Radio Navigation Stage 1.. 10.12.00

Radio
Navigation
PPL&
CPL & CPL/IR
INTEGRATED STAGE 1
Ground Course
Provided by
Captain Mohammad
Hossein Javidpour
Provided by Captain MH.JAVIDPOUR 1
➢ The word “ navigation ” comes from two Latin words:
Navis, meaning ship, and Ager, meaning to direct or move .
navigation is defined as the process of
directing the movement of a craft from one place to another .
➢ Air navigation then can be defined as the

Science of determining position, location, distance
traveled, and course to a known destination.
➢ Navigation is considered both an art and a science.

science is involved in the development of instruments,
methods and navigational aids, and,
the skillful use of navigation aids and instruments
may be considered an art.
PILOTAGE
“Navigation involving frequent or continuous determination of position or a line
of position relative to geographic points
or
navigation by reference to checkpoints

Dead Reckoning is:
method of determining the position of a plane or ship by making a graph of its
course and speed from a previously known position

Radio navigation
is the application of radio frequencies
to determine a position
on the Earth.

wave
is
a disturbance (an oscillation)
that travels through space and time,
accompanied by the transfer of energy.

Wave Properties

Reflection
involves a change in direction of waves

when they bounce off a barrier.

Refraction
is a change in the direction of waves as

they pass from one medium to another.

diffraction
involves a change in direction of waves as

they pass through an opening or around a barrier
in their path.
Diffraction
is the bending and spreading of waves around an obstacle.
The change in energy
as the wave passes through a layer
is a constant of the material for a given wavelength
and is called its
absorption coefficient.

Radio waves
are a type of electromagnetic radiation
with wavelengths in the
electromagnetic spectrum
longer than infrared light.

To producing
radio waves
we need
AC power

Types of electric current:
Direct Current ( DC )
Alternative Current ( AC )

In alternating current (AC, also ac),
the movement of electric charge periodically reverses direction.
In direct current (DC, also dc), the flow of electric charge
is only in one direction.

Frequency
Number of cycles per seconds

Radio waves travel at the speed of light,
being approximately 300, 000 km/s or 162 000 NM/s.
Wave length :
Distance that a complete cycle will travel

Phase :
The fraction of one wavelength expressed in degrees from 000° to 360°.
Phase difference/shift :
The angular difference between the corresponding points of two cycles of equal
wavelength, which is measurable in degrees .
To determine :
first identify the position of zero phase
on each of the waves, then move in the
positive direction from the chosen point
on the reference wave to measure the
phase angle through which the
reference wave has travelled before
zero phase is reached on the The relationship can
variable wave. also be found mathematically.
Reference – variable = 360° – 90° = 270°
21
Provided by Captain MH.JAVIDPOUR
Modulation
Modulation is the name given to

the process of adding information to a radio wave or
the formatting of radio waves for other purposes.
of the main forms of modulation,
five have application in aviation:
❑ Keyed Modulation
❑ Amplitude Modulation (AM)
❑ Frequency Modulation (FM)
❑ Phase Modulation
❑ Pulse Modulation

KEYED MODULATION
The simplest way to put information onto a carrier wave is
to quite simply interrupt the wave to
give short and long bursts of energy.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
In AM the amplitude of the audio frequency (AF)

modifies the amplitude of the radio frequency

FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)
In FM the amplitude of the AF modifies the frequency of the RF.

RW remains unchanged but AF divided into two band

PHASE MODULATION
In phase modulation the phase of the carrier wave is

modified by the input signal.
PULSE MODULATION
Pulse modulation is used extensively in radar systems
and for data exchange in
Communications systems.

Electrical field
Magnetic field

If a direct electric current (DC)
is passed through a wire then
a magnetic field is generated around the wire
perpendicular to the current flow.

If an alternating electric current (AC)
is passed through the wire then,
because the direction of current flow is changing,
the polarity of the magnetic field will also change,
reversing polarity as the current direction reverses.
an alternating electric current (AC) creates

an electrical (E) field parallel to the wire and
A magnetic (H) field perpendicular to the wire.
Where both a magnetic field and electrical field exist,

the two fields collectively known as
electromagnetic radiation

POLARISATION
The polarization of radio waves is defined as
the plane of the electric field and
is dependent on the plane of the aerial.
A vertical aerial will emit radio waves
with the electrical field in the vertical plane
and hence produce
a vertically polarized wave,
and a horizontal aerial will
produce a horizontally polarized wave.
Vertical Polarization
To receive maximum signal strength
from an incoming radio wave
it is essential the receiving aerial
is in the same plane
as the polarization of the wave.

Circular polarization can be produced in a variety of ways,
one of which is using a
helical antenna,
In circular polarization the electrical (and hence magnetic) field
rotates at the frequency of the radio wave.
The rotation may be right handed or left handed
dependent on the orientation of the aerial array.

Antennae
Antennae or aerials are the means by which
radio energy is radiated and received.
A wave-type transducer for the
process of converting a line AC into
a free electromagnetic wave.
The microwave horn
parabolic reflector
slotted planar array (or flat plate antenna)
loop antenna
are popular antennae

Doppler effect

A received frequency will only be
the same as the transmitted frequency
provided
there is no relative movement
between the receiver and transmitter

the phenomenon that the frequency of an electromagnetic wave
will increase or decrease if
there is relative motion between a transmitter and receiver

a frequency shift (change) occurs which is
proportional to the rate of relative motion.
This change in frequency is known as
the Doppler shift, Doppler effect, or Doppler frequency.

the frequency will increase if
the transmitter and receiver are converging,

and will decrease if they are diverging.

Doppler shift

The VHF signals and higher ,
are transmitted on a line-of-sight basis
and any obstacles like mountains, buildings, terrain features, block
these signals and restrict the reception by the aircraft .
Provided by CAPT JAVIDPOUR 45

Kilo Hertz (kHz) = 10³ Hz = 1 000 Hz
Mega Hertz (MHz) = 10⁶ Hz = 1 000 000 Hz
Giga Hertz (GHz) = 10⁹ Hz = 1 000 000 000 Hz

Not
Line NDB
of
sight NDB
communication
VOR – LOC - communication
Line G/S - DME - communication

of
sight RADAR

The Ionosphere
The ionosphere extends upwards from an altitude of about

60 km to limits of the atmosphere (notionally 1500 km).
Within this region incoming solar radiation at

ultra-violet and shorter wavelengths
interacts with the atoms raising their energy levels and
causing electrons to be ejected from the shells of the atoms.
Since an atom is electrically neutral,
the result is negatively charged electrons and
positively charged particles
known as ions.

levels of ionization depend to:
❑ Temperature
❑ Solar radiation
❑ Latitudes
❑ Altitude
❑ Pressure
❑ Gravitation
❑ Terrestrial magnetism
The ionization is most intense at the center of the layers

decreasing towards the lower and upper edges of the layers.
49
The increase in ionization is not linear but
the ionized particles form into discrete layers.
The characteristics of these layers vary with the levels of ionization.
D-region or D- layer. The lowest layer (average altitude of 75 km).
forms at sunrise and disappears at sunset.
E-layer. (average altitude of 125 km) present 24 hours
its altitude reduces at sunrise and increases after sunset.
F-layer (average altitude of 225 km).
The F-layer splits into two at sunrise and rejoins at sunset,
F1 - layer's altitude reduces at sunrise and increases after sunset.
F2 - layer's altitude increases in summer(may exceeds of 400 km) and reduces in winter.
Winter &Summer
Provided by Captain MH.JAVIDPOUR Winter Day Night Summer Day 50
Around dawn and dusk,
the ionosphere is in a transitional state,
which leads to electrical turbulence.
The result is that around dawn and dusk,
radio navigation and communication systems
using the ionosphere are subject to
excessive interference and disruption.

