International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021 1

Review
A Review of Clean-Label Approaches to Chilli Paste Processing

Faathirah Jamaluddin,1 Mohd Adzahan Noranizan,2* Ezzat Mohamad Azman,2 Azizah Mohamad,3
Noor Liyana Yusof2 & Alifdalino Sulaiman4
1 Faculty of Economics and Muamalat (FEM), Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM), Nilai Negeri Sembilan, 71800, Malaysia
2 Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
3 Food Biotechnology Research Centre, Agro-Biotechnology Institute (ABI), National Institutes of Biotechnology Malaysia (NIBM), CO
MARDI Headquarters, Serdang Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
4 Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang Selangor, 43400, Malaysia
(Received 11 May 2021; Accepted in revised form 2 August 2021)

Summary Consumer demand for clean-label food products is increasing. Moreover, the production of ready-to-cook
products have begun to include clean-label efforts. Dried chilli, the raw material for chilli paste, is suscep-
tible to contaminants such as mould dirt and pesticides that must be removed to maintain the safety and
quality of products. In this review, trends related to processes involved in chilli paste production are high-
lighted. Improvements in preservation technology and the potential for using a clean-label approach to
produce premium-quality chilli pastes were explored. Ultrasound washing and high-pressure processing
could be combined as part of a hurdle technique for processing chilli pastes that align with consumer val-
ues. Ultrasound washing disinfects and removes dirt pesticides and chemical residues present on dried
chillies. High-pressure treatments inactivate microorganisms and enzymes, which could extend the shelf-
life of chilli pastes. Additionally, organic acid and garlic can be used as natural preservatives to improve
the formulation without using artificial ingredients. This clean-label concept can be integrated into the
hurdle strategy to produce chilli paste that fulfils the consumer demand for a safe, naturally nutritional
product with an extended shelf-life.
Keywords Chilli, clean-label, high-pressure processing, non-thermal, safe food, ultrasound washing.

Chilli pastes produced on a cottage-industry scale

Introduction
Chilli (Capsicum annum) is a popular fruit with a pro-
gressively increasing global consumption. Approxi-
mately 400 000 tonnes of chilli consumption was
recorded in 2015, and China and India were the main
consuming countries (Olatunji & Afolayan, 2018).
Malaysia imports 62% of chilli from other countries
owing to increasing demand and production costs
(Liyana, 2020). Chilli is used in various forms such as
dried, wet, smoked, whole, sliced, cubed, pureed
(pastes) and extracts, and it is added to several dishes,
including soups, stews and main dishes. Being a rich
source of minerals, vitamins, carotenoids, flavonoids
and capsaicinoids (Rosa et al., 2002), the dietary
intake of chilli is associated with health benefits such
as reducing the risk of hypertension (Olatunji & Afo-
layan, 2018; Shi et al., 2018), obesity (Janssens et al.,
2013; Tremblay et al., 2016) and mortality (Lv et al.,
2015).
*Correspondent: E-mail: noraadzahan@upm.edu.my
have low microbial counts, and the number of bacte-
rial colonies in the products are usually within safe
levels (Sharif et al., 2019). However, if the environ-
mental condition is not properly managed during pro-
cessing, it offers ample opportunity for contamination
by microbes at pre-and post-harvest as well as during
production, distribution, retailing, or usage (De Boer
et al., 1985; McKee, 1995; Leisner et al., 1999; Man-
deel, 2005). Dried chilli, the raw material for chilli
pastes, is susceptible to mould formation. Spoilage
moulds are often a direct consequence of open storage
conditions or storage on bare ground or in gunny bags
(Mandeel, 2005). For instance, mycotoxin contamina-
tion levels were significantly higher in dried chillies
purchased from the open markets than those obtained
from supermarkets (Jalili & Jinap, 2012). Open mar-
kets often have dusty and humid conditions, whereas
supermarkets have cooler environment owing to air-
conditioning. The primary microflora in paprika and
chilli products include Salmonella spp., Escherichia

