SIGNAL CONDITIONAL

PART 2

1
Op-Amp in Non-Linear Applications
INTEGRATOR

If the feedback resistor of the inverting op amp circuit is

replaced by a capacitor, the result is an integrator circuit.

It is shown in figure below.

C iout
- +
Vin R Vout
+
-
Vout
iin
+

2
Referring to the analysis for the inverting amplifier, the
relationship between output voltage and current for a
capacitor:
dVout iout
= (95)
dt C
Integrating gives
t
1
Vout ( t ) = ∫ iout ( τ)dτ (96)
C0
Where τ is a dummy variable of integration.
Since iout = -iin and iin = V/R,
3
 t
1
Vout ( t ) = − ∫
RC 0
Vin ( τ)dτ (97)

Therefore, the output signal is an inverted, scaled integral of

the input signal.
A more practical integrator circuit is shown in figure below.

The resistor R, placed across the feedback capacitor is called

a shunt resistor.

Its purpose is to limit the low-frequency gain of the circuit.

This is necessary because even a small DC offset at the input

would be integrated over time, eventually saturating the op
amp
4
The integrator is useful only when the scaled
integral always remains below the maximum output
voltage for the op amp.
As a good rule of thumb, Rs, should be greater
than 10Rout RS

C iout
- +
Vin R Vout
+
-
Vout
iin
+
R2

5
Because of the impedance and frequency response of the
feedback circuit containing Rs and C.
The circuit in above acts as an integrator only for higher
frequencies.
At low frequencies, the circuit behaves as an inverting
amplifier because the impedance of the feedback loop is
effectively Rs since the impedance of C is large at low
frequencies.

Any DC offset due to the input bias currents is minimized by

R2, which should be chosen to approximate the parallel
combination of the input and shunt resistors:
R1R s
R2 =
R1 + R S (98)
6
The reason for this is that the input bias current flowing into
the inverting terminal is a result of the currents through R1
and Rs and the input bias current flowing into the noninverting
terminal flows through R2.

If the voltages generated by the bias currents are the same,

they have no net effect on the output.

7
DIFFERENTIATOR
If the input resistor of the inverting op amp circuit is
replaced by a capacitor, the result is a differentiator
circuit as shown in figure below.

Vin C
+
-
Vout
+

8
 Referring to the analysis for the inverting amplifier, the
relationship between input voltage and current for a
capacitor is given by;

dVin iin
= (99)
dt C
Since iin = -iout and iout = Vout / R
dVin
Vout = −RC (100)
dt
Therefore, the output signal is an inverted, scaled derivative of
the input signal

Differentiation is a signal processing method that tends to

accentuate the effects of noise whereas integration smoothes
signals over time. 9
Sample and hold circuit
A sample and hold circuit is used extensively in
analog to digital conversion, where a signal value
must be stabilized while it is converted a digital
representation.

-
S Vout
+
+
Vin
C

10
The sample and hold circuit illustrated in figure
above consists of a voltage-holding capacitor and a
voltage follower. With switch S closed,
(101)

Vout ( t ) = Vin ( t )
When the switch is opened, the capacitor C holds the
input voltage corresponding to the last sampled
value.
Since negligible current is drawn by the follower.
Therefore,
(102)
Vout ( t − t sample ) = Vin ( t sample )
11
where tsampled is the time when the switch was last opened.

Often, an op amp buffer is also used on the Vin side of the

switch to minimize current drain from the input voltage source
Vin

The type of capacitor used for this application is important.

A low-leakage capacitor such as a polystyrene or

polypropylene type would be a good choice.

An electrolytic capacitor would be a poor choice because of

its high leakage. This leakage would cause the output voltage
value to drop during the "hold" period.

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COMPARATOR
The comparator circuit illustrated in figure below is
used to determine whether one signal is greater
than another.
The comparator is an example of an op amp
circuit.
-
+ Vout
Vin
+

+
Vref

Comparator
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Where there is no negative feedback and the circuit
exhibits infinite gain.

