Chapter II

Review of Related Literature and Related Studies

This part presents the various studies that were found significance and valuable for better

understanding of the present study.

RELATED LITERATURE 

Significant control issues highlighted included a lack of capacity to respond to an animal

disease epidemic and the nature of the pig sector in impacted nations. Majority of pigs were

raised in subsistence farming settings with minimal biosecurity. In addition, things look to be

improving in the Philippines in terms of African Swine Fever (ASF). Active cases of ASF have

decreased to less than 1% of the almost 3,000 towns that have had outbreaks since the first cases

were reported in 2019. This is occurring as the Philippines conduct testing of an ASF

vaccination. According to the Philippines Department of Agriculture's (DA) Bureau of Animal

Industry (BAI), the ASF virus has infected pig farms in 2,981 barangays, 579 cities and

municipalities, primarily in Luzon, since mid-2019. "In August 2020, the incidence peaked at

1,773 positive samples" (Morales, R., 2021). Additionally, "484 cities and municipalities have

not reported ASF instances for at least three months, with 74 reporting no cases for three to six

months and 410 reporting no cases for more than six months," according to the report (Morales,

R., 2021). As a result, according to a Reuter’s story, the DA's spokesman stated during a news

conference that active cases have decreased to just 22 villages. Corresponding, Augusts’ positive

sample count was the lowest in 12 months, according to government data (Reyes, N., 2021).
 On the other hand, according to the (Philippine National Statistics 2016), approximately

68.15 percent of total fattener stocks were raised in backyard farms, with the remainder raised in

commercial operations. However, the number of fatteners raised in backyards decreased between

2015 and 2016. As of July 1, 2016, backyard farms produced 2.49 million heads of fatteners.

This was a decrease of 3.23 percent from the 2.57 million head count in 2015.

According to (Baguilat and Celestino 2018), backyard farms make up 71.43 percent of

functional farms, while commercial farms make up 28.57 percent. Likewise, (Perey 2017) stated

that backyard farms contribute significantly to the Philippine swine industry; therefore, backyard

pig farming should be sustainable.

Similarly, the study conducted by (Bernardes et al., 2020) indicates that almost all

responders are aware that ASF is already present in the country and that there is currently no

vaccine available to prevent it, indicating that biosecurity remains the most critical and effective

measure for preventing and controlling ASF. The use of experimental ASF vaccines will not

prevent or contain ASF outbreaks and will have a significant negative impact on the entire pig

industry, including smallholder farmers both within a country and internationally. Moreover,

(Bellini et al., 2020) found that because there is no effective treatment or vaccine, disease

prevention and management rely on strictly enforced biosecurity measures tailored to the

individual risk factors for ASF introduction within domestic pig populations.

As such, the Department of Agriculture in Western Visayas (DA6) is encouraging local

government units (LGUs) to fully implement the "Bantay ASF (African swine fever) sa

Barangay" (BABay ASF) program in order to safeguard the region's PHP20 billion hog

industries. The BABay ASF program was launched in Aklan in March of this year. It aims to

establish an effective ASF monitoring, surveillance, and reporting system, to strengthen

biosecurity practices on all hog farms, and to assist in the recovery of the hog industry, according

to the statement (Lena, 2021). According to PCSP members, BABay ASF will eventually be

expanded to areas of Batangas Province where the project was initially constructed and

demonstrated (Medenilla, 2021).

Consequently, according to (Cooper, T. L. et al., 2021), the impacts of African Swine

Fever (ASF) have historically been quantified, albeit it is widely recognized that these impacts

transcend well beyond quantitative measures. Throughout the year 2020, a multidisciplinary

team of researchers created a framework for assessing the socioeconomic and livelihood impacts

of livestock illnesses in smallholder communities. Two significant advances within the SELIA

framework are the incorporation of sustainable livelihoods principles to gather rich data beyond

financial consequences and the participation of stakeholders from all segments of the value

chain, not just farmers. This article discusses the findings from one of the SELIA framework's

initial applications. In late 2020, the research team used participatory methodologies from the

SELIA Framework to collect data on the impact of ASF on backyard pig farming communities

and value chains (8 focus group talks, 14 key informant interviews, and two network mapping

exercises).

This was conducted at two locations in the Philippines, highlighting potential intervention

leverage points. Due to COVID-19 travel limitations and associated dangers, training and field

activities have been modified. Focus groups and interviews demonstrated that ASF and its

accompanying control mechanisms have profound emotional consequences. Many farmers

believed pigs to be pets, and some women compared them to their children. Animal health

workers (AHWs) were well aware of the emotional toll depopulation campaigns took on farmers

and were frequently chastised by community members for their involvement. Early in the
pandemic, misinformation drove farmers to conceal their animals from AHWs and dispose of

them improperly. While ASF had a detrimental overall impact on society, the effects differed

across localities, scales of production, and value chain actors.

Backyard farmers' losses resulted in huge losses for actors along the value chain,

including as input suppliers. This pilot use of the SELIA framework highlighted a number of

ASF's complicated and varied effects. This included considerable disparities in livelihoods and

socioeconomic implications between different actors within value chains, as well as between

different actor categories (for example small, medium and large-scale traders). Recurring themes

and triangulated findings indicate to two additional leverage factors for consideration. To begin,

it is advised that the Philippines investigate a One Welfare approach to ASF control. Stressing

the importance of effective communication between animal health professionals and farmers, as

well as humane and sensitive pig depopulation measures. Second, it is essential to consider ASF

assistance programs tailored to certain sectors and communities.

On the other hand, African swine fever (ASF) is caused by the Asfi virus, which is

currently the sole member of the Asfarviridae family. It is a highly infectious virus infection that

primarily affects farmed pigs, although it can also be acquired by the consumption of

contaminated feedstuffs and transmitted by specific tick species. ASF has a significant

socioeconomic influence on people's livelihoods, international commercial trade involvement,

and protein-food security. Additionally, because the infection can spread transcontinental; it can

occur wherever swine are bred, most nations that are not infected take great precautions to

prevent its introduction (Beltrán-Alcrudo et al., 2008). As there is no vaccination or cure

available at of this moment, the disease has the potential to be devastating for the pig industry,

the availability of affordable protein, and commerce. Furthermore, this study intended to
synthesize past data gleaned from efforts to control and eradicate ASF in previously unaffected

nations, such as West Africa, between 1996 and 2002 (Brown et al., 2018).

The case of African Swine Fever (ASF) in Asia has been unprecedented with outbreaks

occurring around many countries, significantly impacting animal health and welfare, the

agricultural economy and food security (Costard et al., 2013). While ASF does not pose direct

risk to human health, its highly contagious and fatal characteristics affecting both young or old,

and domestic and the wild boar population could lead to severe devastation of the pig industry

(FAO, 2020). Inevitably enough, many Asian countries have been affected since, including

Mongolia in January, Vietnam in February, Cambodia in April, North Korea in May, Laos in

June, Myanmar in August, and South Korea in September, among others including the

Philippines as the 9th country affected. Record breaking increase in the number of countries

affected has continued to occur since 2005 to 2018 (Rozstalnyy and Plavšić, 2019). According to

(Parrocha, 2020), towards the end of 2020, the Philippines has seen several thousands of deaths

and/or mass culling of pigs to control the spread of ASF particularly in Luzon in the north but

has also affected Mindanao in the southern part of the country.

