced its volume and weight by 20% was imported into ANSYS
17, set up as a 2D axisymmetric simulation, and meshed as shown in
Fig. 11. The contact regions and the boundary conditions remain the
same as with the standard Belleville washers. It is important to note that
this weight savings can differ slightly depending on the amount of taper
angle applied to the washer. In this study, a tapper angle of 30° was
used.
Fig. 12 shows the stress distributions (psi) resulting from the si-
mulations, for the tapered Belleville washer and the original Belleville
washer. The stress distribution of the tapered Belleville washer was
much more uniform. Most of the material in the tapered washer is
carrying load and consequently storing strain energy. Figs. 13 and 14
show the energy-displacement and force-displacement curves for both
washers. The graphs show that under the same tightening force, the
tapered Belleville washer had 25% more displacement and stored strain
Fig. 14. Force-displacement curves for tapered and standard Belleville washers.
energy than did the standard Belleville washer.

4.2. Through-hole Belleville washer
Introducing through-holes in the body of the Belleville washer can
potentially improve its performance by (a) increasing the elastic energy
it can store, and (b) redistributing the nonlinear interface pressure
along the circumference of the washer, which can increase the “bite”
and thus prevent bolt relaxation. Fig. 15 depicts the standard Belleville
washer and one having the same dimensions but with holes of diameter
0.12 in. (3 mm). The through-hole Belleville washer has about 6% less
volume and weight than does the standard Bellville washer.

Fig. 12. Stress distribution of standard Belleville washer (top), tapered Belleville washer (bottom) (psi).

