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Background

Direction finding was used in the 2nd World War to provide a

homing signal which could be followed by pilots steering the
aircraft until an instrument showed a null position.

The aircraft antenna is rotated until the maximum (or

minimum) signal strength is detected - the orientation of the
antenna, with respect to the airframe, gives a relative bearing
to the station, with respect to the heading of the aircraft.

There are over 30 non-directional (NDBs) in the Malaysia

operating in the frequency band 200 - 1750 KHz

The transmitted signal also contains an amplitude modulated

ident for morse identification (usually three letters)

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The power of the transmitter determines the range:

Power Range
Watts nm

25 15

50 25

50-1000 50

2000+ 75 - 200

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The 25W transmitter is also known as a locator beacon and is
positioned on the approach path at 3-4 nm from the airfield - it
is used during ILS let-down procedures and during the latter
stages of an approach, where it is referred to as the 'outer
marker'

The transmitted signal is vertically polarised and omnidirectional

The lowest transmitted frequency (200 KHz) has a wavelength of

1500m implying an antenna 1500m high - clearly, this is
impractical and a smaller antenna is used with additional L and C
to resonate at the desired frequency but with an efficiency as
low as 5 - 10%.

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The typical ground station antenna is T-shaped;

50m

25m

NDBs generate a ground wave although some energy is

reflected from the ionosphere (particularly at night) causing
errors
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 Loop Antenna
Early systems had a simple loop antenna which could be
manually rotated

If the electric field is vertical, the magnetic field is horizontal

and voltage is induced in the side branches of the antenna by
the phase difference between the two branches
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The path length difference is zero and no output is induced

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The maximum output signal is generated when the plane of
the coil is parallel to the direction of the transmitted signal

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The signal amplitude detected is proportional to cos ф where
ф is the angle of incidence as shown below:

Note the ambiguity at (0,180) and also at (90, 270) - at these

points, the transmitter could be directly in front or directly
behind the receiving antenna
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The radiation pattern of the antenna, as seen from above is as
follows:

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However, adding a radiation pattern of a 'whip' antenna (a
short wire) is not directional - if the two received signals are
added, the resultant pattern is a cardiod given by:
V = Vo + VoCos ф

The resultant pattern eliminates the ambiguity i.e. there is now

only one null
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 Crossed-Loop Antenna

Although a single loop antenna can be rotated by a motor, a

fixed cross-loop antenna is used on aircraft.
A
B

Vout

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The outputs from the two loop antennas are amplified and fed
to two fixed windings to excite a rotating coil

This device is also known as a Goniometer

The antenna loops A and B are aligned to the airframe

Assume the relative bearing to the non directional beacon

(NDB) is ф

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At the search coil

Vout = V1 sinα+ V2 cos α where V1 and V2 are the

voltages applied to the fixed coils and α is the
angular displacement of the rotating coil

V1 = V cosФ from coil B of the loop antenna

V2 = V sinФ from coil A of the loop antenna

 Vout = V cosФ sinα + V sinФ cosα

= V sin (Ф + α)

In effect, the goniometer 'follows' the bearing to the

station and provides a mechanical output that can be fed
directly to an ADF pointer.

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Modern ADFs sample and filter values in each loop of a crossed
- loop antenna.

Assuming the signal magnitude in both coils is identical, the

ratio V sin Ф/ V cos Ф = tan Ф

A non-directional sense antenna is still needed to resolve the

directional ambiguity but, in the case of a crossed-loop
antenna, this is easily determined by comparing the phase of
the sense antenna with the phase of the strongest output of
the two loops - if they are in phase the beacon is ahead,
otherwise it is behind.

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Advantage of the system

ADF has been widely used for navigation in Europe

and is also used in sparse regions of the world
because:
1. it is possible to locate high power transmitters
providing range up to 500 nm

2. the aircraft ADF receiver is simple and relatively

cheap

3. low power transmitters are used in approach

procedures

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Source of errors
ADF is not used for area navigation and is not used in
primary navigation owing to the following errors:

1. Constant errors - calibration of the antenna and the

sense coils
2. Susceptibility to atmospheric and ionosphere noise,
particularly static discharge
3. Reflections from the aircraft structure (particularly
during turns) depending on the siting of the antenna
- these are -known as 'dip' errors
4. Quadrantal errors - there is a variation in received
signal strength according to heading - these errors
are removed by adding components to the antenna
to reduce the effects or by applying a tabular
correction
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 Pros and Cons
Advantages
1. The equipment is relatively cheap - an airborne ADF
receiver comprises an ADF antenna and an AM receiver
driving the display coils
2. There are still numerous NDBs world wide
3. Unlike VOR and DME, ADF is not line-of-sight navigation
Disadvantages
1. The signal varies with time of year and day (ionosphere,
static discharge in clouds, etc.)
2. Errors up to 100 are possible although the ADF needle is
likely to 'wander' for large errors
3. NDBs are being replaced by the increased dependence on
VOR
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 Operational Aspects
The aircraft display is a compass card with one or two
pointers giving the relative bearing to the selected NDB
• The Remote Magnetic Indicator (RMI) is a rotating
compass, which is slaved to the magnetic compass
• On older displays, the card is either fixed (or
manually turned) and is known as a Relative
Bearing Indicator (RBI)

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• To track directly towards the beacon, the needle is at
the top of the display

• To track outbound from a beacon, the needle is at

the bottom of the display

• The needle changes:

• As the relative bearing changes, and
• As the aircraft heading changes

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Examples
In aircraft navigation, headings and radials are given in degrees
magnetic, not degrees true

Intercept the 080 radial to an NDB

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Tracking with a cross wind

045

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1. The aircraft is positioned on the radial, heading
towards the beacon.

2. Having maintained a heading of 045, the aircraft has

drifted - south of the radial, the NDB bearing is 030 i.e.
150 left - of the aircraft heading

3. The aircraft is making an intercept towards the 045

radial, at approximately 450 to the radial - the relative
bearing to the NDB is 020, 100 right of the aircraft
heading

4. The aircraft is again positioned on the radial but now

maintains a heading of 035 to track along the radial,
with a relative bearing of 045

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 Conclusion
• NDBs are widely used for navigation world-wide,
particularly in sparsely populated regions
• An ADF receiver is not line-of-sight
• An aircraft ADF receiver is relatively cheap and simple (AM
detector)
• A crossed-loop antenna provides relative bearing to an
NDB which can driver an RBI or RMI pointer directly
• The use of a sense antenna (whip antenna) resolves
directional ambiguity
• ADF errors are potentially large and unpredictable ADIF is
susceptible to atmospheric and ionospheric noise, multi-
path reflections, time of day and quadrantal errors
• ADF is used for hold patterns, tracking towards or away
from an NDB and to intercept a radial to an NDB 25