Furthermore, humans have been emphasized once again as playing a critical role in the

maintenance and spread of African swine fever. This review discusses the current global status

of African swine fever, as well as the trends and management challenges confronting

veterinarians and pig industries at all levels. Accordingly, (Penrith, et al., 2020), the first

description of ASF was published in 1921, following outbreaks of a fatal haemorrhagic disease

in European settlers' pigs in Kenya since 1914. Since 1912, (Penrith, et al., 2019) conduct a

study, outbreaks of a similar disease have been recorded in Zambia's Eastern Province.
 On the other hand, farmers' knowledge of specific clinical signs is critical for state

authorities to detect any disease early (Hadorn et al., 2008). Additionally, even if farmers are

aware of a specific disease, their decision to report suspected cases is contingent on a variety of

factors. According to a previous study (Vergne et al., 2014), the primary reasons for German,

Russian, and Bulgarian pig farmers not reporting suspected ASF cases immediately included a

lack of knowledge about reporting procedures, concern about the perceived impact of

notification on their reputation, the expectation that laboratory confirmation would take a long

time, and the belief that they could manage the outbreak without involving veterinary services.

These behavioral and motivational factors have not been examined in English pig farmers to

date. Using an online questionnaire survey, this study examined pig farmers' knowledge and

behavior regarding ASF suspicion and reporting in England (Guinat et al., 2016).

As an example, in the study conducted by (Chenais et al., 2017), 118 respondents (100%)

indicated that they were aware of African swine fever. During previous outbreaks, the mortality

rate approached 100%, but was estimated to be less than 50% in 2014. Apart from that, African

swine fever is a contagious viral disease that can cause up to 100% mortality in domestic pigs.

As a result, the disease has become endemic in Uganda, wreaking havoc on pig farmers,

particularly smallholders. In addition, the national disease surveillance and reporting systems in

underdeveloped countries are inefficient, resulting in underreporting of ASF outbreaks (Dione et

al., 2015). To our knowledge, the most recent ASF vaccine does not provide complete protection

against ASF infection in pigs (Arguilaguet et al., 2012). Furthermore, there is currently no totally

effective treatment or vaccine for ASF (World Organisation for Animal Health OIE, 2013).

Henceforth, enhanced surveillance methods were deemed a high priority. According to

(European Food Safety Authority, 2019), the following aspects were deemed critical: (1)
sensitivity of border inspection controls to minimize the risk of ASFV introduction; (2) methods

for passive surveillance to improve early detection (i.e. methods for improved detection of wild

boar carcasses); and (3) sampling protocols and diagnostics (e.g. methods to test feed after the

final stage of processing, increased sensitivity of tests, and development of rapid diagnostic tests

capable of being performed onsite).

Subsequently, early detection of the ASF virus's introduction is critical for limiting the

potential scope of outbreaks (Gillespie et al., 2015). Between December 2014 and April 2015, an

online questionnaire survey was conducted to ascertain English pig farmers' knowledge and

behavior regarding ASF clinical suspicion and reporting. As an illustration, multivariable logistic

regression analysis was used to determine the factors that influence two variables of interest: 1)

farmers who "would immediately suspect ASF" if they observed clinical signs of fever, lethargy,

reduced eating, and high mortality on their farm, and 2) farmers who "would immediately report

ASF" if they suspected ASF on their farm. (Guinat, C., 2014). As a result (Guinat et al., 2014),

pig farmers who are unfamiliar with ASF clinical indications and who are less concerned about

ASF than other swine diseases are less likely to contemplate the risk of an ASF epidemic on their

farm. Likewise, pig farmers who are unfamiliar about ASF outbreaks in other countries, scared

of the negative consequences of false positive reporting, and concerned about the perceived

complexity of reporting procedures are less likely to report an ASF suspect. These findings

identify crucial areas for teaching efforts directed at English pig farmers, with the goal of

increasing the possibility of a timely reaction in the event of an ASF outbreak (Costard et al,

2015).

On the other hand, a Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP) questionnaire was

developed to elicit information about farmers' knowledge of ASF and their practices that may
contribute to the disease's spread (Chenais et al., 2007). The questionnaire was distributed to 233

backyard farmers in five selected Oblasts, and data were collected. Kruskal-Wallis tests were

used to identify factors that could affect knowledge, and Dunn tests were used to determine

whether the Kruskal-Wallis tests revealed significant differences between groups. As a result,

comprehensive knowledge about ASF is uncommon among backyard farmers, and risky

practices that contribute to ASF spread are routinely practiced. Certainly, 47 percent of

respondents felt well-informed about the transmission of ASF and 31.8 percent felt confident in

recognizing clinical signs of ASF. In conclusion, our findings indicate that backyard farmers lack

knowledge about ASF and engage in a variety of risky behaviors that may contribute to the

disease's spread in Ukraine. According to (MuozGómez et al., 2021), this study further stated

that regional variations in ASF knowledge and risky behaviors should be considered when

developing future evidence based ASF prevention and control programs, including public

awareness activities.

And furthermore, the purpose of this study was to ascertain farmers' awareness of African

Swine Fever (ASF) in Lagos State, Nigeria. According to (Abwage et al., 2015), the primary data

were gathered through the administration of a questionnaire to 120 respondents chosen through a

purposive sampling technique. Additionally, twenty-seven (27) pig farms were visited to collect

data on pig mortality from 0-17 farms during the ASF epidemic. It was discovered that

respondents lacked awareness of the early symptoms and characteristics signs of ASF. As a

result (Saka et al., 2010), a mortality rate of approximately 95% was recorded. Chi square

analysis revealed no statistically significant relationship between farmer awareness of ASF and

the location of their pig farms. Additionally, there was no correlation between pig stock

population and farmers' contact with Extension agents. The study concluded (Owolodun et al.,
2010), that current extension services to pig farmers are insufficient. As a result, it recommends

that it be developed to ensure institutional support during outbreaks of epidemic disease.

Similarly, possible mechanisms should be explored to ensure a continuous flow of agricultural

information from research institutes and universities to end users. However, farmers should be

taught preventative measures to avoid future disease outbreaks. Eventually (Fasina et al., 2012),

pig farmers are encouraged to form associations that can act as a lobbying force in the event of

sector-specific emergencies.

Consequently, the spread of the most recent African Swine Fever (ASF) outbreak in Asia

since late 2018 poses a serious threat to endemic pig species and socioeconomic security in

developing countries. ASF is almost always fatal in domestic pigs and free-living Eurasian wild

boars (both Sus scrofa) in Asia (Walzer et al., 2020). The ongoing ASF epidemic has already

claimed over a hundred million domestic pigs, wreaking havoc on the global pork industry. As

(Luskin, et al., 2021) cited that demonstration of a near-term risk exists for Southeast Asia's 11

endemic pig species, which have small population sizes and ranges that may be insufficient to

withstand the disease's initial lethal onslaught. Pig decline also has cascading effects on

endangered carnivores, plant communities, and millions of people's livelihoods. Our

management recommendations include prioritizing time-sensitive research topics, increasing the

detection of emerging infectious diseases through site-based monitoring and surveillance

combined with online reporting, and properly disposing of carcasses.

Nonetheless, in line with the study of (Swai et al., 2014), multiple animal diseases have a

negative impact on human livelihood, health, and welfare. Animal disease outbreaks also pose a

significant threat to the profitability of livestock production globally, both in terms of the

disease's economic impact and the measures taken to mitigate the risk of disease introduction and
control measures implemented in the event of an outbreak. Face-to-face interviews, direct farm

observations, and secondary data from various district livestock office reports were used to

ascertain the number of pigs owned prior to and following the ASF outbreak.

Subsequently (Swai et al., 2014), the mortality rate associated with the ASF outbreak was

84 percent (range 46–97), and the average number of pigs lost per household was four (range 1-

50). When these mortality figures are converted to financial terms, a loss of 160.632 million US

dollars is calculated, indicating that ASF is a lethal and devastating disease that has the potential

to disrupt the pig industry and the entire local economy. This study established by (Penrith et al.,

2019), that small-scale pig production is a significant source of livelihood for many households

in rural areas of Rombo district and contributes to the value chain. At the farm level, good

husbandry, and biosecurity practices such as confining pigs in adequate housing, avoiding

contaminated feed and water, properly disposing of carcasses, prohibiting slaughter, prohibiting

movement, establishing check points, and decontamination procedures using known and proven

quality disinfection should be prioritized, as there is currently no vaccine available.