Surface(Ground Wave
Radio
Wave
Direct wave
Space wave
Sky wave

Surface (ground) wave
follows the surface of the earth between the

transmitter and the receiver
Surface wave propagation exists at frequencies
from about 20 kHz to about 50 MHz
(from the upper end of VLF to the lower end of VHF).
The portion of the wave in contact with the surface of the earth
is retarded causing the wave to bend
round the surface of the earth,
a process known as diffraction.
The range achievable is dependent on:
❑ the frequency,
❑ the surface over which the wave is travelling
❑ the polarization of the wave.
❑ vertical polarization is generally used at these lower
frequencies.
Space wave
The space wave is made up of two paths,
❑ a direct wave
❑ a reflected (sky) wave.
(which are refracted by the earth`s atmosphere)

At frequencies of VHF and above
radio waves start to behave
more like visible light
So the only
atmospheric propagation
at these frequencies is
line of sight.
There is some atmospheric refraction which causes

the radio waves to bend towards the surface of the earth
increasing the range slightly beyond the geometric horizon.
the line of sight range can be calculated using the formula:

Range (NM) = 1.23 x (√HTX + √HRX)
HTX : Transmitter height in feet
HRX : Receiver height in feet
If the radio waves travel across the layer at right angles
they will be retarded, but will maintain a straight path.
with smaller angles
they will be refracted away from the normal as they enter,
then back towards the normal as they exit the layer.
If the radio wave refracts to the (earth) horizontal
before it reaches the center of the layer
then it will continue to refract and
will return to the surface of the earth as sky wave,
this is total internal refraction at the layer.

First returning sky wave
Starting from the vertical at the transmitter,
as the angle between the vertical and the radio wave increases,
an angle will be reached where total internal refraction occurs
and the wave returns to the surface.
the angle (measured from the vertical) at which this occurs is known as the
critical angle.
The distance from the transmitter to the point where the first returning
Sky wave appears at the surface is known as the
skip distance.

From the point where the surface wave is totally
attenuated to the point
where the first returning sky wave appears
there will be no detectable signal, this area is known as
dead space.
Fading :
When a receiver picks up the sky signal and the surface signal,
the signals will interfere with each other causing
the signals to be cancelled out. 58
Relative bearing:
The number of degrees measured clockwise
between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft
and the station.

Magnetic bearing to (MBT) is
Angle between Magnetic NORTH
and
The station
MBT=MH+RB→QDM
MBF=MBT ±180 ͦ →QDR

VHF/UHF
Direction Finder

VHF/UHF Direction Finder
Most ground stations in the aeronautical mobile service

are equipped to take automatic bearings
of an aircraft’s VHF transmissions
{118 (117.975) - 137 MHz, emission code A3E}.
The ground installation comprises
a suitable aerial and a CRT display
The UHF band is used for direction finding
by the military only at present.

VHF Directional Finding
(VDF)
65
Provided by CAPT JAVIDPOUR
USE OF SERVICE
QTE or QDR:
❑ To check true or magnetic tracking from a VDF station.
❑ For enroute position lines. Two stations will be required for a position fix.
QDM
❑ To home to a VDF station.
❑ For let down in cloud using published procedures.
ATC can use VDF as means of identifying aircraft in a radar environment.

CLASSIFICATION OF BEARINGS
The operator assesses the accuracy of the bearings and passes a
classification to the pilot. e.g.
“Your true bearing is 060 , class bravo”.
VDF bearings are classified as follows:
Class A: accurate to within ± 2°
Class B: accurate to within ± 5°
Class C: accurate to within ± 10°
Class D: accurate to > 10°
VDF bearing information will only be given when conditions are satisfactory.
Normally no better than class B bearing will be available.
Let-down service:
QDM procedure - pilot interpreted
QGH procedure - controller interpreted

V
VHF
O
Many courses
R
distance
Very high frequency omnidirectional range

VOR Ground equipment
The ground –based
component of the VOR system is
VOR station
It transmits radio beams,
called Radials,
outwards in any direction
There is an infinite number of radials ,

but we concerned with 360
which numbered clockwise and
starts at magnetic North

VOR
VHF Omni-directional Radio Range
The prefix “omni-” means all,
and an omnidirectional range
is a VHF type of radio navigation system for aircraft which
transmitting ground station
that projects straight line courses (radials)
from the station in all directions.
a VOR ground station broadcasts
a VHF radio composite signal
including the
❑ station's identifier,
❑ voice (if equipped),
❑ and navigation signal.

The course or radials projected from the station
are referenced to magnetic north.
Therefore, a radial is defined as
a line of magnetic bearing
extending outward from the VOR station.
72
From a top view, it can be visualized as being similar to
the spokes from the hub of a wheel.
73
Radial 270º (outbound ) Radial 090º (inbound )
Course 270º Course 270º
Heading 270º Heading 270º

A
Radial 360º Inbound
Course 180º
Heading 180º
A-1
Radial 180º Outbound
Course 180º
Heading 180º
B
Radial crossing R225º
Course 315º
Heading 315º
77
Course information
with no wind condition:
❑ When flying away from the VOR on a given

Radial, Heading and VOR course are the same.
❑ when flying to the VOR station on a given

Radial, Heading and VOR course are reciprocal

Very High Frequency characteristics
High QLTY
Short range
Interference free
Line off sight

VOR airborne equipment
❑ Antenna:
V shape (normally on the vertical stabilizer )
Gathering the waves
❑ Receiver:
200 navigation channels with 50Khz spacing
Processing the waves , Tuning, identification,
Determining the radial
❑ indicator:
displays course information
Basic VOR , RMI , HSI

Type of VOR indicator
1. Basic VOR Indicator

2. Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI )
3. Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI )

Basic VOR Indicator Components
1. Course selector or Omni-bearing selector
allows you to choose a particular radial by
selecting it under the course index.
2. Course Deviation Indicator ( CDI )

shows you whether you are on or
off course
3. TO – FROM Indicator
tells you whether your selected
course will take you to or from the
station
TO - FROM indication
With the course selector properly set,
❑ FROM indication it is shown that the selected

course takes you away from the station,
❑ TO indication it is shown that the selected course

takes you toward the station.

