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VHF Omni-directional Radio Range

General Description

 The old four-course, LF Radio Range stations were inflexible and subject to
atmospheric noise under crucial bad weather conditions.

 Near the end of WWⅡ, it became obvious that a more effective means was needed to
guide aircraft in flight from point to point.

 By 1940, the CAA (now FAA) had begun the development what is now known as the
standard vhf phase-comparison omni-range; sometimes called merely omni or VOR.

 In 1945, this system was presented to RTCA, and technical standards were discussed.

 Shortly thereafter, the U.S government offered the omni-range system to the world,
and subsequently it was adopted as part of a standard world airway system.

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VHF Omni-directional Radio Range

General Description
 The operation of VOR is analogous to the operation of Light House.

 Frequency Band: 108-118MHz

 VOR gives Azimuth Information;

= Angular Distance, measured in degrees, in a clockwise direction from a reference
point

 Radial: identified by its magnetic bearing outbound from the VOR

MN
 Magnetic North(71º N/96º W)

 VOR/DME – comparison with Road/Signage

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VHF Omni-directional Radio Range
General Description

 VORs are used as ‘En-route’ and ‘Terminal’ facilities.

 The siting of these facilities determine the routing of airways.

 VOR located at, or near, an airport not only provides bearing information for
an approach to that airport, but also provides en-route bearing information to
aircraft over-flying or using the airway on which the VOR is serving.

 The VOR signal can be adversely affected by reflections therefore siting of

VOR is important.

 Since the DVOR will successfully operates at sites where CVOR would be
very inaccurate, the Doppler VOR is installed to minimize the effect of
reflections at affected sites.

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VHF Omni-directional Radio Range

General Description

 VOR is classified into two categories by the method of signal generation;

i.e., CVOR and DVOR

 No difference on the part of users(A/C)

 Ident : two(2) or three(3) letters using Int’l Morse Codes

 Ident Ratio – VOR : DME = 3 : 1

 When flying over a VOR, a loss of signal may be experienced.

- Cone of Ambiguity(Silence, Confusion)
Station Passage

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VHF Omni-directional Radio Range
Typical Coverage of VOR

As the VOR operates in the VHF spectrum, the range of service is limited
to line-of-sight and is therefore considered a short range navaid;
typically 200NM at 35000ft 6
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VHF Omni-directional Radio Range
Reception Range vs. Altitude of VORs

Range within Altitude

VOR Class
(nm) (feet)
Terminal (T) 25 1000 – 12,000
Low Altitude (L) 40 1000 – 18,000
40 1000 – 14,500
High Altitude (H) 100 14,500 – 60,000
130 18,000 – 45,000
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VHF Omni-directional Radio Range
Air Routes of Korean Air Space

The air routes are composed of the VOR stations, which actually appear on the
aeronautical charts as a compass circle centered over the station.

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Light House Analogy
 The basic principle behind the rotating beacon is the relationship between the observer and the
beacon in degrees of azimuth
 Both systems have fixed (reference) signal and rotating (variable) signal
 Light House - fixed white light and rotating green light
- The shielded green light rotates at a fixed speed and can be seen when the observer is directly facing it
- The white light flashes when the green light faces MN and is visible in all directions around the beacon
 VOR - fixed phase 30Hz and variable phase 30Hz signal
- The Ref-phase 30Hz signal is omni-directionally radiated through 360 degrees of azimuth, and its
phase is constant
- The Var-phase 30Hz signal rotates around the station at a speed of 1800 rpm, and varies in phase with
respect to the reference signal
Variable
Green Light

Variable
Green Light
Reference
White

Rotates at 1 rpm
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Light House Analogy

Calculating example point B:

1. Begin stop watch when white light is observed
2. Stop the watch when green light is observed
3. Calculate 6 degrees per second X elapsed time (52”)
60 X 52” = 312 degrees from the beacon

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VHF Omni-directional Radio Range

VOR RX needs two signals for navigation !!

1. A 30Hz signal whose phase is constant regardless of bearing.

(Reference)

2. Another 30Hz signal whose phase varies with bearing from or to the VOR station.
(Variable)

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 Radiation Pattern and Phase Relationship of CVOR
Phase Difference = 0°

Direction of Revolution

Phase Difference = 270°

W E

Phase Difference = 90°

Variable Phase Signal

Reference Phase Signal Radiation Pattern
Radiation Pattern S (CARDIOID)

Variable Phase (AM 30Hz)

Reference Phase (FM 30Hz)

Phase Difference = 180°

VOR : Ref & Var phase relations at compass cardinal points

-At 00 on Magnetic North, the two signals are in-phase each other
-At other points, the phase of Var signal varies while that of Ref signal is
constant
※ This slide will be shown later again!
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VHF Omni-directional Radio Range

MODULATION

VOR uses both amplitude and frequency modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation
- Conventional AM
- Space Modulation

2. Frequency Modulation
- Conventional FM
- Doppler Effect

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1. Amplitude Modulation
Conventional AM Space Modulation (CVOR)

 The amplitude of the carrier (fc) is varied by the

amplitude of the modulating signal (fm)
 The frequency of the carrier remains constant