In accordance with (Smith et al., 2021) a long-standing presence in Africa, Europe, and

Russia, ASF was first detected in China in August 2018 and has since spread to 12 countries in

East and Southeast Asia. ASF threatens up to 50% of the world's pig herd, and the ongoing

impact on the lives and livelihoods of pig farmers and pork value chains in the region is severe.

To assist governments in developing effective mitigation policies, bilateral donor agencies in

designing assistance projects, and multilateral lending institutions in developing loan packages to

support sectoral reform, a more consistent, integrated methodology for assessing the qualitative

and quantitative socioeconomic and livelihood impacts of animals is required. To address this

gap, this Small Research Activity (SRA) collaboratively developed a Socio-Economic and
Livelihood Impact Assessment (SELIA) Framework for animal disease and conducted pilot

testing of tools within the framework in the Philippines and Timor-Leste to refine aspects of the

framework and assess its utility in the field.

According to (You et al., 2021), African swine fever (ASF) is a highly infectious and

lethal haemorrhagic disease that has spread to all provinces of China, the world's largest

producer and consumer of pork. We create a systematic valuation framework for quantifying

economic losses caused by ASF outbreaks in China between August 2018 and July 2019 using

an input–output model, partial equilibrium theory, and a replacement indicator approach for

handling missing data. We demonstrate that the entire economic loss in 2019 amounts to 0.78

percent of China's gross domestic product, with consequences felt throughout practically all

economic sectors due to the pork industry's ties and a significant decline in consumer surplus.

Scenario analysis demonstrates that the worst-case scenarios of pig production decrease and

price increase would result in GDP reductions of 1.4 percent and 2.07 percent, respectively.

These findings underscore the critical importance of swift ASF containment and prevention

strategies in order to avert future outbreaks and economic collapse.

As stated by (Nantima et al., 2016), a study was conducted along the Kenya–Uganda

border in four districts: Tororo and Busia (Uganda) and Busia and Teso (Kenya) to ascertain

smallholder farmers' biosecurity knowledge, practices, and awareness. Six hundred and forty-

five randomly selected pig households in the study area were surveyed. Additionally, focus

group discussions involving 248 people were conducted in 12 villages using a standardized list

of questions. The findings indicated that smallholder farmers had a very low level of awareness

regarding biosecurity practices. We conclude that smallholder farmers can adopt specific

biosecurity practices, but only with institutional support. Government authorities have a clear
obligation to sensitize farmers through approaches that enable farmers to participate actively in

the design, planning, and implementation of biosecurity practices, thereby increasing adoption.

Following that, (Acollador et al., 2021) discovered that the majority of respondents, with

a mean of 3.5, agreed that they are familiar with ASF. Furthermore, the (World Organization for

Animal Health 2018) states that African swine fever is a highly infectious hemorrhagic viral

illness that affects domesticated and wild pigs and has a significant economic and production

impact on a state. (Bellini et al., 2016) advise farmers to abstain from visiting other farms and

inviting strangers into their premises. Farmers should dress appropriately and wear appropriate

footwear when entering the pig pen. Contrary to (Bernardes and Pea's 2020) findings, numerous

pig farms are publicly accessible; neither an adequate footbath nor a perimeter fence were

provided, and less than 10% of pig farms were located at least 200 meters from a household.

Besides that, the (World Organization for Animal Health 2021) stated that there is currently no

approved ASF vaccine that has been proven to be safe and effective on a global scale.

In contrast to (Dione's 2020) findings that the pig production domain, as well as farmer

gender (male), has a significant effect on farmers' knowledge of and attitude toward African

swine fever (ASF). Consequently, the study conducted by (Munoz and Gomez et al., 2021)

contradicted the notion that the hog raisers' age and educational level were statistically

significant predictors of ASF knowledge. According to (Guinat et al., 2016), the stated type of

hogs was found to be significantly associated with farmers' attitudes toward ASF. Further to that,

there was no correlation between the number of pigs in the herd and farmers' knowledge of ASF.

According to (Adebayo and Sorungbe 2015), there was also no significant relationship between

education, farmer group, and total income of hog raisers and their level of awareness.
 On the other hand, the findings corroborate a study conducted by the Queensland

Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries,

2013), which concluded that good hygiene can help minimize disease concerns while increasing

output in intensive piggeries. Maintaining a high standard of hygiene is largely dependent on the

design, management, routine cleaning and disinfection, and good housekeeping of the piggery.

Unsanitary conditions erode the pig's resistance to infection, facilitating the spread of disease.

According to (Levis et al., 2011), there is no way to keep wild animals, birds, and

blowing dust away from pigs housed outdoors. In some geographic areas, a 4-strand, high-tensile

electric fence is sufficient for biosecurity purposes and is significantly less expensive than a

chain link or woven wire fence. Placing a 4-strand electric fence 40 to 50 feet away from the pig

production unit can help keep stray cattle and feral pigs away from the piglets. Only those who

heed the signs will be kept out of a biosecurity fence equipped with an electric fence. However,

building a pig-proof perimeter fence is prohibitively expensive.

Additionally, (Levis et al., 2011) demonstrate that boot/footh washes are nearly useless at

removing bacterial contamination. Boots must be free of organic debris and immersed in the

disinfection solution for at least five minutes to provide any protection. Certain pig farm

personnel do use boot baths to prevent disease transmission between groups of pigs via

mechanical means.

African swine flu (ASF) affects both wild and domestic stock and can result in significant

socioeconomic damage, according to (Mapendere, 2021). Their primary goal was to gain a better

understanding of the role of Ndumo Game Reserve (NGR) and its environs in the ecology and

epidemiology of the two illnesses, as well as the implications of pig farming techniques for

disease transmission. This study region was chosen because the game reserve shares a northern
border with Mozambique, a country with an endemic ASF outbreak. The study region, which is

located within an ASF control zone, shares a western boundary with ASF-free eSwatini. As a

result, it is reasonable to assume that the NGR and its environs constitute a high-risk region for

the aforementioned diseases, necessitating regular evaluations. Line transects counts revealed a

warthog population density of 3-5 individuals per km2, with an estimated total population size of

400-500 warthogs in the research region. The majority of bushpigs captured on camera traps

(0.515 animals per camera day) were found in areas next to bodies of water.

On the other hand, warthogs (0.536 animals/camera day) were observed in sandy

habitats. According to fence survey results, wild suids frequently jump the fence into the

adjacent farming community, especially during the dry season. Eleven farmers supported this by

stating that they had observed wild suids in the vicinity. According to questionnaire surveys of

254 domestic pig producers, the majority of farmers free-ranged their animals during the

cropping season. This discovery, in conjunction with the observation that pigs breach the game

fence on a regular basis, is crucial for disease management because it indicates the possibility of

domestic-domestic and wild-domestic contacts that can facilitate disease introduction and

dissemination. The risk of disease introduction is exacerbated further since some farmers

purchase pigs from outside the research region, most notably Mozambique and eSwatini, and

these movements are not documented. The examination of social networks revealed significant

movement (by buying and selling) amongst pig producers connecting all communities in the

research area. These movements have the potential to raise the danger of disease transmission

and introduction. While the research region's location supports the possibility of disease

occurrence, burrow surveys (n=35) revealed no evidence of Ornithodoros tick infestation,

showing that a sylvatic ASF cycle is now unlikely to exist in the area, implying that ASF is
unlikely to exist in NGR. Additionally, blood samples from 67 domestic pigs were negative for

both ASF. This notion is bolstered by farmers' reports of no clinical indications or abrupt

mortality of pigs owing to ASF in previous years. Although no evidence of the two diseases was

discovered in the study area, the area remains a high-risk location for these diseases, and

continuous surveillance is recommended. Additionally, farmers should be trained on proper

swine husbandry techniques to minimize the danger of disease introduction and transmission.