The result is that the op amp saturates.

Saturation implies that the output remains at its most

positive or most negative output value.

Certain op amps are specifically designed to operate as

comparators. The output of the comparator is defined by
(103)
+ Vsat Vin > Vref
Vout =
− Vsat Vin < Vref

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Where Vsat is the saturation voltage of the comparator and
Vref is the reference voltage to which the input voltage Vin is
being compared.

The positive saturation value is slightly less than the positive

supply voltage, and the negative saturation value is slightly
greater than the negative supply voltage.

Some comparators (e.g., LM339) have open-collector

outputs, where the output states are controlled by an
output transistor operating at cutoff or saturation.

This type of output, illustrated in figure below.

15
It is called an open collector output since the
collector of the output transistor is not connected
internally and requires an external powered circuit,

Vin -
ON/
OFF To external
circuit
Vref +

The output transistor is ON (at saturation) and

the output is effectively grounded when Vin > Vref,
and the output transistor is OFF (at cutoff) and
the output is open circuited when Vin. < Vref,
16
 THE REAL OP AMP
An actual operational amplifier deviates somewhat in
characteristics from an ideal op amp.
The best way to familiarize with an IC is to review its
specifications in the data book provided by the
manufacturer.
Complete descriptions of op amps and many other
analog ICs are found in manufacturers' Linear data
books.
Some of the more important parameters that can be
found on op amp data sheets are described below.

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As the ideal operational amplifier model implies, real
op amps have a very high input impedance, so very
little current is drawn at the inputs.
At the same time, there is very little voltage difference
between the input terminals.
However, the input impedance of a real op amp is not
infinite, and its magnitude is an important terminal
characteristic of the op amp.
Another important terminal characteristic of any real op
amp is the maximum output voltage that can be
obtained from the amplifier.
18
Consider an op amp circuit with a gain of 100 set by the
external resistors in a noninverting amplifier configuration.

For a 1 V input you would expect a 100 V output.

In reality, the maximum voltage output will be about 1.4 V less

than the supply voltage to the op amp for a large load
impedance.

So if a ±15 V supply is being used, the maximum voltage

output would be approximately 13.6 V and the minimum would
be -13.6 V.

19
Two other important characteristics of a real op amp are
associated with a response to a square wave input.

When you apply a square wave input to an amplifier circuit you

ideally would expect a square wave output.

20
However, as illustrated in figure below, the output cannot
change infinitely fast; instead, it exhibits a ramp from one
level to the next.
In order to quantify the op amp step response, two parameters
are defined:
• Slew rate - The maximum time rate of change possible for
the output voltage: ∆V
SR =
∆t
• Rise time -The time required for the output voltage to go
from 10% to 90% of its final value. This parameter is
specified by manufacturers for specific load and input
parameters.

21
Another important characteristic of a real op amp is its
frequency response.

An ideal op amp exhibits infinite bandwidth.

In practice, however, a real op amp has a finite bandwidth,

which is a function of the gain established by external
components.

To quantify this dependence of bandwidth on the gain,

another definition is used: the gain bandwidth product
(GBP).

The GBP of an op amp is the product of the open-loop gain

and the bandwidth at that gain.
22
The GBP is constant over a wide range of frequencies
because, as shown in figure above, typical op amps
exhibit a linear log-log relationship between open-loop
gain and frequency. 23
Note how the op amp's gain decreases with input
signal frequency.

Higher-quality op amps have larger GBPs.

The open-loop gain is a characteristic of the op amp

without feedback.

The closed-loop gain is the overall gain of an op amp

circuit with feedback.

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The closed-loop gain is always limited by the open-loop gain of
the op amp.

For example, a noninverting amplifier with a closed-loop gain of

100 would have a bandwidth of 0 Hz to approximately 10,000 Hz
as illustrated in figure above.