180
360
270
270
270
270
180
130
180

❑ first draw a vertical line, say COURSE ARROW,
and write the desired course at the top of it.
❑ Then draw a horizontal line , this line is called a COURSE BAR,
which runs perpendicular to the COURSE ARROW at the station .
❑ the area above the COURSE BAR is the FROM envelope,
and the area below the COURSE BAR is the TO envelope .
the TO-FROM flag indicator shows the pilot in which
envelope the aircraft is located .
❑ At the 90° either side of selected course ,There is a cone

which leaves two sectors about 20° wide in which
an indeterminate TO-FROM indication is obtained
and is called ambiguous cone ,
when Aircraft crossing the COURSE BAR
will display an OFF indication .
this is the area between the TO and FROM sectors
in which the VOR indicator will show an OFF flag,
because the opposing signals that actuate
the TO-FROM indicator cancel each other and
88
produce an OFF indicationProvided
. by Captain MH.JAVIDPOUR
An example:
if the pilot selects a course of 360° in the OBS,
the TO-FROM indication of the CDI will be the following.
❑FROM for radials 360° ± 80°
if the aircraft is located between
radial 280° and clockwise to 080° ); and,
TO for radials 360° ± 100°
radial 100° and clockwise to 260°),and,
ambiguous for all radials
(between 260° and 280°/ and between 080° and 100°).
❑this leaves two sectors about 20° wide
in which an in determinate
TO-FROM indication is obtained .

OBS
FROM FROM
Ambiguity cone
FROM FROM Course bar
TO TO
TO TO
Course arrow
Radio Magnetic Indicator
(RMI )

Horizontal Situation Indicator
(HSI)

352 360
180 225
TO
FR
93
HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR
HSI
94
270 225
TO
FR
278
270
278
95
HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR
HSI
96
VOR beacons operate within the VHF band ( 30-300 MHz )
between 108.0 to 117.975 MHz as follows :
A ) 108.0 –112.0 MHz ( 40 channels )
which is primarily an ILS band, but,
ICAO has allowed it to be shared with Terminal VORs ( TVOR ).
❑ In this range, the even decimal digits are allocated for VOR
( 108.0, 108.05, 108.20, 108.25, 108.40, …, 111.85 MHZ );
and, the odd decimal digits are allocated for ILS localizer
( 108.1, 108.15, 108.30, 108.35 , … , 111.95 MHZ ) .
B ) 112.0 –117.975 MHz ( 120 channels ) for en-route VOR
( 112.0, 112.05, 112.1, 112.15, … , 117.975 MHz )
The emission characteristics are A9W:
A = main carrier amplitude modulated double side-band.
9 = composite system.
W = combination of telemetry, (telephony) and telegraphy.
VOR advantages:
1.Extreme accuracy :
a course accuracy of ±1°is possible when flying the VOR
2. VOR is not affected by sky waves:
which enables it to be used by day and night, therefore, the accuracy of
VOR is valid at all times .
3.Automatic wind correction :
wind drift is compensated for automatically by flying with reference to
the course deviation indicator ( CDI ) .
4.Freedom from interference :
the VOR transmits in VHF range of 108.00 through 117.975 MHz
and is relatively free from precipitation static and interferences,
which are caused by the storm or other weather phenomena .
4. Many possible courses (720) (Omnidirectional)
VOR disadvantages:
1. Line of sight
2. Errors in mountainous areas
Fly at higher altitude
3. Errors in some RPM settings
Certain propeller settings can cause CDI to fluctuate
as much as 6 degrees
(vary the propeller RPM )

Factors affecting the operational range of VOR beacons.
❖Transmitter Power.
The higher the transmitter power of the VOR beacon,
the greater the range of the VOR signals.
❖Transmitter Elevation and Receiver Height.
The transmitter elevation and receiver altitude will also have an
effect on the operational range of VOR beacon.
The range of VHF signals can be assessed by using the following formula:
Signal Range = 1.25 ( √h1+√h2 ) nautical miles.
where h1 is receiver altitude in feet
and h2 is transmitter elevation in feet
The higher the transmitter power of the VOR beacon,
the greater the range of the VOR signals.
Reception range varies with altitude
Low altitude shorter distance
High altitude greater distance
❑ line of sight Provided by Captain MH.JAVIDPOUR 100
VOR navigation:
1.Tune
2.Identify
3.Monitor

Tune:
enter VOR frequency

into the VOR receiver
with the frequency selector

Identify:
ensure that you have selected right frequency
by the Morse identifier code
or
A station may be identified by :
1.a three letter Morse code
2.a combination of code and
repetitive voice transmission that
gives the name of VOR
When a station is shut down for maintenance ,

it may radiate a T-E-S-T code (- . … - )
or the identifier may be removed
In any case do not use a station for navigation
unless you can identify it.
monitor:
ensure that station is operating properly, and
receive continues reliable navigation signal by:
Selecting the ident feature on the VOR receiver
If you do not hear the identifier,

it may mean that:
❑ Station is not operating , or

❑ you are out of range of the facility.

VOR orientation
Determining your position with respect
to VOR Nav aids is called
VOR orientation

The Cone of Silence or Cone of Ambiguity
Cone of confusion
As the VOR-overhead is approached, the CDI may oscillate rapidly,

and the 'OFF' flag may appear momentarily .
The OFF or NAV or barber pole indication
appears briefly when either:
1. VOR transmitter is off

2. VOR receiver is off
3. you are abeam the station in relation to the selected course
4. the signal is weak (or at cone of confusion)

The most common VOR navigation
you will perform is flying from one station to another,
Using a process called
tracking.
When tracking, you maintain the selected course
by keeping the CDI centered.
To stay on course in a crosswind,
you use a technique called
bracketing,
which involves making a series of corrections
to regain and maintain your desired course.

Bracketing
Bracketing is the craft of getting
and staying on a direct track
to a navigation facility,
by making adjustments for wind drift.
The idea is this:
get on the line and hold a heading.
The wind pushes you off the track.
Pick a heading to get back to the line,
and then split the difference.
Repeat until you find the heading
that holds the CDI steady,
straight up and down.

Tune ,Identify &Monitor:
1-As soon as the VOR is properly tuned, If there is a cross wind, the
CDI deflects either left or right. The CDI should be centered with (To) indication.
2-with a wind from the right , the aircraft drifts to the left of the intended track.
(350° in this example.)
The CDI moves to the right indicates the direction of the desired radial or track.
now, turn the aircraft heading to the right.
As the aircraft returns to the desired track, the CDI slowly returns to center.
118
When centered, a left turn must be made toward the course,
but not to the heading of 350° because
a wind drift correction must be established.
The amount of correction depends upon the
strength of the wind.
If the wind velocity is unknown,
a trial-and-error method
can be used to find the correct heading.
3-Assume, for this example, a 10° correction for
a heading of 360° is maintained.
119
4- While maintaining a heading of 360°,
assume that the CDI begins to move to the left.
This means that the wind correction of 10° is too great
and the aircraft is flying to the right of course.
5- A slight turn to the left should be made to permit the aircraft

to return to the desired radial.
120
6- When the CDI centers, a small wind drift correction of 5°
or a heading correction of 355° should be flown.
If this correction is adequate,
the aircraft remains on the radial.
If not, small variations in heading should be made
to keep the needle centered,
and consequently keep the aircraft on the radial.