Furthermore, between 1997 and 2005, Nigeria's southwest region had frequent outbreaks

of African swine fever (ASF) in pig herds, according to (Awosanya, E.J. et al., 2021). ASF is

suspected to be enzootic in this location at the moment. However, the condition of ASF virus

strain enzootic transmission to pigs is uncertain. Across Africa, 23 genotypes of the ASF virus

based on the p72 gene have been identified. The purpose of this study was to assess evolutionary

patterns in Southwest Nigeria and to identify the currently circulating field strain(s) of the ASF

virus. The field strain of ASF virus that is now circulating shows that a mutation is responsible

for the lower morbidity and death observed in sporadic instances.

Also, according to (Mushagalusa, C. A. et al., 2021), the paper discusses the outbreaks

and spread of African swine fever (ASF) in South Africa since the first suspected epidemic

occurred in the Koedoesrand Ward in 1926. The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE)

disease database and the South African veterinary services yearly reports, as well as published

publications and online sources, were used to compile retrospective data on ASF outbreaks in

South Africa. South Africa has had numerous outbreaks that can be classified into two time

periods: those occurring prior to the development of the OIE diseases database in 1993 and those

occurring after to that date. During the first period, over 141 outbreaks of ASF were reported.

Since the OIE disease database's inception, 72 outbreaks including 2968 cases, 2187 deaths, and
2358 slaughtered pigs, mostly in smallholder pig farms, have been documented. The median

number of cases in an ASF epidemic is 17, however 50% of outbreaks resulted in no pigs being

killed for prevention.

In April 2014, the largest ASF epidemic in history was recorded in the Greater Zeerust

district (North West province), including 326 cases and 1462 pigs slaughtered. However, the

outbreak with the highest mortality rate was reported in 2016 and involved 250 pigs (Free State

province). In South Africa, nine p72 genotypes (I, III, IV, VII, VIII, XIX, XX, XXI, and XXII)

have been found using phylogenetic research. Summer was the season with the most breakouts.

Additionally, it was noted that the OIE illness database may have inaccuracies caused by

compiled forms at the country level. Spatiotemporal investigations of ASF outbreaks in South

Africa are therefore necessary to analyze the clustering of outbreaks statistically and

quantitatively over space and time.

Furthermore, according to (Penrith, M. L. et al., 2022), it has been one hundred years

since Montgomery published the first study on African swine fever (ASF) in 1921. Without a

vaccine, insufficient prevention and control methods, and a lack of shared commitment to

eradicate the disease, ASF has established itself as one of the most destructive diseases due to its

severe sanitary and socioeconomic implications. The disease's fast expansion across Europe and

Asia, as well as its recent emergence in the Caribbean, puts all countries at risk due to global

trade. ASF has also expanded in prevalence on the African continent during the last few decades,

spreading far beyond the area occupied by the ancient sylvatic cycle, with its intricate

epidemiological transmission paths involving virus reservoirs in ticks and wild African Suidae.

Both in that region and elsewhere, effective virus transmission by infected domestic pigs and

virus resistance in infected animal products and fomites suggest that human-driven variables
along the pig value chain are the primary impediments to preventing, controlling, and eradicating

the disease.

Additionally, control attempts in Africa are hampered by a lack of data on the number

and location of the rapidly expanding pig population, particularly in the dynamic smallholder

sector, which accounts for up to 90% of pig production in the continent. A vaccination that is

both inexpensive and effective against the virus's various genotypes is not a near-term

possibility. As a result, a strategy for managing ASF in Sub-Saharan Africa is required to give a

road map for the continent's future. This review examines the evolution of ASF and our

understanding of it over a century in Africa, our present understanding of ASF, and what needs

to be done moving forward to better the African situation and contribute to worldwide prevention

and control.

Likewise, according to (Yoo, D. et al., 2020), African swine fever (ASF), which is caused

by the ASF virus, a member of the Asfarviridae family, is one of the most serious illnesses

affecting the swine sector, both clinically and economically. Since the initial report of ASF over

a century ago, a wealth of information has become available, yet prevention and treatment

strategies remain insufficient. Worldwide, two rounds of epizootic epidemics have occurred.

While the first wave of the epidemic was contained in the majority of afflicted areas, the second

wave is currently active across Europe and Asia, wreaking havoc on the pig business. There are

distinct patterns of outbreak transmission between outbreaks in European and Asian countries.

ASF is extremely difficult to prevent and control due to a lack of accessible vaccines and

efficient therapeutic methods. Recent outbreaks in South Korea, on the other hand, have been

successfully contained on swine farms, but feral pigs are occasionally found to be infected with

the ASF virus.

 As such, we would like to share our experience with the development and

implementation of control mechanisms. The effectiveness of South Korea's ASF control program

is largely attributable to increased awareness and education of swine farmers and practitioners,

early discovery of infected animals, the government's application of tight control policies, and

widespread information exchange among stakeholders. This review summarizes current

knowledge on the ASF virus and its pathogenic processes, epidemiology, and control, based on

experience gathered during the South Korean epidemics.

Moreover, African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most serious transboundary pig

illnesses, according to (Bora, M. et al., 2020). ASF was found in domestic pigs in India for the

first time in 2020, following outbreaks in two northeastern states, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.

Eleven ASF outbreaks in various places killed over 3700 pigs and damaged the economies of

both states' small-scale livestock owners. In light of India's first outbreak of ASF, a general risk

assessment approach was developed to identify potential risk variables that could favor the

disease's future occurrence. We analyzed host population density, farming practices, the

availability of biological vectors and wildlife reservoirs, epidemiological cycles, and

international trade in order to assess the plausibility of future ASF outbreaks and the likelihood

of establishing endemism in the Indian context. We observed that the indicated risk variables for

ASFV transmission remain well retained in the Indian topography and may participate in future

outbreaks, thereby disseminating the illness to neighboring nations.

Due to the lack of an ASF vaccination, this region's domestic and wild pigs (wild boars

and endangered pygmy hog’s native to India) are constantly at risk of infection. For the

foreseeable future, this region will have to rely on preventive measures to avert the devastation

that outbreaks can inflict. The numerous adaptive control mechanisms for mitigating the dangers
associated with ASF transmission have been outlined, with an emphasis on Indian settings. The

risk-analysis methodology proposed in this study will contribute to a better understanding of

disease transmission patterns and will aid in the development of control methods and associated

measures to mitigate the catastrophic consequences of ASF disease.

On the other hand, (Dixon, L. et al., 2020) state that African swine fever is a lethal

disease that can kill almost all infected pigs. African swine fever's continued spread from Africa

to Europe and, more recently, to China and other high–pig production countries in Southeast

Asia jeopardizes world pork production and food security. African swine fever is a novel

complex DNA virus that is unrelated to existing viruses. This has complicated the creation of

vaccines, and none are currently available. In East and South Africa, the virus is particularly well

adapted to replicate in its hosts during the sylvatic cycle. Its spread to other regions, each with its

own unique wildlife hosts, climatic conditions, and pig production methods, has revealed

unanticipated epidemic scenarios and unique control issues. In this section, we discuss the

epidemiology of African swine fever in these various circumstances and the control techniques

adopted. Additionally, we address advances toward vaccine development and research goals for

better understanding and control of this complex disease.