doi:10.1111/ijfs.15293
© 2021 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).
2 Clean Label Chilli Paste Review F. Jamaluddin et al.
coli, Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis,
Clostridium, Staphylococcus aureus, yeasts and moulds
(Munasiri et al., 1987; Candlish et al., 2001).
Owing to their susceptibility to mould spoilage,
commercial chilli pastes are usually cooked or heated.
However, heat-resistant microorganisms such as M.
maritypicum are able to survive heating in chilli pastes
(Zaini et al., 2010). Heated chilli pastes are also usu-
ally darker in colour (Sobhi et al., 2012). These disad-
vantages result in an increased use of preservatives
and colourants. Benzoic acid and its salt are com-
monly used in the food industry as essential preserva-
tives to prevent the growth of bacteria, yeasts and
fungi in acidic media (Chipley, 2005; Qi et al., 2009).
The widespread use of benzoic acid is attributed to its
effectiveness, low price, ease of incorporation in prod-
ucts, invisibility and low toxicity (Chipley, 2005; Zaini
et al., 2010). As an alternative to heating, food addi-
tives are often added to extend the shelf-life of chilli
pastes. However, some products in the market have
been found to contain more preservatives than the
approved limits of 1000 mg kg 1. For instance, 60%
of commercial chilli pastes sampled from the Malay-
sian market contained benzoic acid over the permitted
level (Zaini et al., 2010).
To overcome the challenges involved in the misuse
of preservatives and additives in chilli pastes, the
integration of hurdle technology using the clean-label
principles can be implemented. The clean-label move-
ment is the biggest trend of the decade in packaged
and prepared foods (Shelke, 2020). In this movement,
consumers are interested in the production methods
and components of the food products that they eat,
and some production methods are perceived as less
‘natural’, whereas some artificial additives are consid-
ered ‘unhealthy’ (Asioli et al., 2017). Our objectives
are to discuss trends related to (1) processes involved
in the making of chilli paste products, (2) improve-
ments in preservation technology and safety and (3)
using a clean-label approach to produce premium-
quality chilli pastes. This review covers the processing
of chilli pastes as a semi-convenient ingredient typi-
cally used in Asian dishes. The term ‘chilli paste’ in
this study refers to ‘chilli boh’ prepared from dried
red chillies.
Chilli paste as a semi-convenient food product
Chilli paste is a perishable semi-convenient food com-
modity typically made from boiling dried chilli that
has been ground in water (Zaini et al., 2010). Semi-
convenient food products are semi-processed foods
that require little additional preparation before con-
sumption (Okrent & Aylin, 2016). The advantage is
that consumers do not need to produce food from
scratch. The preparation of semi-convenient chilli
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021
pastes vary amongst cultures depending on culinary
customs and the types of peppers available in the
region. However, chilli pastes are staple ingredients in
several households across Asia (Nigam et al., 2015).
They are also considered to be a heritage food in
many Southeast Asian countries, especially in Malay-
sia, Singapore and Thailand (Nadia Sarina et al.,
2010).
The most basic form of chilli paste, known as ‘chilli
boh’, in Malaysia is cooked with either fresh or dried
chilli, vinegar, salt and sometimes garlic (Leisner et al.,
1997). Another popular form of paste is called the
chilli-shrimp paste. These pastes are made with chilli
as the main ingredient (Cheok et al., 2017; Karim,
2019). Some products contain secondary ingredients
such as shrimp paste, garlic, ginger, shallot, scallion,
palm sugar and acidic component (e.g., calamansi,
lemon, tamarind, vinegar, and lime juice). The paste is
made using mainly chillies, fermented shrimp paste
and citrus juice (Sobhi et al., 2012; Cheok et al.,
2017). Secondary ingredients often serve the purpose
of improving taste, as well as reducing the pH to aid
preservation. Nadia Sarina et al., (2010) reported that
the preferred pH level was 4.0, and the best source of
acid was calamansi juice.
Demand for chilli
In 2017, 27 000 tonnes of local red chilli were pro-
duced, which accounted for only 37% of the country’s
demand. The remaining 63% had to be imported
(BERNAMA, 2018). The massive use of chilli in
Malaysia is well expressed in the national import value
of RM 154 million; approximately 48 382 tonnes of
chilli are imported per year with a projected consump-
tion of 88 722 metric tonnes (Abdul Hamid, 2017). In
2018, chillies had the highest import dependency ratio
of 73.1% with a value of RM 140.1 million compared
with other vegetables (Department of Statistics, 2020).
However, the Malaysian Department of Statistics
revealed that chilli imports decreased in the months of
January to April 2020 (21 294.4 metric tonnes) com-
pared with the quantity imported in the same months
of 2019 (22 715.5 metric tonnes). This relates to the
COVID-19 pandemic, which has impacted the global
supply chain of import (ASTRO AWANI, 2020).
The food manufacturing industry dominated the
dried chilli usage with 60%–70%, whereas food cater-
ing institutions and household usage were the smaller
players (CBI, 2020). With the manufacturing industry
being the primary user of dried chillies, the importance
of semi-convenient food products (chilli pastes) and
finished products containing chilli pastes is reflected.
These products include seasoning mixes sauces, ready-
to-eat meals, and gravies. Demand from the manufac-
turing sector will continue to rise owing to the existing
© 2021 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).
 Clean Label Chilli Paste Review F. Jamaluddin et al. 3