VOR orientation
Determining your position with respect
to VOR Nav aids is called
VOR orientation

Full CDI deflection is 20 degrees
( 10 degrees each side -2 degrees per dot )

VOR intercepting
Means flying from one radial to another radial
or change the track (course) by a new and follow the new course
❑ Angle of Intercept
is the angle between the heading of the aircraft (intercept heading)
and desired course. or
the angle you attack ( meet) the desired course.
( 1° to 90° )
❑ Intercept heading:
The heading by which the aircraft proceed to desired course
270
° DC intercept angle
Intercept heading:

250° PC
To intercept a course :
❑ first draw a vertical line, say COURSE ARROW,
and write the desired course at the top of it.
❑ Then draw a horizontal line , this line is called a COURSE BAR,
which runs perpendicular to the COURSE ARROW at the station .
❑ the area above the COURSE BAR is the FROM envelope,
and the area below the COURSE BAR is the TO envelope .
the TO-FROM flag indicator shows the pilot in which
envelope the aircraft is located .
❑ At the 90° either side of selected course ,There is a cone
which leaves two sectors about 20° wide in which
an indeterminate TO-FROM indication is obtained
and is called ambiguous cone ,
when Aircraft crossing the COURSE BAR
will display an OFF indication .
this is the area between the TO and FROM sectors
in which the VOR indicator will show an OFF flag,
because the opposing signals that actuate
the TO-FROM indicator cancel each other and
126
produce an OFF indicationProvided
. by Captain MH.JAVIDPOUR
An example:
if the pilot selects a course of 360° in the OBS,
the TO-FROM indication of the CDI will be the following.
❑FROM for radials 360° ± 80°
radial 280° and clockwise to 080° ); and,
TO for radials 360° ± 100°
radial 100° and clockwise to 260°),and,
ambiguous for all radials
(between 260° and 280°/ and between 080° and 100°).
❑this leaves two sectors about 20° wide
in which an in determinate
TO-FROM indication is obtained .

VOR intercepting
OBS
FROM FROM
Ambiguity cone
FROM FROM Course bar
TO TO
TO TO
Course arrow
VOR intercepting
When selecting an intercept heading
to form an angle of intercept,
consider the following factors:
❑ Degrees from course
❑ Distance from the station
❑ True airspeed and wind (GS)

VOR intercepting
Finding INTERCEPT HDG on VOR indicator :
FROM (outbound) : PC DC ± I A ( 1ᴼ to 90ᴼ ) IH
PC
050
050
.. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .
230
230 OBS
OBS PC
060
..... .....
240
TO (inbound) :DC PC ± I A IH
OBS
( 1ᴼ to 90ᴼ not less than difference between PC & DC )

start from DC Provided by Captain MH.JAVIDPOUR 130
VOR intercepting
INTERCEPTON SEQUENCE :
1. Find intercept HDG
2. Fly to intercept HDG and enter new course to VOR
3. Wait for CDI to be centered
PC
4. Before CDI completely centered , turn to new course HDG
100
100
.... . .... .
280 O
2
B
S 195
150
1 3
.... . .... .
4
150 150
330 O
B
S
.... . .... .

330 O
B
S
VOR intercepting
Outbound intercepting
IA 45˚
PC
240
240 145 190
190 190
.... . .... . .... . .... . .... . .... .

060 O
B
S 010 O
B 010 O
B
S S
VOR intercepting
Inbound intercepting
IA 90˚
PC
060 030 120
060 120 120
.... . .... . .... . .... . .... . .... .
300 O
300 O
240 O
B
B
S
B
S
S

An airplane is on radial 070° of a VOR, HDG is 270° If the OBS is set
to 260°, and the CDI will show:
A) Fly left TO. 070
B) Fly right TO.
C) Fly left FROM. 270
D) Fly right FROM.
260
250
✓ A) Fly left TO. 260

270
.... . .... .
240 O
B
S

Tips on Using the VOR
1 Positively identify the station by its code or
voice identification.
2 Keep in mind that VOR signals are “line-of-sight.”
a weak signal or no signal at all is received ,if
the aircraft is too low or too far from the station.
3 When navigating to a station, determine

the inbound course and use this course.
Fly a heading that will maintain the course.
If the aircraft drifts, fly a heading to re-intercept the course
then apply a correction to compensate for wind drift.
4 If minor needle fluctuations occur,
avoid changing headings immediately.
Wait momentarily to see
If the needle re-centers;
if it does not, then correct.
5 When navigating using the VOR it is important to fly headings

that maintain or re-intercept the course.
Just turning toward the needle will cause
overshooting the radial and flying an S turn
to the left and right of course.

The transmission differences are:
❑The reference signal is FM.
❑The variable phase directional signal is AM.
❑Clockwise rotation
Reverse sensing
When flying (TO) a station, always fly the selected course
with a (TO) indication.
When flying (FROM) a station, always fly the selected course
with a (FROM) indication.
If this is not done,
the action of the course deviation needle is reversed.
To further explain this reverse action,

if the aircraft is flown
toward a station with a (FROM) indication or
away from a station with a (TO) indication
the course deviation needle ( CDI )indicates in
a direction opposite to that which it should indicate.

REVERSE SENSING
When selected course has more than 090 degrees

difference with present HDG
Because the CDI can be centered by aircraft actual course

and its reciprocal
Note : in reverse setting , course , TO or FROM
and CDI act adversely.
090
C:090
09 R:090
H:090 .... . .... .
0 090
270 O
B
S
270
Reverse Sensing : .... . .... .

Heading and selected course
are not in general agreement 090 O
B
S

An aircraft is required to approach a VOR station via the 244°
radial. In order to obtain correct sense indications the deviation
indicator should be set to:
A) 064° with the FROM flag showing.
B) 064° with the TO flag showing.
C) 244° with the FROM flag showing.
D) 244° with the TO flag showing.
B) 064° with the TO flag showing.

VOR accuracy (operational) check
1. VOR test signals
VOR test facilities (VOTs) broadcast the signal for only one
specific radial - 360º
180º - TO indication - CDI center or
360º - FROM indication - CDI center
VOT ± 4ᴼ
2. VOR ground check point
you can taxi your aircraft to a point of (VOR Receiver Check)
and compare your course reading with this reading
maximum course error ± 4ᴼ
3. Designated Airborne VOR check

Checkpoints are usually over easily identifiable terrain or
Man-made features ,
located in the immediate vicinity of airports
maximum course error ± 6ᴼ Provided by Captain MH.JAVIDPOUR
142
VOR accuracy (operational) check
4. Airway check ( Made up check )
VOR airway system accuracy is ± 1ᴼ
so select the airway center line radial ,
then select a prominent terrain feature ,
preferably 20 miles or more from VOR facility.
fly over this point and note the course reading
on the VOR indicator.
maximum course error ± 6ᴼ
5. Dual VOR check on aircraft equipped
with two independent VOR systems,
to accomplish the dual receiver check,
pilot shall tune both VOR receivers to
the same VOR ground facility.
The maximum permissible variation
between the two indicated bearings is 4ᴼ .
Course sensitivity check
In addition to the accuracy checks,
you also can verify the course sensitivity of a VOR indicator .
to do this;
❑First rotate the course selector so the CDI moves from the
center to the last dot on either side .
❑then, note the number of degrees the course changed .
❑a 10° to 12° course selector change should cause
full-scale movement of the CDI .