Depth of Modulation

Modulation % - Depth of Modulation

M = Esm/Ecm or Vmax-Vmin / Vmax+Vmin

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1. Amplitude Modulation
Space Modulation
 Space modulation is a method of creating amplitude modulation by radiating from
two (or more) different transmitters the signals needed to make the amplitude
modulated waveform
 The carrier is radiated from one antenna, while the sidebands are radiated from a
separate antenna
 The total sideband component, radiated separately, will combine with the carrier in
space:
＊ exactly in-phase
＊ 180° out-of-phase
＊ or at some phase angle  (phi)
 The desired combination is that the total sideband component combine precisely in-
phase or 180° out-of-phase
 In space, the two signals would be received by the RX antenna and the waveform
looks just like a normal amplitude modulated signal
※ This method is used to create the VOR signal

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2. Frequency Modulation
Conventional FM

- Instantaneous frequencies are varied by

the
amplitude of modulating signal
- The amplitude of carrier remains constant

※ Deviation Ratio(DR) = ∆f/fm

- proportional to the amplitude change of fm

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2. Frequency Modulation
Frequency Deviation by Doppler Effect
Reference
Phase
1 Signal
0 t
(AM 30Hz)
1/30sec

1 Df

+480Hz
0 t
N
-480Hz
1/30sec
Direction of
D
Revolution =
16 2 Df
4 ´l 2
/ p
W E +480Hz
0 t
-480Hz
1/30sec

S 3 Df

+480Hz
0 t
-480Hz
3 1/30sec

4 Df

+480Hz
0 t
-480Hz
1/30sec

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Frequency Modulation in VOR System

9960Hz(or 10KHz -MARU220 DVOR) subcarrier frequency deviates by ± 480Hz at 30Hz rate.
- CVOR : conventional FM
- DVOR : Doppler Effect
The frequency modulated subcarrier is amplitude modulated on the carrier.

Detected 9960±480Hz

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VOR Composite Signal

Composite waveform as the

result of amplitude and
frequency modulation

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VOR Antenna & Radiation

CVOR : 4-Slot Cylindrical Antenna

• Reference Carrier
• Variable Sideband
- CW rotation of figure 8 pattern

DVOR : Alford Loop Antenna

• Reference Carrier
• Variable Sideband
- CCW rotation of sideband antenna switching

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VOR Antenna & Radiation
Sideband Distribution Systems of CVOR and DVOR

LSBsin
sin
LSBcos

cos USBsin

USBcos

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4-Slot Cylindrical Antenna (WILCOX 585B CVOR)

REFERENCE

Reference Feedline 1800

longer than Sideband
Feedlines

SE SW NW NE

GREEN RED REFERENCE

SIDEBAND SIDEBAND CARRIER
NO.1 NO.2 22
VARIABLE VARIABLE
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VOR Antenna & Radiation

Reference signal is fed to all of the four slots on the

antennas in phase. This provides 4 lobes radiated
from the excited slots and the resultant is an omni-
directional pattern.

SB1

SB2

Two sideband signals are 900 out of audio phase

and are connected to opposite slot pairs.

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VOR Antenna & Radiation

The maximum radiation is now off set from the antenna.

This is caused by the variable signal adding to and subtracting
from the reference signal.
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VOR Antenna & Radiation
The amplitude of sideband lobes repeatedly increases and decreases

Increasing Amplitude of Sideband Lobe Decreasing Amplitude of Sideband Lobe

NW/SE lobes increase while NE/SW lobes decrease, and vice-

versa, causing the resultant figure-of-eight pattern to rotate in
a clockwise direction.

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VOR Antenna & Radiation

+ - + -
Rotating
Figure 8 Pattern

+ - + -

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VOR Antenna & Radiation
4-Loop Antenna (Another type of CVOR
Antenna)

Top View Simplified Schematic Diagram

Four Loop Antenna Array RF Coaxial Bridge & Four Loop Connections

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VOR Antenna & Radiation
4-Loop Antenna (Another type of CVOR
Antenna)

No.1 Antenna Pair and No.1 Antenna Bridge

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VOR Antenna & Radiation
4-Loop Antenna (Another type of CVOR
Antenna)

Ant Pair No.1(Carr) Carr Radiation Pattern

from No.1 Ant Pair

Radiation Pattern from No.1 and

No.2 Pairs and Composite Pattern
Carr Radiation Pattern
Ant Pair No.2(Carr) from No.2 Ant Pair
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VOR Antenna & Radiation
4-Loop Antenna (Another type of CVOR
Antenna)

Circulating Currents of Carr Energy in Individual Antennas

and
the Effective Circulating Current as from a Large Single Antenna

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VOR Antenna & Radiation
4-Loop Antenna (Another type of CVOR
Antenna)

No.1 Antenna Pair(SB1) SB1 Radiation Pattern

SB Generator
Outputs

No.2 Antenna Pair(SB2) SB2 Radiation Pattern

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VOR Antenna & Radiation
Radiation Pattern and Phase Relationship of CVOR
Phase Difference = 0°

Direction of Revolution

Phase Difference = 270°

W E

Phase Difference = 90°

Variable Phase Signal

Reference Phase Signal Radiation Pattern
Radiation Pattern S (CARDIOID)

Variable Phase (AM 30Hz)

Reference Phase (FM 30Hz)

Phase Difference = 180°

VOR : Ref & Var phase relations at compass cardinal points

-At 00 on Magnetic North, the two signals are in-phase each other
-At other points, the phase of Var signal varies while that of Ref signal is constant
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VOR Antenna & Radiation

A B

C D

With receiving point at 00 (Magnetic North), the received signal varies in amplitude as shown.
This amplitude variation is caused by the rotation of limacon pattern.
This variation is detected as a 30Hz AM signal in the VOR receiver.