link between the demand for chillies and the house-
hold consumption of chilli-based products (Joy, 2020).
Recently, the demand for chilli paste has increased
with the success of convenience food industries. Manu-
facturing companies have developed chilli pastes to be
supplied to fast food restaurants (Joy, 2020). This
trend is increasing in Malaysia because major food
brands compete to develop menus with spicy chilli-
based products (BERITA HARIAN, 2020; Kessler,
2020). Even snack items such as crisps and instant
noodles have been developed using chilli with various
Scoville levels. The demand for dry chillies in Europe
has also increased owing to the increasing demand for
spicy dishes worldwide (CBI, 2020).
Production of chilli pastes
There is a considerable amount of literature regarding
methods for the production of chilli pastes with several
variations (Mazlina et al., 2014; Kamal et al., 2019;
Sharif et al., 2019; Babu et al., 2020). There are two
methods of paste preparation, as illustrated in Fig. 1.
Based on the description provided by a chilli paste
manufacturer, a typical method of preparing chilli
paste at home and in small enterprises involves cutting
the crinkly dried chillies into smaller pieces, removing
the pungent seeds and cleaning the cut chilli pieces
thoroughly with clean water. The chillies are then
boiled in water until the texture becomes soft, the
water is drained followed by tossing and cooling of
chillies. The chillies are ground with clean filtered
water before being packed in containers (Karim,
2019). Another method of preparing the paste omits
the boiling step, but incorporates cooking after grind-
ing. Products without preservatives are usually refrig-
erated for storage.
In short, chilli paste is produced and processed by
grinding chilli in a blender (Norhayati & Revathi,
2006) and adding salt and organic acid such as citric
or benzoic acid (Ahmed & Shivhare, 2001; Zaini et al.,
2010). The process comprises two types of operations:
mechanical operation and preservation operation. The
mechanical step involves blending of the chilli pieces
with secondary ingredients, whereas preservation

Dried red chillies

Size reduction (cutting)

De-seeding and de-stalking

METHOD 1 METHOD 2

Washing Washing

Boiling in water until soft

Draining and tossing

Cooling

Grinding with filtered Grinding with filtered

water and secondary water and secondary
ingredients ingredients

Heat treatment

Figure 1 Typical process flow of chilli paste Packaging Packaging

production.