There are various types of VOR.
A brief description of each type is given below.
❑Broadcast VOR (BVOR).
A Broadcast VOR gives weather and airfield information (ATIS).
❑Doppler VOR.
Doppler VOR is the second generation VOR , providing improved
signal quality
and accuracy over a conventional VOR ( CVOR ) .
The transmission differences are:
❑ The reference signal is AM.
❑ The variable phase directional signal is FM.
❑ Anticlockwise rotation
From the pilot`s point of view,
there is no apparent difference in the use of a CVOR and DVOR .
❑DBVORTAC Combination
❑ Terminal VOR.
A Terminal VOR has low power and is used
at major airfields, usually as a locator for
an Instrument Landing System (ILS).
❑ VOR/DME Co-located VOR and DME

❑ VORTAC. Co-located VOR and TACAN beacons.
TACAN stands for Tactical Air Navigation and is
military equipment fulfilling,
in the civil and general aviation world ,
a similar function to VOR/DME.

Monitoring
❑ Suitable equipment located in the radiation field shall provide

signals for the operation of an automatic monitor.
❑ The monitor shall transmit a warning to a control point,
and either remove the identification and navigation components from the
carrier or cause radiation to cease if any one or a combination
of the following deviations from established conditions arises:
a) a change in excess of 1 degree at the monitor site of the
bearing information transmitted by the VOR;
b) a reduction of 15 % in the modulation components of the radio
frequency signals voltage level at the monitor
of either the subcarrier, or 30 Hz amplitude modulation signals, or both.
❑ Failure of the monitor itself shall transmit a warning to a
control point and either:
a) remove the identification and navigation components from the carrier; or
b) cause radiation to cease.

Classes Of VOR Facilities
VORs are classed according to operational use.

There are three classes:
❑ T (Terminal)
❑ L (Low altitude)
❑ H (High altitude)

VOR Nav aids normal usable altitudes and radius
distances
Class Altitudes Distance
(Miles)
T 1000 —12000' 25
L 1000’ —18000‘ 40
H 1000’ —14500' 40
H between 14,500 and 17,999' 100
H 18,000'—FL 450 130
H FL450 — 60000' 100


Time and distance check from a station
To compute time and distance from a station,
1. Turn the aircraft to place the bearing pointer
on the nearest 90 index.
2. Hack the time and maintain heading.
3. When the bearing pointer has moved 10,
note the elapsed time in seconds and
4. Apply the formulas in the following example
to determine time and distance.

Time in seconds between bearings
= Minutes to station
Degrees of bearing change

10
Ground speed
× Minutes to station = distance from the station
60

Wingtip bearing change 15°
Elapsed time between bearings 8 min
True airspeed 90 kts
Fuel flow 8.6 Gal/hr.
Wind Calm
The time, distance and fuel required to fly the station is:?
A) 48 min - 32 NM - 4.58 Gal
B) 32 min - 48 NM - 4.58 Gal
C) 27 min - 45 NM - 6.50 Gal
D) 48 min - 48 NM - 4.58 Gal
(8x60)
= 32 MINT 90 X 32 ÷ 60 = 48 NM 8.6 X 32 ÷ 60 = 4.58 Gal/hr.
15

❑To determine distance from the selected Radial
Each degree equals 100feet (each dot 200 feet)
for each nautical mile
from the VOR station, so,
an aircraft deviating three dots at 10 N.M from the VOR
is 6000 feet
( approximately one mile ) from the selected radial .
(Each N.M equals approximately 6000ft )
200 × dot/dots × distance
200 × 3 × 10 = 6000

Refer to FIGURE below ,what is the
minimum lateral distance to
intercept R-360° when an aircraft
flying at 30NM station?
A) 0.5 NM
B) 1.5 NM
C) 2.5 NM
D) 3.5 NM
200 × dot/dots × distance

(200 X 3.5 X 30) ÷ 6000 = 3.5 N.M

What is the minimum lateral distance to intercept R-060° when an
aircraft flying on R-052° and DME indicator shows 60NM to
station?
8X100X60= 48000 ÷6000=8 nm
A) 6 NM
B) 7 NM
C) 8 NM
D) 9 NM

Nondirectional Radio Beacon
(NDB)

Nondirectional Radio Beacon
(NDB)
The Nondirectional beacon (NDB) is a

ground-based radio transmitter
that transmits radio signals in all directions.

The Radio Navigation has :
The ground equipment:

Non directional Beacon ( NDB )
The airborne equipment:

Automatic Directional Finding (ADF )

NDB Components
The ground equipment, the NDB, transmits in the frequency range
of 190 to 535 kHz.
Most ADFs will also tune
the AM broadcast band frequencies above the NDB band
(535 to 1750kHz)
However,
these frequencies are not approved for navigation
because stations do not continuously identify themselves,
All transmissions are vertically polarized

and are intended to propagate as ground waves.
Frequency allocation is
190 kHz (upper to LF band)-1750 kHz (lower end of the MF band)

These signals travel both as
❑ ground waves that penetrates obstacles
and as
❑ sky waves that are refracted by the ionosphere
As a result,
❑ LF/MF waves are not limited to line-of-sight
and they can be received at lower altitude, therefore;
❑ the aircraft height is not limiting
for the reception of signals from the NDB .
In accordance with Doc 8168,

a pilot flying an NDB approach must achieve a tracking accuracy
within ±5°of the published approach track.
The following factors will affect the range at which
accurate bearings may be obtained from an NDB:
❑ Frequency:
The lower the frequency, the lower the attenuation of the
surface waves
i.e. the greater the range for the same power output.
❑ Power Output:
The range obtainable is proportional to the square root of
the power transmitted,
e.g. to double the range, the power must be increased
four times.
❑ Protection Range:
Protection Range may also be referred to as Published Range,
Promulgated Range.
The type of NDB will determine the power output and
this will meet the range requirements for that facility.
Before relying on ADF indications,
❑ identify the station:
by listening to the Morse code identifier.
NDB stations are usually

Two or three - letters
or
an alpha-numeric combination.
The identification of an NDB is particularly important,
because the ADF receivers on the aircraft do not have
an (off flag) to warn the pilots
that erroneous bearing information is being received.
therefore,
pilots should continuously monitor the NDB identification
during critical phase of operation .
The aircraft equipment comprises:
❑ A loop aerial
❑ A sense aerial
❑ A control unit
❑ A receiver
❑ A display

The directional antenna (loop)
is a flat device about the size of your hand,
containing loops of wire that receive radio signals more efficiently
in one direction than in others.
You will normally find this antenna mounted on the bottom of the aircraft.

The Nondirectional sense antenna
receives signals with equal efficiency in all directions.
By analyzing the signals from both
the directional antenna and the sense antenna, the ADF receiver
determines the direction to the transmitting station.
to receive a bearing from An ADF

both the loop and sense aerials must receive the signal. 168
Receiver
Control unit

Receiver
For hearing AM tuning

For testing ADF indicator and receiver
Bearing pointer will rotate 90 Beat frequency oscillator :
From the previous indication Making sound signal from
continuous waves for NDB waves
This selector allows you to choose
the ANT mode to identify station, test
or the ADF mode for navigation
Indicator Instruments

Relative Bearing Indicator
Fixed card
Display

Moveable card
Display
RMI Display
The heading read on a standard RMI is
the compass heading.
The RMI does not have deviation dots or a TO-FROM indicator .

Moveable card
RMI
of the bearing indicators for use on ADF,

the most sophisticated one is the RMI .
The ADF needle points
to the NDB ground station
to determine the
relative bearing (RB)
to the transmitting station.