Additionally, (Nguyen-Thi, T. et al., 2021) stated that the 2019 African swine fever

(ASF) outbreaks in Vietnam had a significant impact on the pig sector, resulting in the death or

culling of nearly six million pigs, or more than 20% of the country's pig population. To

determine the outbreak's magnitude at the sector level (farm and value chain), on livelihoods, and

on the broader national economy, a comprehensive impact assessment was conducted using a

mixed methods approach that combined a value chain analysis with the use of quantitative

modeling tools at the sector and national levels. The outbreak resulted in significant direct and
indirect economic losses for farmers, particularly medium- and large-scale farmers whose

livelihoods are heavily reliant on pig production. Other value chain participants were also

impacted by the outbreaks, as the volume of pigs exchanged was halved.

At the sector level, the outbreaks had a detrimental effect on domestic pork supply and

demand, particularly in the traditional industry. Meanwhile, the modern sector, which has a

greater level of biosecurity and is experiencing rapid technological innovation, was less likely to

be damaged by the outbreak and even profited from it, as indicated by increasing supply and

income throughout the simulation period. At the national level, various model simulations

indicated a significant decline in total gross domestic product (GDP) and a significant loss of

jobs. Improvements to the ASF compensation system are required, both in terms of

administration and targeting, with a stronger emphasis on building improved risk sharing and

funding systems between national and local levels.

Furthermore, African swine fever (ASF) was detected for the first time in Romania in

July 2017 in a backyard holding in Satu-Mare County, according to (Ardelean, F. et al, 2021).

Since then, over 3800 outbreaks have occurred around the country. In the backyard sector,

disease control techniques are virtually entirely reactive, conducted in response to the

presentation of clinical indications and laboratory confirmation of ASF. The infection course and

outbreak investigation data from 56 afflicted backyard holdings in Satu-Mare County were

analyzed in our descriptive study. Clinical signs-based early illness identification appeared to be

effective. ASF was found in the majority of outbreaks during the first two weeks after the virus

was estimated to have been introduced. A clinical phase lasting between two and eight days was

noted before infected pigs died or control measures were implemented on afflicted farms. On-

farm transmission of ASF virus between pigs was observed to be modest. Four clusters of
outbreaks were detected, demonstrating that the virus is capable of propagating and spreading

from farm to farm. To halt infection chains, prompt isolation of concerned farms in conjunction

with appropriate biosecurity measures is necessary. However, due to the idiosyncrasies of the

backyard, implementing control measures quickly and effectively has proven to be quite

difficult.

By then, according to (Polaek, V. et al., 2021), African swine fever (ASF) is a viral

infection that affects farmed pigs and wild boars and is currently a big danger to the global swine

industry. Due to the lack of a viable vaccine, disease control is now based on biosecurity

measures in pig production, quick diagnosis, and eradication of affected herds. As a result, this

swine illness has significant socioeconomic consequences at the national or even regional level.

ASF was first found in the domestic swine population (backyards) in Serbia's central area in

2019. Since then, there have been continuous outbreaks of new cases in both domestic and wild

boar populations. When it comes to the domestic pig population, ASF was discovered in the

majority of cases in small holdings and backyards. Biosecurity measures are not required by

veterinary regulation and are just recommended.

On the other hand, it is not always practicable to adopt biosecurity measures considered

necessary for sustainable pig production in older industrial pig operations. Nowadays, in 2021, it

has become clear that the domestic pig cycle, human activities involving pigs, or meat products

obtained from pigs are the primary drivers of viral transmission. Additionally, human activities

frequently constitute a perilous link between domestic pigs and wild boars, either directly or

indirectly. Traditional, cultural, and political factors, as well as the fact that legislators refused to

identify ASF as a major issue causing significant economic losses, were determined to be

significant impediments to disease prevention.

 Additionally, according to (Lui, Y. et al., 2021), African swine fever (ASF) is a fatal

disease that affects both farmed and wild pigs. Since the first outbreak of ASF in August 2018 in

China, the disease has expanded at an unprecedented rate throughout the country, wreaking

havoc on the pig and allied industries. As a result, illness management measures are critical. This

article highlights three critical features of African swine fever virus (ASFV) transmission,

including infection sources, transmission channels, and susceptible animals. It summarizes the

pertinent prevention and control techniques, with a particular emphasis on the advancement of

research into ASFV vaccinations, anti-ASFV medications, ASFV-resistant pigs, effective

disinfection, and pig farm biosecurity. We next discussed the crucial technical aspects of pig

farm repopulation, which is critical to the pork business. We intend to give not just a scientific

foundation, but also practical techniques for effectively combating the ASF outbreak and

reviving pig industry.

Nevertheless, according to (Biondi, V. et al., 2022), African Swine Fever (ASF) is a

highly contagious viral disease of farmed and wild pigs that the World Organization for Animal

Health has classified as notifiable (OIE). It results in significant economic losses for pig farming

in affected nations, as well as tremendous harm to livestock output due to animal mortality and

the resulting restrictions on national and international trade in pigs and derivative goods. To

avoid or minimize the danger of ASF introduction, the World Trade Organization (WTO) and

the OIE advocate preventive and control measures such as a prohibition on the trade of live

swine and their products from ASF-affected countries or zones to ASF-free nations or zones.

As proven by reported cases in various EU regions, the present expansion of ASF

throughout Europe poses a major risk to the industrialized and small-scale pig sectors. The

authors of this research analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ASF, as well as the
indirect consequences on animal health and disease management. They imply that the COVID-

19 pandemic has had a significant impact on animal disease surveillance and control. ASF

requires rapid reaction and ongoing monitoring to detect and contain outbreaks, and both of these

requirements may have been significantly lowered during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Related Studies

On a study conducted by (Ouma et al., 2018), discover that pig production in Uganda's

peri-urban smallholder value chains is severely constrained by disease, particularly African

swine fever (ASF), and the economic consequences of an inefficient pig value chain. Biosecurity

interventions aimed at containing ASF disease outbreaks and pig business hub models aimed at

connecting smallholder farmers to pig markets have the potential to alleviate the constraints.

However, there is a dearth of evidence regarding the interventions' effects on performance and

outcome distribution along the pig value chain. The impact of interventions in peri-urban pig

value chains in Masaka district was assessed ex-ante using a System Dynamics model. Although

biosecurity interventions reduce ASF outbreaks, they also result in a 6.3 percent reduction in

farmer profit margins per year, but a more than 7% increase in other value chain actors' profit

margins. The intervention in the pig business hub alone results in positive margins for all value

chain actors but has a negligible effect on ASF outbreaks. When biosecurity and pig business

hub interventions are combined, the interaction effects result in positive outcomes for both ASF

control and farmer margins. Farmers may therefore be reluctant to adopt biosecurity practices to

control ASF outbreaks unless there is a financial incentive to offset the high costs. This has

implications for policymakers and developing institutions in terms of facilitating cost sharing

arrangements between chain actors and/or third-party subsidy to incentivize producers to adopt

biosecurity measures.
 According to (Busch et al., (2021), African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most serious

diseases threatening the global pig farming industry. Prevention, control, and eradication

continue to be difficult, even more so in the absence of an effective vaccine or cure and despite

the pathogen's relatively low contagiousness in comparison to Classical Swine Fever or Foot and

Mouth disease, for example. Generally fatal to pigs and wild boar, this transboundary viral

animal disease has the potential to significantly disrupt global trade and jeopardize food security.

This article discusses the critical nature of a disease-specific legal framework based on the most

recent scientific evidence for improving ASF control. It compares the legal frameworks

governing ASF control in a variety of pig-producing regions worldwide, considering diverse

production systems and current scientific evidence regarding ASF spread and control. We argue

that blanket policies that ignore disease-relevant characteristics of a biological agent and the

specific conditions under which the host species is maintained can impede disease control efforts

and prove disproportionate.