© 2021 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF). International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021
4 Clean Label Chilli Paste Review F. Jamaluddin et al.
involves cooking liquefied chilli paste (Mazlina et al.,
2014).
Conventional pasteurisation or sterilisation is often
used to extend the shelf-life of foods. Chilli pastes are
often cooked to reduce their microbial content, as well
as enzyme activity and preserve their quality and
safety. Some recipes require multiple thermal treat-
ments (Mazlina et al., 2014). Heating softens the tex-
ture of chilli pieces before grinding, and evaporation
helps concentrate the ground paste to produce a
preservative effect. Heating also contributes to the fla-
vour of chilli pastes. It reduces the hardness of dried
chillies and thus improves blending efficiency (Mazlina
et al., 2014). However, numerous complications may
occur as heat treatment is given to high-viscosity foods
such as pastes (Cho et al., 2016). Heating chilli pastes
for too long or at high temperatures affects the vita-
min content, antioxidant activity and colour of the
product. The negative effects of heat on the functional
values and content of capsaicinoids are well-
documented (Sobhi et al., 2012; Cheok et al 2017).
Thermal processing is also the most commonly used
process in the food industry that inactivates microor-
ganisms and enzymes, thereby extending the shelf-life
of food products (Ruanma et al., 2010; Pangastuti
et al., 2020). Unfortunately, heating degrades the chilli
colour and capsaicinoid content. Capsaicin is a heat-
sensitive compound that is mainly responsible for the
pungent flavour of chillies. Heating at 80°C for
21.6 min caused significant deterioration of the capsai-
cinoid content of chilli-shrimp paste (Cheok et al.,
2017). Suresh et al. (2007) reported that boiling dried
red pepper at 100°C for up to 20 min or pressure
cooking at 15 psi for 10 min diminished the capsaicin
content by 18%–36%. Other than the pungent flavour
of the chilli paste, its colour is also crucial for con-
sumer preferences. High temperatures cause the devel-
opment of brown pigment in chilli paste via the
Maillard reaction as well as oxidation of ascorbic acid
and phenolic compounds. Alternatively, high-pressure
heating at 600 MPa and 30°C for 20 min was identi-
fied to be optimum for preserving the colour of green-
chilli paste (Apichartsrangkoon et al., 2013).
Use of additives in chilli pastes
Additives are used in several food products to increase
or maintain their nutritional content, preserve product
stability, intensify the taste or desired colour and
maintain the consistency of the product (Inetianbor
et al., 2015). Acidity regulators, antioxidants, colours
and flavour enhancers are commonly used to enhance
or stabilise chilli pastes. Food additives (natural or
synthetic) include any material used in the production,
processing, packing, transport or storage of food
(Kunkel & Barbara, 2004). Food preservatives that
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021
lower the pH of the food to <4.6 create an unfavour-
able environment for these microbes (Inetianbor et al.,
2015). Ascorbic acid, isoascorbate, sodium ascorbate,
sodium benzoate and benzoic acid are common food
preservatives used to prevent the growth of harmful
microbes (FAO/WHO, 2020). Approximately 0.02–
7 g kg 1 of benzoic acid in food products can inhibit
the growth of moulds and yeasts (Tfouni & Toledo,
2002). In the preparation of chilli pastes, benzoic acid
is commonly added to inhibit microbial growth.
Regarding colourants, banned dyes such as Chrysoi-
dine, RhodamineB, Orange II, Sudan I and Sudan IV
have been found in chilli samples (Zhao et al., 2011).
Regulatory bodies such as the United Nations Food
and Agricultural Organization (FAO) and World
Health Organization (WHO) create guidelines for the
safe use of food preservatives. The permissible level of
benzoic acid in food products is <1 g kg 1 (FAO/
WHO, 2020). The Commission Regulation (EU) No
1130/2011 provides a Union List which updates Annex
III of Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 (EC 2012). It
refers to the permitted levels of food additives such as
colourants, enzymes and carriers. The EU regulations
on benzoic acid and benzoates are detailed in Annex
II of Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008. The maximum
permitted levels range from 0.15 to 5 g kg 1
(mg ml 1) depending on the food product. The allow-
able limit varies in different parts of the world and
also relies on the type of products.
Commercial chilli pastes were sampled, and 60% of
the samples were found to exceed the allowable levels
of benzoic acid (Zaini et al., 2010). The motivation for
using excessive amounts of preservatives has not been
reported; however, it is highly likely that it is related
to the presence of heat-resistant microorganisms in the
end products. Excessive use of additives in chilli pastes
may have risks, so it is important that food additives
are used at the specified levels for each food (WHO,
2018). In another study that tested 80 chilli samples,
81.25% were contaminated with ochratoxin A, with
levels ranging from 0.2 to 101.2 ng g 1. The concen-
trations of total aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2) and
ochratoxin A in dried chilli were >10 ng g 1 in 7.5%
and 12% of the samples, respectively (Jalili & Jinap,
2012). Contamination may occur owing to improper
post-harvest handling of dried chillies or high humid-
ity.
The clean-label approach
The clean-label market is rapidly growing. The
consumer-led clean-label trend has steadily attracted
interest amongst consumers and producers (Zemser,
2015). This trend demands that the grower, producer,
supplier, processor, retailer and even the consumer dou-
ble down on responsibly growing, producing,
© 2021 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).