MAGNETIC BEARING FROM :
The bearing outward from the station clockwise align with MN
MAGNETIC BEARING TO:
The bearing from the aircraft
toward station clockwise
RELATIVE BEARING:
Difference between RB:140
aircraft nose and station clockwise
090
RB:090
360 180
MBF270 270
MBt090
N 360
w E 270 090 045

RB:270
s 180 315 135
225
1. Enter HDG into ADF
2. Read MBF by tail of needle and MBTO by needle’s head
3. Imagine your position on MBF by your HDG
200
200
N
290
110
020
RB:090
3
MBF MBTO

300
150
orientation with ADF RMI :

1. find your MBF by needle’s tail
2. Imagine position on MBF by present HDG
270

The indications Of a VOR in an aircraft tracking towards a VOR are
075°(M) with "TO" indication and the CDI needle centered.
A co-located NDB shows 012° relative.
What are the drift and heading in (M)?
A) 12° right; 087°.
B) 12° left; 063°. 075
C) 12° right; 063°.
D) 12° left; 087°. 063
012
12° VOR&NDB
C) 12° right; 063°.

Intercepting Bearings
ADF orientation and tracking procedures
may be applied to intercept a specified
inbound or outbound MB.
To intercept an inbound bearing of 355°
the following steps may be used.

1. Determine your position in relation to the station by
paralleling the desired inbound bearing.
Turn to a heading of 355°.
2.Note whether the station is to the right or left of the nose position.
Determine the number of degrees of needle deflection from the zero
position,
3.and double this amount for the interception angle.
The needle is indicating a 40°RB to the right.

3. Turn the aircraft toward the desired MB,
the number of degrees determined for the interception angle.
Turn right 80° to a heading of 75°.
4. Maintain the interception heading until the needle is deflected

the same number of degrees from the zero position
as the angle of interception
(minus lead appropriate to the rate of bearing change).
5. Turn inbound and continue

with tracking procedures.

PB
080
080
1. Find intercept HDG :

360
DB ± I A ( 1 to 90)
1 FROM : PB
TO : DB PB ±I A (1 to 90)
260
start From DB
360 360
2 2. Turn to intercept HDG and enter new bearing to ADF
3.Wait for needle’ head (to) or needle’s tail (from) to

be near the desired bearing
360
4. Turn to desired bearing HDG before
needle completely reaches to DB
3
5. Enter new HDG to ADF
Intercept HDG :360

045 045
5 4
NProvided by Captain MH.JAVIDPOUR 184

PB
270 270
300 300
270 270
330 330
N

Refer to this figure, which magnetic bearing from will cross if an
aircraft maintain its heading?
A) 210°
B) 220°
C) 230°
D) 240°

Actual QDM: 110°
Actual HDG: 080°
Required QDM: 060°
What should be the first turn to intercept the required QDM?
A) Left HDG 170°.
B) Left HDG 215°.
110
C) Right HDG 150°.
060 150
D) Right HDG 260°.
C) Right HDG 150°.

060
110
150
Homing
A procedure during which you
always keep the nose of the aircraft
pointing directly to the station
is called homing to the station.
The aircraft on any heading

required to keep the needle pointing
directly to the 0°RB position.
During homing
If the magnetic heading decreases,
the aircraft is experiencing right drift
And vise versa

❑Homing on an NDB will in most situations result in frequent
heading changes when approaching the NDB .
❑When an aircraft is homing to a radio beacon while maintaining
a relative bearing of zero ,
if the magnetic heading is decreasing,
the aircraft is experiencing a right drift, and vice versa,
if the magnetic heading increases,
the aircraft is experiencing a left drift .
❑Homing, however, is generally considered poor and
lazy pilot technique since any crosswind will displace
the airplane from the airway assigned and
will require a longer route and range to the station .

An aircraft is inbound to NDB X on the 073° QDR and experiences a drift of 12°L.
A position report is required when crossing the 133° QDR from NDB Y.
If the aircraft is on track, the moveable card ADF indications
at the reporting point will be:
A) Heading: 085°; X Pointer: 073°; Y Pointer: 133°.
B) Heading: 085°; X Pointer: 253°; Y Pointer: 133°.
C) Heading: 265°; X Pointer: 073°; Y Pointer: 313°.
D) Heading: 265°; X Pointer: 253°; Y Pointer: 313°.
265° 073°
NDB Y
12°
313°
NDB X
253°
133°
D) Heading: 265°; X Pointer: 253°; Y Pointer: 313°.

ADF limitation
To obtain maximum use from the ADF,
the pilot should be familiar with the
following L / M frequency
characteristics and limitations :

Twilight Effect
At night, NDB signals
can be refracted by the ionosphere and
return to earth,
leading to ADF needle fluctuations.

Twilight Effect
At night the NDB Indications are not reliable
at distances greater than 70 NM due the night effect.
The (elliptical shape) ionized layers of the atmosphere are:
D-Layer (which is present only by day) E - layer and F-layer.
During the day the L/MF signals
are partially absorbed by the D-layer,
but at night the L/MF signals are free to reach the E and F layers,
the height of the ionosphere changes during
just before and just after sunrise or sunset(dawn/dusk)
Which is in transition
and may cause the ADF pointer to
fluctuate, and loosing the audio signals
which are strong enough to produce
the refraction and reflection of the radio waves.
Twilight Effect
The phenomenon is called night effect
( twilight )
To minimize the effect,
you can
❑ average the fluctuations,
❑ fly a higher altitude,
❑ select a station transmitting on frequencies
lower than 350 kHz
since night effect has
little impact on this
portion of the frequency
range.

Thunderstorm Effect
Thunderstorms have a very powerful discharges

of static electricity across the LF / MF .
these discharges cause bearing error in the ADF,
When in close proximity to an electrical storm,
can cause the ADF needle
will move rapidly to point to the CB.

Thunderstorm/precipitation effect :
Static electricity piled up within clouds with extensive activity such as
CB or TS creates strong and irregular L/M frequency so may affects on
your ADF to show the cloud cell instead of NDB station.
Using BFO mode can be effective to distinguish between CELL or STATION.
Because the cloud waves can not be sound signal by oscillator.
Also in heavy precipitation area static electricity can renders same
clouds effect.in this case exiting from precipitation area can reduce the effect.
TEMP = DEWPOINT
L/M frequency
Discharging static electricity within clouds appears as LIGHTENING and flying
in adjacent to cloud causes the ADF to show discharge location
momentarily.in frequent lightening using ADF is impossible 030

Precipitation Effect
Another problem can be interference from precipitation static,

which is caused by a buildup of static electricity
on an aircraft flying in rain, snow, or clouds.
In severe cases,
the bearing indicator may wander aimlessly,
and
you may not be able to identify the station properly.