Furthermore (Muhangi et al., 2014) finds that Uganda has the region's largest pig

industry, with the majority of farmers remaining smallholders. African swine fever (ASF) is

arguably one of the region's most serious constraints, as it is endemic. While the sylvatic cycle

exists here, the pig-pig transmission cycle is more significant. The pig value chain is one critical

area that requires investigation to determine its role in the spread of ASF. On 101 pig farms in

Uganda, this study examined various practices and their association with ASF transmission

within and between farms. In the districts of Kabarole, Mityana, Moyo, Mukono, Soroti, and

Tororo, 30 traders in pigs and pig products (slaughter slab, pork butchery, and roasted pork

restaurant operators) were investigated. Between May and November 2011, key informant

interviews with District Veterinary Officers (DVOs) about pig trade, pig slaughter infrastructure,
ASF status and management in the districts were also conducted. Both pig farmers and traders

completed questionnaires. 26% of farmers reported having had the disease on their farm in the

previous year. Although none of the risk factors for ASF outbreaks were statistically significant,

the results indicated the presence of potential risk factors for ASF on farms and throughout the

pig value chain.

According to (Asambe et al., 2019), this study reviews sanitation practices at piggeries in

Benue State, Nigeria, with the objective of identifying risk factors for African swine disease.

Questionnaires were delivered to 74 respondents who were piggery owners and attendants in 12

local government areas to collect data for this study (LGAs). Sanitary conditions in piggeries

were frequently deemed bad, despite respondents' admission of awareness of ASF. According to

the report, pigs in Benue State continue to be at risk of contracting ASF. Proper sanitation and

hygiene practices in piggeries are encouraged and emphasized, and routine surveillance for

African swine fever virus antibodies in pigs in Benue State is strongly recommended in order to

establish a reliable reference database for planning for the prevention of any devastating ASF

outbreak.

As reported by (Berends et al., 2021), small-scale pig farming is crucial to households'

economic and social well-being in Timor-Leste. Timor-Leste verified the presence of an African

Swine Fever (ASF) epidemic in 2019, a cause for concern considering that around 70% of

agricultural families farm pigs. This research developed a concept model through a virtual spatial

group modeling technique in order to acquire a better understanding of the primary feedback

loops driving the ASF outbreak's socioeconomic and livelihood implications. Following a

discussion of the concept model's interaction of reinforcing and balancing feedback loops,

several intervention areas for minimizing ASF's effects in socioeconomic realms are presented.
These include building confidence between small-scale farmers and veterinary technicians,

boosting government veterinary services, and providing finance contingent on biosecurity

investments to aid in the industry's restocking. This conceptual model serves as a platform for

future research and development of a quantitative system dynamics (SD) model capable of

performing ex-ante scenario testing on various policy and technical mitigation solutions for ASF

outbreaks in Timor-Leste and worldwide.

As stated in the study of (Smith et al., 2019) in September 2019, Timor-Leste, where pigs

are kept by more than 70 percent of households, became the eleventh Asian country to report

African Swine Fever (ASF). Drawing on our recent, as-yet unpublished research we show that

while national pork consumption is low, pigs hold tremendous monetary value for smallholders

within the economy of ceremonies. Given the sums of money paid for live pigs, the value of the

national pig herd is around USD160 million – more than USD1000 per pig keeping household.

Accordingly, to (Smith et al., 2019), pigs serve to buffer families against shocks and pressures,

especially for health and education expenses. While not a zoonosis, the potential for ASF to lead

to significant, negative impacts for smallholder farmers in Timor-Leste - some of the world’s

most vulnerable people - cannot be underestimated. We argue that Timor-Leste faces significant

challenges in responding to ASF and there is a strong case for international support.

In line with the study of (Abel et al., (2020), education about pig farming has been

recognized as a critical method for transferring knowledge and improving production among

smallholder pig producers in rural settings, but its effectiveness in a variety of rural settings

remains unknown. To determine the effectiveness of pig farming education, a community-based

intervention trial was conducted with smallholder pig farmers. The study surveyed 90

smallholder pig farmers from six villages in Mozambique's Tete province between May 2014
and May 2016. As an illustration the baseline questionnaire revealed that majority of farmers had

a general understanding of African swine fever (ASF) transmission (55.1 percent) and prevention

(48.9 percent), porcine cysticercosis (PC) transmission (8.2 percent), and field diagnosis (36.7

percent), but were unaware of PC's zoonotic potential or basic husbandry procedures for pigs

kept in permanent confinement.

In addition (Chilundo et al., 2020) finds out in his study, that 49 of the 90 enrolled

farmers participated in pig farming education, allowing for a comparison of trained (54%) and

untrained (46%) pig farmers. The conclusion is that, despite increased knowledge, farmers failed

to implement several recommendations, most likely due to poverty-related factors such as a lack

of basic resources such as food and water, which even the farmers lacked for daily survival.

According to (Léopold et al., (2019), controlling African swine fever (ASF) in Eastern,

Central, and Southern Africa (ECSA) is particularly challenging due to the presence of all three

known epidemiological cycles of virus maintenance, namely an ancient sylvatic cycle involving

natural hosts and vectors of the disease, as well as domestic cycles with and without natural

vectors. Despite the unfavorable ASF situation, the sub-pig region's population has grown

exponentially in recent decades and is likely to continue to do so because of rapid urbanization

and the resulting increased demand for animal protein by populations that are no longer engaged

in livestock production. There is currently no vaccine available, and it is likely that the sub-

region will continue to rely on preventive measures based on the disease's epidemiology soon to

avoid both the devastating losses associated with outbreaks and the risk of the sub-region poses

to other parts of Africa and the world.

Furthermore, the study conducted by (Garcia et al., 2020), cited that pig production is one

of the largest livestock activities in the agricultural sector. However, swine diseases such as
African Swine Fever, or ASF, have resulted in high mortality rates and harmed hog farmers'

production and livelihood. ASF is a fatal pig disease that has wiped out the global pig

population. Due to the lack of a cure or vaccine for this type of disease, zoning is one way to

contain and prevent the virus's spread. Its primary goal was to isolate the infected neighborhood

or city and impose trading restrictions in order to implement necessary mitigation controls. This

work developed a Matlab algorithm that can be used in the government's 1-7-10 zoning process.

The generated output was compared to publicly available zoning data to determine the

algorithm's accuracy.

In accordance with the study conducted by (Weaver et al., 2020) states, that the

introduction and spread of African swine fever (ASF) in the People's Republic of China (PRC)

and throughout much of Southeast Asia demonstrates the region's economic and trade

importance of animal diseases. The PRC raises approximately 50% of the world's pigs, a $128

billion industry. The industry is a critical component of the national economy, providing

employment and food security for a large portion of the population.

To aid policymakers in determining the magnitude of the impact, this article used a

deterministic analysis and approach for estimating the disease's direct costs. The findings

indicate that ASF directly costs the PRC and neighboring countries between $55 billion and $130

billion. $28–46 billion was attributed to initial losses due to disease and culling, $4–7 billion to

the cost of replacement breeding animals, and $23–77 billion in revenue lost. However, if the

disease had been contained successfully in Liaoning Province, the initial losses would have been

between $3.6 billion and $5.2 billion. The disease burden is disproportionately falling on

smallholders — for whom pig farming is frequently a critical livelihood mechanism and safety
net — both in absolute terms and per pig, threatening to exacerbate poverty, vulnerability, and

food insecurity.

Comparatively, African Swine Fever (ASF) epidemic demonstrates the epidemic's

massive economic and human costs, as well as the potential costs of future animal disease

outbreaks. Regional investment in infrastructure, capacity building, and policy is critical to

reducing the likelihood and cost of current and future animal diseases and zoonosis. Additional

research is required to better inform national and regional decision-making, as well as direct

investments in the prevention, monitoring, and control of animal and zoonotic diseases.