distributing, processing, marketing/educating and con-
suming, without negatively affecting consumer health or
the environment (Shelke, 2020). According to Google
Trends, availability of information on clean-labelling
online gradually increased in 2011 and peaked in 2017
when food manufacturing industries started positively
responding to the demand. This allows food industries
to communicate with consumers that foods were pro-
duced using natural methods or without artificial addi-
tives (Lucov
a et al., 2013; Asioli et al., 2017). The
expectations for clean-label products have progressed
beyond the ingredient statement, and the sustainability
of food products has also become a concern.
In the United States, the clean-label ingredients mar-
ket was valued at $38.8 billion in 2018 and is fore-
casted to reach $64.1 billion by 2026 (SpecPage, 2021).
Common clean-label ingredients include natural colour
(butterfly pea flower hibiscus), natural flavour (fruits
nut), starches, sweeteners and bio-preservatives (spices
herbs chitosan). Clean-label foods typically contain
ingredients that consumers recognise as wholesome
and might use at home. Consumers can evaluate
whether a product is ‘clean’ by examining the front-of-
pack label visuals (naturalness, organic, certification,
or ‘free-from’ claims) or by checking the back-of-pack
label for ingredient list and nutrition facts (Asioli
et al., 2017).
Concerning chilli processing, three tips for produc-
ing a clean-label product from Tetra Pak may be rele-
vant. Producers aiming for clean-label products should
(1) optimise ingredient handling embracing cold stor-
age, (2) manage hygiene practices and (3) review stor-
age and distribution processes (Tetra Pak, 2020). Non-
sanitary conditions during the drying, transport and
storage stages of chilli production could introduce
mycotoxin contamination owing to the presence of
mould. Additional precautions and hygienic controls
should be implemented to prevent mycotoxin contami-
nation. If processing steps are carefully designed and
monitored, then usage of additive and preservative
could be avoided or substituted with natural organic
or non-GMO ingredients, thus satisfying clean-label
requirements. Attempts have been made to utilise nat-
ural ingredients and processing aids in the making of
chilli products for the purpose of preservation. These
attempts include the use of betel leaf extract, organic
acids, black cumin, clove, ginger, essential oils and
dimethyl dicarbonate (Nadia Sarina et al., 2010; Nee-
too and Chen, 2012; Wendy Voon et al., 2014; Kamal
et al., 2019; Babu et al., 2020; Pangastuti et al., 2020;
Chan et al., 2021).
Clean-label-friendly technologies
The clean-label trend has spurred the development of
non-thermal food processing technologies as
© 2021 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).
Clean Label Chilli Paste Review F. Jamaluddin et al. 5
alternatives to conventional heat treatments. Several
technologies were explored in treating chilli products
using non-thermal methods and are summarised in
Table 1. High-pressure processing (HPP) technology is
considered the most successful commercialised non-
thermal technology that can be integrated with existing
food patterns, including fresh food, healthy food and
sustainable food labelling (Huang et al., 2017). HPP
contributed to the success of commercially produced
clean-label coconut water and sausages (Hiperbaric,
2018; Harfmann, 2019). The latter is attributed to the
ability of HPP to eliminate food pathogens and extend
the shelf-life of foods under refrigerated storage. HPP
is characterised by a low processing temperature and
short treatment time that causes minimal changes to
the appearance, flavour, bioactive properties and nutri-
ents in food (Rawson et al., 2011; Birmpa et al., 2013;
Pina-P
erez et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2019). With
respect to trade, the phytosanitary requirements for
exported products were also satisfied using HPP,
which provides a great advantage in terms of shorten-
ing quarantine-related activities because certain coun-
tries accept HPP treatment as a phytosanitary measure
(Hiperbaric, 2020). Through HPP, the activities of
polyphenol oxidase peroxidase and pectin methylester-
ase are partially inhibited and those of polygalactur-
onase and lipoxygenase are completely inhibited
depending on their origin and environment. An addi-
tional advantage of HPP is that it has low energy con-
sumption and low contamination risk, making it
environmentally friendly (Rastogi et al., 2007). Most
importantly, this process effectively enhances the shelf-
life of food products without preservatives and meets
the consumers’ demand for whole and natural food
products.
Regarding chilli products, Apichartsrangkoon et al.
(2013, 2014) reported positive effects of HPP on green-
chilli paste. Desired esters and sulphides were retained
in pressurised products, whereas undesirable volatiles
from the Maillard reaction disappeared after pressuri-
sation. High-pressure-treated salsa and jalapeno are
well-established in the market (Neeto & Chen 2012;
Sido et al., 2017). HPP can also effectively reduce
some types of mycotoxins such as patulin and citrinin
and inhibit spore germination by damaging the cell
membrane (Kalagatur et al., 2018). However, the opti-
mal conditions remain to be determined and may
depend in part on the properties of the food product
(Woldemariam & Emire, 2019). Ochratoxin and afla-
toxin were detected in dried chillies; however, it
remains unknown whether HPP reduces the levels of
these toxins in chilli products. Another factor to con-
sider with regard to the preservation of chilli paste is
the water activity. Several researchers have reported
that in HPP-treated products, low water activity can
be protective for fungal cells, whereas low pH can be
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021
6 Clean Label Chilli Paste Review F. Jamaluddin et al.