Mountain/Terrain Effect
Mountains or other sharply rising portion of the earth`s surface

have the ability to reflect the radio waves and
cause false courses or indications
these errors will increase at low altitude
Solution:
Select high power stations

mountain/terrain effect :
Because of low frequency of NDB’s waves they lay over the obstacles such a
mountain so they have to change their form and results ADF deflection .
Flying higher and using NDBs

with higher power(classification)
can reduce mountain/terrain effect

Shoreline Effect
Radio waves speed up over water due to the reduced absorption of energy
compared to that which occurs over the land,
causing the change in the direction of the radio waves
as they pass from land to water and pull it toward the coast .
Shorelines can refract low frequency radio waves when they cross at small angles
you can minimize this phenomenon by :

❑ Use stations closer to the coast.
❑ Use stations that produce signals crossing the coastline
as close to 90°as possible.
❑ Use higher cruising altitude as the 205
refraction error decreases with altitude. Provided by Captain MH.JAVIDPOUR

Shore line effect :
Happens when an NDB is located next to shore.
Waves speed difference from land to water causes the wave deformation .
This effect exists only within 30 each side of shoreline on the water not over land area.
Avoiding these two area

while using NDB
is the only way to overcome
.
SEA
LAND
Quadrantal error
❑The theoretical Polar Diagram of the loop aerial can be distorted by the
airframe.
❑Incoming radio waves are re-radiated from metallic parts of the airframe
causing an apparent deflection of the signal towards the
aircraft electrical axis (normally fore and aft).
❑signals arriving from ahead of the nose or behind and from
90˚ left/right are not contaminated, but,
maximum errors are experienced on signals arriving from a
Quadrantal direction,
i.e., 045°, 135°, 225° and 315° relative.

To minimise these effects:
❑ Positively identify the NDB call sign.
❑ Continue to check the tuning and the identification.
❑ Avoid use of the equipment within 1 hour of sunrise or sunset.
❑ Use NDBs within their promulgated range which is valid during daytime only.
❑ Treat bearings with caution if the needle wanders and the signal fades.
❑ Cross check NDB bearing information against other navigation aids.

Tips on using ADF
❑The accuracy of ADF within designated operational coverage
(DOC 8168, ) ±5°, therefore, in accordance with DOC 8168
a pilot flying NDB approach, must achieve a track accuracy
within ±5°of the published approach track.
❑When using the ADF by night, the accuracy is less than by day,
because the surface wave is contaminated by the sky waves and the
NDB indications are not reliable at distance greater than 70 NM due
to night effect .
❑For example, if an NDB has a published range of 30 nm,
its accuracy is only guaranteed by day to that range .

Time and distance check from a station
To compute time and distance from a station,
1. turn the aircraft to place the bearing pointer on the nearest 90 index.
2. Hack the time and maintain heading.
3. When the bearing pointer has moved 10, note the elapsed time in seconds
and
4. Apply the formulas in the following example to determine
time and distance.
----------------------------------------- = Minutes to station
Ground speed
-------------------- × Minutes to station = distance from the station
60
other method,
maintain a constant heading and check the time required for
relative bearing to the station doubles
(for example from 15° to 30° in x minutes),
you are x minutes from the station . 210
An aircraft is tracking 060° ( T ) in still air.
The relative bearing of an NDB is035° at 1300 .
12 min later the relative bearing is 070°.
If the G/S is 180 kts,
what is the aircraft's distance from the NDB at 1312 :
A) 18 NM
B) 36 NM
C) 24 NM
D) 30 NM
✓Answer B is correct .

which ADF indication represents the aircraft tracking TO the station
with a right crosswind ?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 4
✓Answer C is correct .

DME
( Distance Measuring Equipment )

DME (emission code P0N)
is a secondary radar system
operating between 962 and 1213MHz in
the UHF band at 1MHz spacing;
this provides 252 spot frequencies or channels.
This facility provides pilot
with an added capability to
course guidance Distance,
which provides a
distance reading
in nautical miles
from a VOR/DME
or VORTAC station .
214
Your aircraft first transmits an interrogation signal to the station,
then, the ground station receives this signal and
transmits a reply back to the aircraft .
The operating principles of a DME is the measurement of the time between the
transmission and reception of the radio waves,
the transponder reply carrier frequency
differs by 63 MHz
from that of the interrogational signals . 215
The airborne DME records the round trip time of this signal exchange and
computes distance value in terms of nautical miles and groundspeed in knots
and provides time to station, which is the time it will take you to reach the
station at the computed groundspeed and are displayed on your cockpit indicator
interrogational signals
reply signals

The groundspeed reading is accurate only
when you are traveling directly to or from the station,
and, flight in any other direction will give you
an unreliable reading .
The airborne DME equipment consists of
a transceiver and a (shark`s fin) antenna
which is usually installed on the underside of the aircraft .
217
DME ( Distance Measuring Equipment )
❑ DME operates on a UHF frequency band of 962—1213MHz
❑ Line of sight
❑ DME range 199NM
❑ DME accuracy one half of one( 0.5) mile or 3% of distance

Whichever is greater .
(A modern DME is inherently accurate to +/- 0.2nm)
❑ DME range= 1.25 x √ aircraft altitude.

Slant range
DME measures slant range distance, not horizontal distance
which is the result of components of horizontal and vertical distance,
therefore, slant range error is not considered significant
if the aircraft is one mile or more from the station
for every 1000 feet of altitude

as a rule :
❑When the slant range exceeds at least 3 times the aircraft altitude,
the difference between slant and true range may be considered negligible.
❑for example, for an aircraft flying at 40000 ft. the difference between
slant and true range will be significant
when at a distance of approximately 20 nm within the a DME station :
( 40000÷ 6058 ft.=6.6 ×3= 19.7 nm )

To compute True Range
True range = √(Slant range²- Aeroplane height²)

Aircraft at 36480 feet
------------------------------ = 6 NM
6080
True range= √ 10² - 6² = √ 100-36 = 8 NM

Slant range error
is greatest
when you are at
high altitude
and
close to the station

DME Identification
When the pilot is using both VOR and DME,

it is important to insure that both systems are working properly.
❑ Most VOR and DME receivers have paired frequencies
and when the pilot tune the VORTAC frequency,
he will automatically receive DME information, and then,
listen for synchronized coded signals or voice identification .
❑ VOR identifier is repeated three or four times
for each DME identifier.
❑ If you hear a single –coded identification for each 30 seconds
It means VOR is inoperative.
❑ The absence of the every 30 seconds ,
indicates the DME is inoperative.

Tactical Air Navigation
( TACAN )
For the reason of special military aircraft operation,

such as, unusual siting conditions, pitching and rolling,
the civil VOR / DME system of air navigation
was considered unsuitable for military use,
therefore, a new navigational system,
TACAN, was developed by the military forces .