According to (Munzhelele et al., 2017), male respondents were significantly more likely

to be involved in small-scale pig farming than female respondents. Furthermore, this result is

consistent with the findings of (Mekuriaw et al., 2014), who found that the vast majority of pig

keepers in the study area were males (86.7 percent), with a relatively low proportion of females

(13.3 percent).

Nonetheless, (Falculan 2021) stated that those aged 46-50 demonstrated an extraordinary

level of interest and enterprise in this venture when compared to those aged 21-45. This study,

however, contradicts (Asmare etal., 2014), findings that the majority of respondents were

between the ages of 21 and 39. This age range corresponds to individuals who are currently

employed and thus includes those who have relocated to a peri-urban area in search of non-farm

employment opportunities. The advantage of children and adolescents participating in livestock

activities is that they are more receptive to novel methods and applications. Additionally,

(Acollador et al., 2021) indicated that married individuals are more concerned with increasing

the income of their family. Meanwhile, (Mekuriaw et al., 2014) discovered that approximately

80% of pig keepers in the study area can read and write at a high school or college level. Besides
this, it is nearly identical to (Simangaliso et al., 2021) finding that approximately 45.8 percent of

respondents completed high school. This indicates that the respondents have a high level of

literacy. If a farmer has a higher level of education, more appropriate agricultural practices may

be easier to implement.

On the other hand, (Perey 2017) demonstrate that the majority of respondents are

members of an organization, implying that farmers may benefit from improved access to

veterinary services, production and marketing information, and feed and feed ingredient supply

through organization membership. Contrary to (Bernardes et al., 2020) findings, 9.10 percent are

members of a swine raising organization. In contrast to (Simangaliso et al., 2021) findings, this

study demonstrates that respondents with less than ten years of pig farming experience

comprised 82.2 percent, while 16.8 percent had between ten and twenty years of experience.

On the contrary, (Yona et al., 2021) discovered that farmers kept the majority of cross pig

breeds (49.8%), and the most common method of pig keeping was confinement, in which pigs

were kept permanently in their pig pens. In comparison, (Uddin and Osasogie 2016) discovered

that Nigerian farmers stocked their farms with a greater proportion of large white breeds.

Additionally, (Simangaliso et al., 2021), the use of large white breeds is technically justified, as

they are extremely prolific, disease resistant, and frequently used to improve indigenous breeds.

Correspondingly, a study conducted by (Armenia et al., 2016) demonstrates that the large white

breed is adapted to its environment. They attest that when this breed is properly fed and

managed, it achieves maximum productivity.

Nonetheless, this is consistent with the study conducted by (D'Croz et al., 2018), which

stated that his response compensates for approximately half of the losses in China, resulting in a

global production reduction of only 5–18Mt (4–16 percent) as a result of ASF spread. Besides
that, a study conducted by (Weaver and Habib 2020) indicates that this will have a detrimental

effect on many people's food security, especially given the enormous number of smallholder

households that have lost a significant source of income as a result of the disease.

Furthermore, (Bernardes and Pea 2020) stated that those who responded with knowledge

of ASF were also accurate in their responses about the cause, existence, and participation in an

ASF seminar, whereas those who responded with ignorance of ASF had not attended any ASF

seminar or were unaware of its presence in the Philippines.

Likewise, (Tao et al., 2020) reported that as of August 3, 2019, China had documented

151 ASF clusters of outbreaks, resulting in significant economic losses for the industry, pig

farmers, and pork manufacturers due to the lack of an effective vaccine. Thus, according to the

study conducted by (Meilin et al., 2020), since ASF spread to China's mainland provinces and

wreaked havoc on the country's hog industry (USDA, 2019). By August 2019, the hog

population had decreased by 40.5 percent, from 320.8 million to 190.9 million, while the sow

population had decreased by 39.3 percent, from 31.3 million to 19.0 million.

In comparison, a study conducted by Reuters (Reuters 2018) found that African swine

fever kills nearly all infected pigs but has no effect on humans. However, news of the illness had

a "psychological effect," causing customers to temporarily reduce their pork consumption.

However, similar to (Pan et al., 2019), our estimates indicate that China's pork consumption has

decreased by 10% to 15% year to date, owing to concerns about food safety. Consumption

changes at a significantly different rate across distribution channels. Furthermore, they believe

that pork consumption has been low in China due to consumer and processor concerns about

food safety.
 As a result of the (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization UNFAO 2019)

research, the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs estimated that the number of live

pigs in China decreased by 39% between August 2018 and August 2019, following a full year of

ASF infections.

On the other hand, according to a study conducted by (Woonwong et al., 2020), the

impact of increased feed ingredient prices on livestock production costs will be felt by livestock

producers, as feed expenses account for 60%–70% of pig production costs. Thus, cost is a

significant factor when comparing small-scale farms to large-scale farms, as the ability to

coordinate feed supply operations supplying retailers, as well as the opportunity cost of labor and

medicine, favor large operations. Besides this, the author (Calba et al., 2015) stated that the

implications were not widely accepted due to regulatory requirements that had to be

implemented on the farm (i.e., animals had to be confined), which resulted in increased feed

costs.

According to the study (Mulumba-Mfumu et al., 2019), outbreaks could not be attributed

to warthog interaction and that the likely source was the movement of sick pigs from Busia near

the Ugandan border to a Nairobi butcher. Furthermore, according to (Blome et al., 2019), ASFV

had a death rate of between 3% and 100%, depending on the severity of the virus strain.

Meanwhile, (Schulz et al., 2019) discovered that ASFV isolates vary significantly in their

virulence and associated mortality values (from less than 20 percent to 100 percent). A study

using a large number of moderately virulent ASF virus isolates revealed that almost all strains

used caused moderate mortality. As a result, mortality rates decrease, but remain between 30%

and 70%. However, one study (Mur et al., 2016) found that not all infected pigs in the Iberian
Peninsula die of the disease. Certain pigs contract the disease but survive infection, establishing a

carrier status that undoubtedly contributes significantly to the disease's spread.

Gradually, the virus becomes relatively stable in infected pig excretions, pig carcasses,

and some pig meat products, including fresh pig flesh, according to (Beltran-Alcrudo, 2008). As

a result, there is no risk associated with consuming foods derived from diseased animals. Direct

contact between humans and diseased animals poses few risks as well. Despite the significant

impact of African Swine Fever on our local hog industry and the fact that ASF poses a low risk

to human health (Organisation Internationale de la Santé Animale, OIE, 2018). On the other

hand, in early 2015 (Thoromo et al., 2016), outbreaks of a hemorrhagic disease similar to ASF

were reported in Zambia's Northwestern, Copperbelt, and Lusaka provinces, killing a large

number of domestic pigs.

According to a study conducted by (Pan et al., 2019), the consequences could affect not

only pork consumption and producer profits, but also feed markets, demand for pig alternatives

or substitutes, and consumer diets in areas directly or indirectly affected by the disease.

According to the data, as the effects of a pork product shortage became apparent, customers

sought out cheaper or alternative food sources, including animal species. This resulted in overall

price increases for food and an increase in food insecurity. Similar dietary changes, as stated

(Mason-D'Croz et al., 2020), could potentially contribute to food insecurity in these regions.

Subsequently, according to a study conducted by (Yun, 2020), pork prices fluctuated due

to market forces over the last decade. However, China's ASF outbreak had a significant impact

on pork price fluctuations. Due to China's growing demand for pork, managing the transportation

of live pigs and pig products between regions is extremely difficult. Pork prices in China
increased 47 percent in August 2019. Likewise, (Rabobank, 2019) forecasted that pork prices

could increase significantly more.