Table 1 Treatment of chilli products and scope of research

Product Treatment Scope of research References

Thai green-chilli pastes High pressure Storage stability of volatiles Apichartsrangkoon

Heat treatment (pasteurisation and et al. (2013)
sterilisation) Apichartsrangkoon
et al. (2014)
Green-chilli (powder, Fruits with/out pedicel Preparation and storage quality (moisture content, Babu et al. (2020)
paste) Potassium meta-bisulphite ascorbic acid content, colour, flavour, texture, and
overall acceptability)
Chilli puree Blanching, evaporation Physical properties Norhayati and
Hydrocolloid Revathi (2006)
Chilli paste Blending of raw ingredients and cooking Design development of a unit operation for chilli Mazlina et al.
of liquefied chilli paste, accompanied by paste process (2014)
manual stirring
Chilli paste Retort packaging Chemical and physical characteristics Pangastuti et al.
Citric acid (2020)
Chilli paste Natural preservative (betel leaves extract) Microbial and quality attributes Wendy Voon et al.
(2014)
Chilli-shrimp paste Formulation and process improvement Sensory, coarseness, textural, microbial counts Nadia Sarina et al.
(pounding, milling, grinding) (2010)
Acidulant
Dimethyl dicarbonate (DMDC)
Chilli–shrimp paste Heat treatment Microbial and quality attributes Sobhi et al. (2012)
Chilli-shrimp paste Electron beam irradiation Physicochemical properties and volatile profile Cheok et al. (2017)
Heat treatment
Chilli-shrimp paste Natural preservatives (black cumin, clove, Antibacterial activity Chan et al. (2021)
and ginger essential oils)
Dried red chilli Untreated Aflatoxins, ochratoxin A Jalili and Jinap
(2012)
Green and red chilli Blanching Drying characteristics, physicochemical and Kamal et al. (2019)
powder Soaking in acetic acid solution, Na2S2O5 functional properties
and CaCl2
~ o and Serrano
Jalapen High-pressure Inactivation of Salmonella Neeto and Chen
peppers as ingredients in Acidulants (2012)
Mexican salsa
Gochujang (Korean Heat treatment Microbiological and sensory characteristics during Park et al. (2010)
fermented red pepper c-irradiation storage
paste)
Salsa High pressure Inactivation of murine norovirus and human Sido et al. (2017)
noroviruses
Red pepper Heat treatment (boiling, pressure Capsaicin Suresh et al. (2007)
cooking)

detrimental to fungal survival (Sokołowska et al.,
2013; Buerman et al., 2020). A suitable balance
amongst pH reduction, water activity and process
selection is crucial for HPP treatments. The combina-
tion of water activity, pH, pressure treatment and
refrigeration is vital in achieving clean-label chilli
pastes.
Ionising radiation is another clean-label-friendly
technology. Irradiation at 10 kGy is effective for
decontaminating total bacteria, yeasts and mould in
chilli–shrimp paste whilst maintaining volatile com-
pounds and texture better than thermal treatments.
The volatile profile, as well as phenolic and capsaici-
noid contents, were close to those of freshly prepared
products but with lower microbial counts (Sobhi et al.,
2012; Cheok et al., 2017). The utilisation of fumigants
such as ethylene dibromide, methyl bromide and ethy-
lene oxide for food product, insect disinfestation, and
microbial inactivation has been strictly banned glob-
ally. Thus, the irradiation process has emerged as an
efficient and safe alternative approach that does not
leave any harmful chemical residues (Sharma, 2006).
The combined effect of heating treatment at 100°C for
30 min and c-irradiation at 17.5 kGy significantly
reduced the growth of total bacterial counts and pro-
duced a more desirable colour in Korean-fermented
red pepper paste. Moreover, compared with non-
treated samples, no differences in the sensory