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B. Carcaterra, G. Ngaile
Fig. 15. Standard Belleville washer (left), Belleville washer with holes (right).
Fig. 16. 3D one-eighth-scale through-hole model and mesh.
The model of the through-hole washer joint was imported into
ANSYS 17, set up as a 3D one-eighth-model simulation, and meshed as
shown in Fig. 16. Because the holes make the model axially assym-
metric, it was not possible to run as a 2D model. However, the model
contains planar symmetry, which was exploited by running a one-
eighth model to reduce computation time. The contact regions and the
boundary conditions remain the same as for the previous Belleville
washers, except that a symmetry boundary condition was added due to
its being simulated as a one-eighth model.
After the simulations were run, the stress distribution (psi) for the
through-hole Belleville washer was compared with that of the original
Belleville washer, as shown in Fig. 17. The stress distribution of the
through-hole Belleville washer was more uniform than that of the ori-
ginal Belleville washer, although not nearly as much as that of the
Belleville washer with increased tapering. The strain energy was dis-
tributed about the same for the through-hole Belleville washer as for
Fig. 17. Stress distribution (psi) on Belleville washer (top), through-hole
Belleville washer (bottom).
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Engineering Structures 178 (2019) 436–443
the original one. However, the through-hole Belleville washer had an
8% increase in both stored strain energy and displacement.
Fig. 18 depicts the pressure distributions (psi) on the top surface of
the plate of the regular Belleville washer and the through-hole Belle-
ville washer. In contrast to the standard Belleville washer, the through-
hole Belleville washer had a pressure distribution that was nonlinear
along the circumferential direction and exhibited a sinusoidal pattern.
This would tend to induce pressure concentration along the clamped
domain, thereby leading to “strong bite” that could aid in preventing
bolt relaxation.
5. Belleville washer geometry selection design tool
Belleville washers are usually chosen primarily based on the max-
imum load they can sustain without undergoing any plastic deforma-
tion. Bolt loosening is a challenge in many applications, and for that
matter different fasteners aimed at preventing bolt relaxation have been
developed to date. A systematic way of selecting Belleville washers that
will prevent bolt relaxation is presented. The previous sections dis-
cussed the impact of geometric variables of a Belleville washer on the
capacity to store elastic strain energy. The relations of energy and bolt
preload to joint deflection relaxations were also quantified for different
Belleville washer geometries. Generation of FEA data for various sizes
and shapes of Belleville washer present an opportunity to develop a
design tool for selecting and designing Belleville washers for specific
applications. Fig. 19 shows three hypothetical washers: WA, WB, and
WC.
The figure also shows a “bolt preload window” within which the
joint can be effective, provided that the preload does not fall below the
window. The bolt preload window predetermines the maximum bolt
relaxation designated as ΔA, ΔB, ΔC for the three representative washers.
A critical important factor for the proposed tool for design and se-
lection of Belleville washers, is quantification of the decrease in the
clamped width of members of the joint. We will refer this decrease as
“gap formation” that require the energy stored in the Belleville washer
to be restored such that the bolt preload still falls within the preload
window. Gap formation in bolt joint is poorly understood. If the gap can
be quantified, a Belleville washer with ΔW that exceeds the gap would
satisfy the performance requirement for the joint. As discussed earlier,
there are numerous factors that contribute to gap formation. For ex-
ample thermal loading causes the joint to contract or expand. The
thermal contribution to gap formation can be estimated. The gap for-
mation due to creep can be quantified to some extent by the knowledge
of the material characteristics. Other factors like irregularities in sur-
face finish and asperity flattening need more research to be translated
into gap formation.
The results from the FEA simulations were used to develop a design
tool that can be used to select the necessary dimensions for a Belleville
washer to meet specific performance needs. The FEA simulations for the
½” bolt used a maximum bolt preload of 3,500 lbs. Each configuration
that was simulated had its energy, displacement, and corresponding
geometry (outer diameter, height, and thickness) extracted and plotted.
A 3D surface was then fit to a set of simulation data points, and allowed
for interpolation between the data points from the simulation.
Therefore, when the required stored energy or displacement is known,
the closest value of energy to the required input can be located on the
3D surface. The corresponding values for outer diameter, thickness, and
height for that energy point on the surface are extracted and then re-
ported to the user. If a value of displacement as the input value is re-
quired, then that amount of displacement is converted to a corre-
sponding amount of energy stored by using the energy-displacement
curves that were discussed in Section 3. The code for the program was
written utilizing Matlab, and the flow chart is shown in Fig. 20.
When the code is run, the first prompt asks the user to select the size
of the bolt. This allows the program to use the corresponding 3D
polynomial surface, which was fit to the FEA simulation data. This
B. Carcaterra, G. Ngaile
Fig. 18. Pressure distribution (psi) on clamped plate from: standard Belleville washer (left), through-hole Belleville washer (right).
Fig. 19. Relationship between bolt preload window and bolt deflection re-
laxation change (Δ).
surface represents energy as a function of the outer diameter and the
height/thickness. The user is asked whether he or she wants to specify a
desired amount of energy storage or washer displacement (compression
distance of washer when tightened).
The user is then prompted to type the value of that desired energy or
washer displacement, as shown in Fig. 21. The user is assumed to be
aware of the relationship between displacement and force when
choosing displacement as the input value, specifically, the amount of
displacement that causes a certain percentage loss of preload. The value
Fig. 20. Design tool program flow chart.
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Engineering Structures 178 (2019) 436–443
that they are entering is the total displacement they need to occur in the
washer such that if a known gap is expected to occur due to loosening,
the difference between the total displacement entered minus the ex-
pected gap would correspond to a loss of preload that is still above their
acceptable minimum percentage after the washer relaxes to close that
gap. After a value is entered, the program runs through its calculations
to select the corresponding outer diameter, height, and thickness for the
Belleville washer and then displays those values to the user. The pro-
gram also shows the plot of the 3D surface simulation data that was
used in the calculations. A step-by-step demonstration of the software is
also shown in Fig. 21.
6. Conclusions
This study has investigated the influence of Belleville washers’
geometry on their capacity to store elastic energy. The study was car-
ried out by finite element analysis (FEA). Weight reduction of Belleville
washers by changing geometric parameters and introducing holes was
also investigated. Based on the generated FEA data, a design tool for the
selection of Belleville washers was developed. The selection was based
on energy storage coupled with bolt deflection relaxation, Δ, in a pre-
defined bolt preload window. The major conclusions from this study are
• Altering the geometry of a conventional Belleville washer with
constant wall thickness can have a large impact on its performance,
B. Carcaterra, G. Ngaile
Fig. 21. Design tool for Belleville washer selection based on strain energy and
displacement.
because it affects the amount of strain energy stored in the joint and
its resistance to relaxation.
•
FEA of conventional Belleville washers showed that a middle section
of the washer experienced very low stresses and thus did not store
any substantial strain energy, and therefore was not being utilized.
• The Belleville washer with increased tapering had more uniform
stress and strain energy distributions than did the conventional
Belleville washer. The Belleville washer with a taper angle of 30°
resulted in a 20% weight reduction and a 25% increase in the dis-
placement and energy stored in the joint.
•
The modified washer with six through-holes of diameter 0.12 in.
resulted in a weight reduction of 6% and an increase of around 8%
in energy storage and deflection.
• The through-hole Belleville washer exhibited a nonlinear contact
stress distribution around the circumference. This has the potential
to promote a locking tendency in the circumferential direction,
further preventing bolt relaxation.
• The proposed design tool for selecting Belleville washers used FEA
results to build a 3D map of elastic strain energy distribution as a
function of Belleville washer geometry. The strain energy map was
then correlated to bolt deflection relaxation within the preload
window to output suitable Belleville washer dimensions for a spe-
cific application.
•
The developed design tool leaves up to the engineer/designer, to
estimate a potential gap opening at the joint. The authors expect
that once the proposed design tool/strategy starts being utilized in
industry, fundamental studies will be carried out on joint gap
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Engineering Structures 178 (2019) 436–443
formation and evolution. Evolution of the joint gap formation re-
sponsible for abrupt drop in bolt preload is influenced by variables
such as severity in transverse loading leading to localized slip,
fretting of the joint mating surfaces, creep, and differential thermal
expansion.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.10.049.
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