Whereas (Bellini et al., 2016) drivers and their vehicles transporting pigs to pig farms,

markets, or slaughterhouses, delivering feed, or collecting carcasses pose a substantial risk of

disease transmission. However, the findings indicate that transporting pigs to market is not

difficult for hog raisers, unless the LGU's criteria for delivering pigs are met. On the other hand,

(Chenais et al., 2017) reported that meat was transported to the headquarters of non-

governmental organizations (NGO) for storage, sale, or consumption following slaughter.

Thus, the statement demonstrates the critical nature of biosecurity for commercial and

small-scale pig production in order to prevent the entry and spread of African swine fever virus.

Farms with insufficient biosecurity are more likely to introduce the ASF virus. Where

biosecurity, quarantine, and disinfection are compromised at any point along the supply chain,

there is a significant risk of ASF virus spreading rapidly and over great distances, as mentioned

by (Baker et al., 2011).

According to several study conducted by (Baker et al., 2011), hog raisers should discuss

with their veterinarian the protocols to be followed during the isolation and acclimatization of

replacement gilts and boars. Regardless of whether a pig producer purchases replacement

animals from the same genetic supplier and health monitoring program, isolation facilities and

programs should be in place. Given the fact that the incubation period for various disease agents

varies considerably and replacements may exhibit no symptoms of illness for an extended period

of time, it is critical that these replacements remain in quarantine until test results and

observation provide reasonable assurance that they are healthy.

 Secondly, according to (Ge, X. et al., 2022), African swine fever (ASF) has wreaked

havoc on the pig farming business, transforming it into a major animal disease epidemic. The

study examines the effect of epidemic experience on post-outbreak production recovery from

resilience and risk perception using data from 340 micro-surveys in the provinces of Sichuan,

Henan, and Shandong. Epidemic experience has been found to have a favorable effect on the

extent of post-outbreak production recovery, and farmers who have survived epidemics are more

likely to recover their production following outbreaks. The mechanistic analysis reveals that

previous epidemics of African swine flu shocks can significantly strengthen farmers' cognitive

resilience and managerial skill, accelerate recovery, and minimize risk perception following

production recovery. To address endogenous difficulties such as selection bias, missing

variables, and bidirectional causality.

This article employs factor analysis to thoroughly evaluate production recovery capability

and perceptions of production risk, and then conducts robustness tests using propensity score

matching (PSM), the instrumental variable technique, and replacement measurement approaches.

The empirical study demonstrates that the epidemic experience will aid farmers' recovery

following the outbreak; the epidemic experience will have a major impact on the recovery of

production following the outbreak for both free-range and professional farmers.

However, (Ogweng, P. et al., 2021) state that proper biosecurity implementation is now

the only effective control approach for African swine fever (ASF) in the absence of a viable

vaccine or treatment against the disease. Despite Uganda's local and central governments' efforts

to eradicate livestock diseases, ASF outbreaks continue to occur in the country. The purpose of

this study was to determine the efficacy of community-led measures in controlling ASF in

Mukono District, central Uganda. In Mukono district, a community-led pilot initiative was
launched in which stakeholders in the pig value chain formed an ASF control task force to

enforce on-farm and pig value chain activities aimed at containing ASF spread.

Semi-structured interviews with pig farmers (n = 211) were performed in two regions

with differing practices: one with active community-led and monitored ASF management

initiatives since 2016 (Kasawo and Namuganga), and one without such an initiative (Mpunge

and Ntenjeru). Following the adoption of community-led measures, a significant drop in the

annual frequency of ASF outbreaks was found (Wilcoxon ranked sign test: Z = 5.412, p = 0.000)

in both Kasawo and Namuganga sub-counties. The level of implementation of the majority of

ASF control measures was considerably greater (p 0.01) in sub-counties with community-led

ASF control efforts than in control sub-counties. The findings of this study illustrate the

effectiveness of community-led initiatives in lowering outbreaks of ASF disease in endemic

locations.

Furthermore, according to (Qui, N. et al., 2021), the study was conducted to determine

the factors affecting the information sources and communication channels used by pig farmers in

Tra Vinh Province, Vietnam, to access information about African Swine Fever (ASF), as well as

to ascertain pig farmers' perceptions of the ASF epidemic. The survey collected data from 150

pig producers using questionnaires and evaluated it using a multivariate logistic regression

model. The respondents were pig farmers who had been affected by the ASF outbreak for at least

one year and were involved in rearing or trading pigs or other value chain activities.

The results indicated that gender, pig herd size, informal education, and formal education

all had an effect on the decision to use government extension workers as their primary

information resource (p0.01), whereas only gender and education had an effect on the decision to

use farming visits as their primary communication channel (p0.01). When farmers have access to
ASF information, they can anticipate and contain outbreaks. The study concluded that

sociodemographic factors influenced the information sources chosen, but only gender and formal

education had an effect on communication channels. Additionally, when pig farmers accessed

information sources and communication channels, they were aware of basic knowledge

concerning ASF.

On the other side, African swine fever (ASF) is a highly lethal disease of pigs, according

to (Mutua, F. et al., 2021). It is a concern to the pig business since it reduces productivity and

adversely affects livelihoods. ASF is incurable and no vaccination against it has been discovered.

Outbreaks continue to occur in Africa and Asia, where the pig value chain's structure (farm,

market, and slaughter methods) along with risky conduct by actors contribute to the virus'

persistence in pig populations. The relevance of these elements in the disease's epidemiology is

discussed, with a particular emphasis on smallholder pig systems in Africa. Biosecurity at the

farm level is stressed, as are the variables influencing its adoption. Socio-cultural issues and

policy gaps in disease control are crucial and should not be overlooked. Gender and equity are

critical issues that should be addressed in conversations about how to improve the sector. The

findings are likely to help outline intervention priorities for increasing pig production (as these

regions wait for the vaccine to be developed).

Likewise, in this study (Thompson, R. 2021), investigate why a number of smallholder

pig farmers in central Uganda choose not to apply veterinarian-recommended biosecurity

measures. I use the infectious disease African swine fever to demonstrate how biosecurity

measures designed to reduce the risk of disease inadvertently limited farmers' and their families'

future earnings on pigs. I utilize ethnographic research from Mukono, an area in central Uganda,

to demonstrate how farmers regarded pigs as "fast money"—a form of household wealth that
could be generated quickly and easily liquidated. They argue that farmers' perceptions of their

pigs as a distinct form of wealth influenced how they integrated pigs into their lives and houses.

They finish this piece by urging a reassessment of biosecurity measures as a universal answer for

disease management on farms, based on the stories of smallholder farmers. Rather than

establishing protocols that isolate species, They believe that disease prevention techniques

should take into account how diverse livestock animals get integrated into farmers' lifestyles and

how this influences farmers' disease management practices.

Moreover, according to (Wang, L. et al., 2022), the initial outbreak, high mortality, and

broad range of influence of African swine fever in China have an effect on the stable

development of the Chinese pig market and industry. The only way to foster the growth of the

modern pig breeding sector and secure people's livelihoods is for pig farmers to adopt the

appropriate risk aversion behavior. Examining pig farmers' epidemic risk aversion behavior and

the elements that influence it can help farmers improve their ability to resist hazards and increase

the efficiency and production level of pig breeding. Using pig farmers in three northeastern

provinces as the survey object, this article analyzes pig farmers' willingness to take epidemic

prevention and control measures using multivariate ordered logistic and multiple logistic models

and discusses the major factors influencing pig farmers' epidemic risk avoidance behavior.

The study discovered that factors such as pig breeding scale, knowledge of pig insurance

and epidemic prevention and control, risk tolerance, and so on can all have a substantial impact

on pig farmers' willingness to pursue epidemic prevention and control measures. Education,

specialty, and breeding prospect evaluation all have a major impact on pig farmers' choice of

epidemic risk aversion behavior.