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VOR Antenna & Radiation

Ref-Var 30Hz phase relation around the CVOR station

A
B

E C

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VOR Antenna & Radiation
VOR Antenna Requirements
Omni-directional Pattern in the Horizontal Plane
 Uniphase Pattern
 Horizontally Polarized
 Efficient Radiator

Pictorial Representation of the Alford Loop Antenna

Disc GND
Capacitor
“S1”

L2

“T” N-Connector
& N-Elbow
BALUN Cable

Open Stub Length

“S2” = L1+L2
L1

20~30m

Open Stub
Cable
Antenna
Feed Cable

Alford Loop Antenna Configuration 35

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VOR Antenna & Radiation

Radiating Element of Alford Loop Radiator

Current Distribution:
► same direction in each face at any instant; either CW or CCW
► maximum at center, and 0.707 of maximum at ends of radiating face

Radiating Face

IMAX
.707 IMAX

1/8  1/8 

1/2 

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VOR Antenna & Radiation
COS
45 47 1 3

3 2 1 48 47
4 46
5 45
6 44 SIN
7 43 USB 44 46 48 2
8 42
9 41
t
10 40
11 39
12 38
13 37
14 36
Carrier Antenna
15 35
16 34 COS
17 33 21 23 25 27
18 32
LSB 19 31 t
20 30
21 29
22 28
23 24 25 26 27
SIN
20 22 24 26

USB/LSBsin and USB/LSBcos signals are each distributed to

t
every other antennas in a counter-clockwise direction.

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1 VOR Antenna &
Radiation

AM and FM Signals Received and Detected by

Aircraft Receivers A, B, C and D

VARIABLE FM
SUBCARRIER

REFERENCE
AM SIGNAL

DETECTED 30HZ
AM REFERENCE

DETECTED 30HZ
FM VARIABLE

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VOR Antenna & Radiation
Ref-Var 30Hz phase relation around the DVOR station

Reference
Phase
1 Signal
0 t
(AM 30Hz)
1/30sec

1 Df

+480Hz
0 t
N
-480Hz
1/30sec
Direction of
D
Revolution =
16 2 Df
4 ´l 2
/ p
W E +480Hz
0 t
-480Hz
1/30sec

S 3 Df

+480Hz
0 t
-480Hz
3 1/30sec

4 Df

+480Hz
0 t
-480Hz
1/30sec
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VOR Antenna & Radiation
Signal Spectrum

AM
Space Modulation
Conventional
FM
CVOR

Conventional
AM

FM
DVOR (Doppler Effect)

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VOR Receiver

1020 Hz
Filter

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1 OBS/CDI

A: Rotating Course Card

B: Omni-Bearing Selector
C: Course Deviation Indicator
D: To/From Indicator

 The OBS allows the desired bearing to be selected and displayed by 3 digits on the
bearing indicator.
 The OBS also provides a TO/FROM indication which shows if the bearing selected is the
heading TO or FROM the VOR facility.
 Provided the aircraft is being flown on the exact bearing as selected on the OBS, the
needle of the deviation indicator will remain at the center.
 When the aircraft is off course, the needle will move either to the left or the right of the
center indicating which direction the aircraft must be flown to get back to the selected
bearing.
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1 OBS/CDI

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OBS/CDI

The VOR indicator can actually provide wrong information if the OBS is not set properly.
This figure shows the confusion that can result.

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OBS/CDI

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OBS/CDI

"The needle is centered, my

flying is perfect"

Nice thought,
but not necessarily!!!

No signal received?
Tuned to wrong frequency?

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Comparison of Ref-Var Phase Relations between CVOR and DVOR
Magnetic North(0˚)

90˚

VOR Station Aircraft A

135˚

Aircraft B

Case A Case B

Ref signal
(FM 30Hz) Ref signal
90˚ 135˚
(FM 30Hz)
CVOR

Var signal Var signal

(AM 30Hz) (AM 30Hz)
Var signal Var signal
(AM
(FM 30Hz) (FM 30Hz)
30Hz)
DVOR
Ref signal
135˚ (AM 30Hz)
90˚ Ref signal
(AM 30Hz)
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Azimuth Error (CVOR)
Magnetic North(0̊)

Direct Wave 90˚

VOR Station Reflected Wave115̊

REF REF

Direct Wave REF

Phase 90˚
Reflected Wave
Phase 115˚ Direct Wave
VAR Course Error

Reflected Wave Vector Sum

VAR

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