Objectives:

• To understand the operation theory of an integrator circuit and compare with a first-order RC
filter.
• To design and implement the integrator circuit and verify its input-output characteristics using
LM741 IC.
Theory:
The operational amplifier can be abstracted as a black box having two inputs and one output. Shown in
Fig. 1(a), the op amp symbol distinguishes between the two inputs by the plus and minus sign; Vin1 and
Vin2 are called the “noninverting” and “inverting” inputs, respectively. We view the op amp as a circuit that
amplifies the difference between the two inputs, arriving at the equivalent circuit depicted in Fig. 1(b). The
voltage gain is denoted by A0:
Vout = A0 (Vin1 – Vin2)
We call A0 the “open-loop” gain.

Fig. 1: (a) Op amp symbol, (b) equivalent circuit

The very high gain of the op amp leads to an important observation. Since realistic circuits produce finite
output swings, e.g., 2 V, the difference between Vin1 and Vin2 in Fig.1(a) is always small:
Vin1 – Vin2 = Vout/A0.
In other words, the op amp, along with the circuitry around it, brings Vin1 and Vin2 close to each other.
Following the above idealization, we may say Vin1 = Vin2 if A0 = ∞.

Fig. 2: Circuit with general impedances around the op amp.

In general, it is possible to employ complex impedances shown in Fig. 2. For inverting op amp, we can
write

Vout Z1
≈− .
Vin Z2
where the gain of the op amp is assumed large. Suppose in Fig. 2, Z1 is a capacitor and Z2 a resistor
shown in Fig. 3. That is Z1 = 1/C1s and Z2 = R1. With an ideal op amp, we have

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 1
Vout
= − C 1s
Vin R1
1
= . ...(i )
R1C 1s

Fig. 3: Integrator.
Providing a pole at the origin, the circuit operates as an integrator (and a low-pass filter). Fig. 4 plots the
magnitude of Vout/Vin as a function of frequency. This can also be seen in the time domain. Equating the
currents flowing through R1 and C1 gives

Vin dVout
= − C1
R1 dt
and hence

1
R1C1 ∫
Vout = − Vin dt. ...(ii )

Fig. 4: Frequency response of integrator.

Equation (i) indicates that Vout/Vin approaches infinity as the input frequency goes to zero. This is to be
expected: the capacitor impedance becomes very large at low frequencies, approaching an open circuit
and reducing the circuit to the open-loop op amp.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5: Comparison of (a) an integrator with (b) RC circuit.
The ideal integration expressed by Eq. (ii) occurs because the left plate of C1 is pinned at zero.
To gain more insight, let us compare the integrator with a first-order RC filter in terms of their step
response. As illustrated in Fig. 5(a), the integrator forces a constant current (equal to V1/R1) through the

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capacitor. On the other hand, the RC filter creates a current equal to (Vin − Vout )/R1, which decreases as
Vout rises, leading to an increasingly slower voltage variation across C1. We may therefore consider the
RC filter as a “passive” approximation of the integrator. In fact, for a large R1C1 product, the exponential
response of Fig. 5(b) becomes slow enough to be approximated as a ramp.
We now examine the performance of the integrator for A0 < ∞. Denoting the potential of the virtual ground
node in Fig. 3 with VX, we have

Vin − Vx Vx − Vout
=
R1 1
C 1s
Vout
and Vx = − .
A0
Vout −1
Thus, = ,
Vin 1 1
+ (1 + ) R1C1s
A0 A0
revealing that the gain at s = 0 is limited to A0 (rather than infinity) and the pole frequency has moved
from zero to

−1
sp = .
( A0 + 1) R1C1
Such a circuit is sometimes called a “lossy” integrator to emphasize the nonideal gain and pole position.

Equipment and Materials Required:

i) Trainer Board
ii) Function Generator/Audio Generator
iii) Display Device/Oscilloscope
iv) Op amp (LM741 IC)
v) Resistors and capacitors
vi) Connecting wires

Experimental Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 6.

(a) (b)
Fig. 6: Practical integrator designed in experiment.

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 2. Apply DC power to the circuit. Connect a function generator set to provide a square wave signal
of 4 Vp-p at 2 KHz to input Vin.
3. Use your oscilloscope to measure the peak-to-peak input (Vin) and output voltage (Vout) levels.

Experimental Results:
i) Calculation
By Hand Calculation
1
R1C1 ∫
Vout = − Vin dt.

V1
=− t 0 < t < Tb.
R1C1
where Vin jumps from 0 to V1 and Tb = pulse width.
The voltage across the capacitor is proportional to the area under the input pulse.
By Measurement
Vertically, I square = 2V
1 sub-square = 2V/5 = 0.4V
For input voltage (Vin):
5 square = 5 x 2V = 10V
3 sub-square = 3 x 0.4V = 1.2V
Vin = 10V + 1.2V = 11.2V
For output voltage (Vout):
8 square = 8 x 2V = 16V
4 sub-square = 4 x 0.4V = 1.6V
Vout = 16V + 1.6V = 17.6V

ii) Waveform

(a) (b)

Fig. 7: Comparison of output waveforms of (a) an integrator with (b) RC circuit.

Discussion:

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