❑ The theoretical and principles of operation of TACAN equipment,
as far as the navigating pilot is concerned, is the same .
❑ TACAN operates in the UHF band of
frequencies 1025 – 1150 MHz (126 channels) ,
but its use requires TACAN airborne equipment and does not operate
through conventional VOR equipment.
❑ TACAN is a short range navigation system which supplies
continuous, accurate, slant-range distance and azimuth,
and the station identifier is transmitted at 35-second intervals
in international Morse code .
❑ The TACAN equipment is designed to present range information
up to 195 nautical miles and the accuracy of the DME is
plus or minus 600 feet, plus two tenth percent (0.2%)
of the distance being measured .
With the parameters of compass heading 040°,
distance flown 20 NM, distance to destination 229 NM and distance off course
is 5 NM to the left ?°
what is the compass heading to destination?
A) 35°
B) 24° 229
C) 50° 040° 5
D) 56° 20
DISTANCE FLOWN DISTANCE OFF

( ) = HEADING CHANGE TO PARALLEL
60 x
(5 X60÷20=15°) HEADING CHANGE TO PARALLEL
DISTANCE TO GO DISTANCE OFF
( ) = HEADING CHANGE TO COURSE
60 x
(5 X60÷229=1.31°) HEADING CHANGE TO COURSE
040° + ( 15°+1.31°) =056 °
✓ D) 56°

Area navigation
(RNAV)

An area navigation (RNAV) system
is any system that allows the aircraft
to be navigated to the required level of accuracy
without the requirement to fly directly
over ground based facilities.
RNAV allows aircraft
to take a more direct flight path
appropriate to the route they are flying
A reduction in distance, flight time and fuel (and hence costs)
by giving airlines and pilots
greater flexibility and choice of routes.
and allows you more lateral freedom in navigating,
because it does not require you to track directly to or
from navigation facilities.

TYPES AND LEVELS OF RNAV
There are two types of RNAV:
❑ Basic RNAV (B-RNAV) which is required to give a position accuracy

to within 5 nm on 95% of occasions.
It is now mandatory for all aircraft carrying 30 passengers or more
to have B-RNAV capability within Euro-control airspace.
❑ Precision RNAV (P-RNAV) must be accurate

to within 1.0 nm on 95% of occasions.
P-RNAV routes are now being established in terminal airspace.

There are three levels of RNAV capability:
❑ 2D RNAV which relates to the capabilities in the horizontal plane only.
❑ 3D RNAV indicates the addition of a guidance capability in the vertical plane.
❑ 4D RNAV indicates the addition to 3D RNAV of a timing function.
Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

❑RNP is a concept that applies to navigation performance
within an airspace and is based on the
navigation performance accuracy to be achieved
an airspace . For example,
❑RNP 5 requires a navigation performance accuracy of ± 5NM

both lateral and longitudinal 95 % of the flying time .

An RNAV Route and Waypoints.
Deviations from the desired track as follows :
➢ In Enroute mode, full-scale deflection on the CDI is 5 NM ;
➢In approach mode, full-scale deflection on the CDI is 1 ¼ NM ;
➢In VOR/DME mode, full-scale deflection on the CDI is 10° .

RNAV systems which utilize VOWDME or VORTAC sites are referred to as
VORTAC-based.
VORTAC-based RNAV uses a courseline computer

(CLC)
which permits you to create "phantom stations" for use in navigation.
Basically, the computer relocates, or offsets,
the navigation aid to the desired radial and distance from the original location.
With VOR routes,

you typically travel from facility to facility.
With RNAV capability, you can eliminate the zigzag flight path and fly 234
in a
straight line.
Your courseline computer compares the
angle and distance between your aircraft and the VORTAC
to the angle and distance between the VORTAC and the waypoint.
By doing this,
it knows two sides of a triangle and continuously solves for the third side,
giving you angle and distance information from
your position to the waypoint.
Another desirable RNAV feature is that
you navigate using the VOR indicator.
With RNAV,
the needle deflections still indicate course displacement,
but the deviation scale is in nautical miles and not degrees.
Each dot on the horizontal scale represents a given value,
such as .5 NM or 10 NM
depending on what the manufacturer has set.
the DME will show
the correct distance from you to the waypoint,

LORAN
Long range navigation, or

LORAN,
is a leading navigation system.
The popularity of LORAN is based on its
capabilities, simplicity of operation, and low cost.

The LORAN receiver will get its position information from a
chain of low frequency (LF) transmitters.
The chain transmits a synchronized signal on a frequency of 100 kHz
in the form of ground and sky waves.
Since low frequency ground waves follow the contour of the earth,
the reception range of LORAN signals is great
(often 600 to 1,200 n.m. over land),
and the transmitters can be located several hundred miles apart.
Sky waves are also formed by LORAN signals
but are not considered as reliable for navigation as ground waves.
LORAN OPERATION
In a typical LORAN chain,
one transmitter is the master and two or more others are called
slave or secondary.
The master station transmits a group of coded pulses first, then,
each secondary station transmits at
a specific time interval after the master pulse.
The time interval between one master pulse and the next is referred to as a
group repetition interval (GRI).
A GRI of 9940 means the master station pulses every 99400 micro seconds
(millionths of a second).
The GRI is unique to each chain and, in fact, identifies the chain.
You use the GRI when you select a particular LORAN chain.

For determination of the location ,
LORAN receiver measures the time difference
(TD)
between a master station's signal and that of a secondary
station.
In other words,
how long did it take for the master station's signal to reach you
compared to the secondary signal,
If this time difference were plotted on a chart,
it would produce a line of position
(LOP).

The LORAN receiver automatically calculates your LOP fix,
translates it into latitude and longitude values, and
continuously updates your present position as you travel.
Once the receiver has determined where you are,
you can enter the coordinates of your destination,
as well as other waypoints.
The receiver will calculate the course and distance
to the point you specified,
and continually update this information as
you progress along your flight path.
Most receivers will also give your groundspeed,
as well as distance and time remaining to the destination.

The line of position (LOP) represents
all points with the same time difference
(TD)
between the master and one secondary.
Your position is somewhere on this line.

For the LORAN receiver to pinpoint your location,
a second LOP needs to be determined using another secondary.
Your present position is where the two LOPs intersect.
Types of loran:
1. LORAN A low altitude
2. LORAN B route
3. LORAN C route and approach
LORAN navigation for non-precision approaches requires

accurate and reliable information.
During an approach,
the occurrence of a signal blink or a loss of signal must detected
within 10 seconds,
and the pilot must be notified

The global positioning system
(GPS)
The global positioning system (GPS) is a
space-based radio positioning, navigation,
and time-transfer system.
The GPS constellation of 24 satellites is designed
so that a minimum of five
are always observable by a user anywhere on earth.
The GPS receiver uses data from
a minimum of four satellites
to yield a three-dimensional position
(latitude, longitude and altitude)
and
time solution.
One advantage of the GPS is that
it is free from any affected by electrical disturbances
such as
thunderstorms and precipitation static.
The global positioning system (GPS)

provides horizontal accuracy for civil user of
approximately 328 feet
(100meter )

Thanks
For
Your
Attention

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Radio

➢ Air navigation then can be defined as the

➢ Navigation is considered both an art and a science.

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involves a change in direction of waves

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is a change in the direction of waves as

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involves a change in direction of waves as

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Distance that a complete cycle will travel

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Modulation is the name given to

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In AM the amplitude of the audio frequency (AF)

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In FM the amplitude of the AF modifies the frequency of the RF.

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In phase modulation the phase of the carrier wave is

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an alternating electric current (AC) creates

Where both a magnetic field and electrical field exist,

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slotted planar array (or flat plate antenna)

are popular antennae

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there is relative motion between a transmitter and receiver

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Mega Hertz (MHz) = 10⁶ Hz = 1 000 000 Hz

Giga Hertz (GHz) = 10⁹ Hz = 1 000 000 000 Hz

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VOR – LOC - communication

Line G/S - DME - communication

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The ionosphere extends upwards from an altitude of about

Within this region incoming solar radiation at

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The ionization is most intense at the center of the layers

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follows the surface of the earth between the