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021 © 2021 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).

acceptability were detected in the treated samples
(Park et al., 2010). The water content in chilli paste
plays a significant role during irradiation. The radi-
olytic products of water such as hydroxyl radicals,
hydrated electrons, hydrogen atoms and peroxides
indirectly interact with biomolecules, primarily DNA,
to strengthen the effects of irradiation (Sharma, 2006).
Whole foods subjected to irradiation must be labelled
as such in the USA and the EU. For example, in the
EU, the label must state either ‘Irradiated’ or ‘treated
with ionising radiation’. The FDA requires that the
label bear the radura symbol, and the phrase ‘treated
with radiation’ or ‘treated by irradiation’ (USFDA,
2002). Although irradiation is a clean-label-friendly
technology, consumers may not accept foods labelled
in this way owing to ignorance or stigma about the
effects of irradiation.
Ultrasound washing is another clean-label approach
because it employs acoustic technology which gener-
ates low heat. This method has been reported to be
an effective preservation strategy (Nicolau-Lape~ na
et al., 2019). Some fruit juice manufacturers wash
fruits and vegetables using ultrasound before juice
production and pasteurisation. Because washing of
dried chillies is a step required in the production of
chilli pastes, ultrasound washing may be adapted.
This is to achieve higher microbial decontamination,
particularly when crinkled dried chillies are used. The
energy coming from cavitation during ultrasound
washing can disinfect and remove dirt pesticides and
chemical residues on vegetables (Bilek & Turantasß,
2013). Detergent and ultrasound washing removed
99% and 84% of pesticides, respectively, whereas
ultrasound washing efficiently preserved the colour,
nutrient content and vegetable structure (Liang et al.,
2012).
The use of HPP combined with other methods has
recently increased in popularity (Putnik et al., 2020).
In this respect, most current research studies are
focussed on US-pulsed electric field (PEF) and HPP
techniques (Bevilacqua et al., 2018). A group of
researchers evaluated the efficacy of HPP for reduc-
ing spoilage fungi in juice through a combination of
various water activity and pH values. Yeasts and fil-
amentous fungi proved relatively sensitive to pres-
sures of ≥450 MPa for 1.5 min or longer. The key is
to ensure that the combined techniques focus on the
applicable hurdles, proper sequence of the treatments
and sufficient intensity of each treatment to achieve
a suitable degree of effectiveness in a gentle manner.
When reducing fungal spoilage risk, HPP products
should be at or above 0.98 and below 4.6 pH and
stored under refrigerated conditions (Buerman et al.,
2020).
To enhance the anti-microbial effects at lower pro-
cessing intensities, non-thermal technology can be
© 2021 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).
Clean Label Chilli Paste Review F. Jamaluddin et al. 7
combined with conventional preservation methods,
anti-microbial agents or other non-thermal treatments
such as combining HPP with lacticin or nisin or PEF
with ultrasonication o-treatment (Ross et al., 2004;
Wang et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2019). Betel leaf
extract (1.75 mg ml 1) was proven efficient in preserv-
ing chilli boh because it has anti-microbial activity
(Wendy Voon et al., 2014). Spices can also reduce
microbial counts in chilli products (Chan et al., 2021).
The practice of ultrasound washing of fruits before
making juices before HPP treatment is well-
established. This is a typical example of how proper
process design in hurdle technology can be used to cre-
ate a clean-label product. Considering the observations
stated above, there is potential for the use of hurdle
technique with HPP combined with US washing and
selective use of secondary ingredients with anti-mould
or anti-microbial and pH-lowering (organic acids) abil-
ities to achieve a clean-label chilli paste. Figure 2
depicts the hurdle approach to achieving a clean-label
chilli paste without the use of heat.
Dried red chillies
Size reduction (cutting)
De-seeding and de-stalking
Ultrasound washing of dried chilli pieces
(intensity and time)
Grinding with filtered water and natural preservatives
(pH and Aw)
Packaging
High pressure treatment
(pressure and time)
Clean label chilli paste
Refrigerated storage and distribution
(temperature)
Figure 2 Hurdle approach to achieving clean-label chilli paste.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021
8 Clean Label Chilli Paste Review F. Jamaluddin et al.
Current challenges and future perspectives
The issue of contamination in dried chillies is some-
times traced back all the way to the harvesting stage.
Until raw material handling in the supply chain is
improved, issues with contamination will persist. Con-
tamination by fungal toxins is a consistent problem in
chilli production and much could be done to reduce