The frequency where the open-loop gain curve first starts to limit
the closed-loop gain is called the fall - off frequency.

As you increase the gain of a circuit, you will limit its bandwidth.
Likewise, if your application requires only a small bandwidth (e.g.,
in a low-frequency application), larger gains can be used without
signal attenuation or distortion.

25
Important Parameters from Op Amp Data Sheets

These parameters are important when designing and using op

amp circuits.

A. Input Parameters
• Input Voltage (Vicm) - This is the maximum input voltage that
can be applied between either input and ground. In general,
this voltage is equal to the supply voltage.
• Input Offset Voltage (Vio) -This is the voltage that must be
applied to one of the input terminals, with the other input
being at 0 V, to give a zero output voltage. Remember, for an
ideal op amp, the output voltage offset is 0.

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• Input Bias Current (Iib ) - This is the average of the
currents flowing into both inputs when the output
voltage is 0. Ideally, the two input currents are 0.
• Input Offset Current (Iio)-This is the difference
between the input currents when the output
voltage is 0.
• Input Voltage Range (Vcm) - This is the range of
allowable common mode input voltage, where the
same voltage is placed on both inputs.
• Input Resistance (Zi) - This is the resistance
"looking into" either input with the other input
grounded.

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B. Output Parameters
• Output Resistance (Zoi)-This is the
resistance seen "looking into" the op amp's
output.
• Output Short Circuit Current (Iosc) -This is
the maximum output current that the op
amp can deliver to a load.
• Output Voltage Swing (±Vomax)-This is the
maximum peak-to-peak output voltage that
the op amp can supply without saturating or
clipping.

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C. Dynamic Parameters
• Open Loop Voltage Gain (AOL) -This is the
ratio of the output to the differential input
voltage of the op amp without external
feedback.
• Large Signal Voltage Gain - This is the ratio
of the maximum voltage swing to the change
in the input voltage required to drive the
output from 0 to a specified voltage.
• Slew Rate (SR) - This is the time rate of
change of the output voltage, assuming a
step input, with the op amp circuit having a
voltage gain of 1.
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D. Other Parameters
• Maximum Supply Voltage (±Vs) -This is the
maximum positive and negative voltage
permitted to power the op, amp.
• Supply Current - This is the current that the op
amp draws from the power supply.
• Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) - This
is a measure of the ability of the op amp to
reject signals of equal value at the inputs. It is
the ratio of the difference mode gain to the
common mode gain, usually expressed in
decibels (dB).

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 • Channel Separation - Whenever there is more than one op
amp in a single package, such as the 747 op amp IC, a
certain amount of cross - walk is present.
That is, a signal applied to the input of one op amp
produces a finite output signal in the second op amp, even
though there is no physical connection.

Data for each of these parameters are usually provided in IC

manufacturers' linear data books. Figure below is a
reproduction of the LM741 data sheet from National
Semiconductor.

It is divided into a maximum ratings section and an electrical

characteristics section, This data sheet is typical of those from
other manufacturers
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32
33
34
Sizing The Resistors in Op Amp Circuits
2Ω

5V 1Ω
+
-
Vout
+

2kΩ

5V 1kΩ
+
-
Vout
+
35
The ideal model of the op amp would imply that if you
constructed the above two op amp circuits in the laboratory, they
would have the same gain.

Ideally, each circuit would have a gain of -2.

However, the top circuit would be a very poor design and will not
function as expected.

The reason for this can be found by considering the Output

Short Circuit Current found on the specification sheet for the op
amp.

36
From data sheet, the value for a LM741 is typically 25 mA.

This is the largest current that the output can source.

But looking at the circuit, the output current is Vout/2 Ω, and

since Vout = -2Vin = -10 V, the output current would be 5 A!

This is far above the current sourcing capability of the op

amp.

To avoid this problem, larger resistances such as the ones

shown in the bottom circuit are used.

Here, the output current is 5 mA, which is well within the op

amp specification.
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