residue levels through farmer education programmes.
Global warming may be an additional factor con-
tributing to this problem.
At the processing stage, there are potential alternative
measures for decontamination such as those discussed
above. However, the application of new processing tech-
niques poses some challenges as well. To develop new
technology, solid investment and financial support are
required. Regarding HPP, the use of a tolling centre
would be a good starting point. There are several HPP
tolling services available in the region, and HPP applica-
tions are growing exponentially (Hiperbaric, 2020).
However, the efficacy of HPP for destroying ochratoxins
and aflatoxins found in chilli paste remains to be investi-
gated. Natural preservatives incorporated into chilli
products must achieve their purpose without negatively
affecting the organoleptic properties of the products.
Some microorganisms, particularly bacterial spores and
enzymes, are highly resistant to non-thermal treatments
such as pressure. In such cases, combination with mild
heat should be considered.
False information spread by ill-informed lifestyle
and food critics have led to some consumers becoming
sceptical and concerned regarding certain clean-label
ingredients (Zemser, 2015). Such misinformation may
result in consumers overlooking the advantages of
ingredients or food processing technologies that benefit
human health and sustainability (Augustin et al.,
2016). When producing a premium product, the price
may be relatively expensive compared with regular
products; however, a higher price point may be well
accepted if marketed to the right group or channel.
Consumers are willing to pay more for premium prod-
ucts, especially if they are educated on the benefits of
the product (Mohd Adzahan et al., 2011). Educating
consumers about regulations and food production pro-
cesses is essential to regain consumers’ trust and accep-
tance of emerging technologies (Frewer et al., 2011).
Moreover, some of these technologies have low green-
house gas emissions, energy consumption and environ-
mental impacts compared with traditional processing
techniques, which is consistent with the UN Sustain-
able Development Goals (Djekic et al., 2018).
Conclusions
Today’s consumers are more curious about food pro-
duction methods and ingredients than the previous
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021
generation. There is consumer demand for organic,
natural and clean-label food products. From the pre-
sent review, it can be concluded that high contamina-
tion of dried chilli during post-harvest processes,
manufacturing, shipping shipment and retailing is the
biggest concern to be addressed in chilli paste produc-
tion. Dirt, mould and pesticide residues are amongst
the contaminants that affect the quality and safety of
chilli paste. Conventional heat treatments such as boil-
ing may be insufficient to inactivate the microflora and
could adversely affect the taste, colour, texture and
nutritional value of chilli paste. Consumers also prefer
products that are free from additives and preserva-
tives. Therefore, we recommend the use of hurdle tech-
nology comprising US washing and HPP to guarantee
the quality and microbial safety of chilli pastes. The
addition of natural anti-microbial agents can be inte-
grated with the hurdle technology whilst maintaining a
clean-label product. Overall, educating the consumers
about food regulations and productions is vital for
promoting these emerging technologies. Thus,
premium-quality clean-label chilli paste can be readily
accepted and commercialised.
Acknowledgement
This work was financially supported by the Universiti
Putra Malaysia under the grant with Project No. GP/
2020/9693500.
Conflict of interest
There are no conflicts of interest to declare.
Ethical approval
Ethics approval was not required for this research.
Author Contributions
Faathirah Jamaluddin: Data curation (supporting);
Project administration (equal); Writing-original draft
(equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). Noranizan
Mohd Adzahan: Conceptualization (lead); Data cura-
tion (equal); Funding acquisition (equal); Project
administration (lead); Supervision (lead); Visualization
(equal); Writing-original draft (lead); Writing-review &
editing (equal). Ezzat Mohamad Azman: Conceptual-
ization (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing-review &
editing (equal). Azizah Mohamad: Visualization
(equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). Noor Liyana
Yusof: Visualization (equal); Writing-review & editing
(equal). Alifdalino Sulaiman: Conceptualization
(equal); Visualization (equal); Writing-review & editing
(equal).
© 2021 Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF).

Peer review
The peer review history for this article is available at
https://publons.com/publon/10.1111/ijfs.15293.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this research.
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International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021