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UNIT V

WAVEFORM GENERATORS AND SPECIAL FUNCTION ICS

5.1. SINE WAVE GENERATORS

The sine wave is one of the most fundamental waveforms. In the sine wave
oscillators using op-amps the required phase-shift of 180o in the feedback loop from
output is obtained by using either L and C or R and C components.

5.1.1. RC OSCILLATORS
All the oscillators using tuned LC circuits operate well at high frequencies. At
low frequencies, as the inductors and capacitors required for the timing circuit would
be very bulky, RC oscillators are found to be more suitable. Two important RC
oscillators are (i) RC phase shift oscillator and (ii) Wien Bridge oscillator.

5.1.2. WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

The resistance R and capacitor C are the components of frequency sensitive
arms of the bridge. The resistance Rf and R1 form the part of the feedback path. The
gain of noninverting op-amp can be adjusted using the resistance Rf and R1 . The
gain of the op-amp is
A=1+Rf/R1

Fig.5.1 Wein Bridge Oscillator

To satisfy Barkhausen criterion that AB>1 it is necessary that the gain of the
non inverting op-amp amplifier must be minimum 3.

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The ratio of Rf and R1 must be greater than or equal to 2.

The frequency of oscillations is given by

If in a wien bridge feedback network if two resistances and capacitors are not equal,
then the frequency of oscillations is given by

5.2. SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR

5.2.1. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

An astable multivibrator is a square wave generator.Fig 5.2 (a) shows the

circuit of an astable multivibrator with the output of op-amp feedback to the (+) input
terminal. The resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider network, and a fraction
β=R2/(R1+R2) of the output is fed back to the input. The output can take values of
βVsat or- βVsat.

The voltage +βVsat acts as Vref at the (+) input terminal. The output is
connected also to the (-) input terminal through an integrating low-pass RC network.
When the voltage Vc across the capacitor C just exceeds Vref, switching takes place
resulting in a square wave output. To understand the operation of the circuit, let us
consider that initially the output is at +Vsat as shown in fig.5.2(b)

Fig 5.2 Astable Multivibrator

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The capacitor C with its voltage shown as Vc starts charging through resistor R
towards +Vsat. The voltage at (+) input terminal is held at βVsat as indicated by
the use of R1-R2 potential divider network. The charging of C continues until the
voltage Vc at the (-) input terminal is just greater than the voltage at the (+) input
terminal, + βVsat.When this happens as shown at point b of Fig(b), the output is
switched down to –Vsat. The voltage + βVo across the capacitor now start
discharging through resistance R and charging towards –Vsat. The capacitor voltage
Vc now increases more and more negative, and at point c just exceeds – βVsat. The
output now switches back to +Vsat and the cycle repeats.
Summarizing

Period and frequency of oscillation: The frequency of the free running

multivibrator is determined by the charging and discharging time of the capacitor
between the voltage levels - βVsat and +βVsat, and vice versa. The voltage across the
capacitor as a function of time can be represented as

Where Vfin is the final value of the voltage and V ini is the initial voltage. Considering
the charging of the capacitor from point a towards +Vsat,

At t=T1, the voltage across the capacitor reaches +βVsat and switches at point b.
Therefore, capacitor voltage Vc at time T1 is

That is
And

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The total time period is given by

Hence, the frequency of oscillation

Considering R1=R2, we have β=R/2R=0.5,T=2RC ln3

5.3. TRIANGULAR WAVE GENERATOR

Fig,5.3(a) shows the circuit of a triangular wave generator. It consists of two op-
amps and several passive components. The op-amp A1 forms a noninverting
comparator with hysteresis, which is a Schmitt trigger. The op-amp A2 forms an
integrator which integrates the output obtained from the Schmitt trigger. The op-amp
A1 is a two level comparator whose outputs are determined by + Vsat. The square
wave output from A1 is applied to the (-) ve input terminal of the op-amp A2. The
output of A2 is a triangular wave, and it is fed back as an input to the comparator A 1
through a voltage divider network formed by R2 and R3.

Loop Analysis: let us consider that the output Vo’ of comparator A1 is +Vsat initially.
The integrator integrates +Vsat and produces a negative going ramp at its output as
shown in Fig.5.3 (b). Hence, the voltages at the two ends of the voltage divider
formed by R2-R3 are +Vsat at the output of A1 and –Vsat at the output of A2. At the
instant t=T1, when the negative going ramp reaches a value of _Vramp, represented
as point a in Fig.5.3 (b), the effective value at the point P becomes slightly less than
0V. This switches the op-amp A1 to its negative saturation level –Vsat.
With the output of A1 at Vsat, the op-amp A2 starts integrating and increases
its output in the positive direction. At the instant t=T2, shown as point b in Fig.5.3 (b)
the voltage at P becomes just more than 0V. This switches the output of op-amp A1
from –Vsat to +Vsat. This cycle repeats itself, and generates a triangular waveform.
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The frequency of the waveform is determined by the RC value of the integrator

formed by op-amp A2 and the saturation voltage levels + Vsat of comparator op-amp
A1.

Fig. 5.3 Triangular waveform generator (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms at vo’ and vo

To determine the amplitude and frequency of the triangular waveform: When the
comparator output is at +Vsat, the effective voltage at point P is

Similarly at t=T2 when the output of A1 switches from –Vsat to +Vsat

-----------(1)
Thus the peak to peak amplitude of the triangular wave is

----------(2)
The time taken for the output of A2 to switch from –Vramp to +Vramp is
half of the time period, i.e. T/2. From the basis integrator output equation,

Substituting the value of vo(pp) from Eq 2 in the above equation, we get

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Therefore, the frequency of oscillation is

5.4 SAWTOOTH WAVE GENERATOR

The sawtooth wave refers to a waveform with its rise time being many times
longer than the corresponding fall time or fall time very longer as compared to the
rise time. Triangular wave generator can modified to produce a sawtooth waveform.

The sawtooth wave generator circuit is shown in Fig 5.4. The op-amp A1
functions as a ramp generator and the op-amp A2 function as a comparator. The
input reference signal Vi of value less than zero is connected to the inverting input of
the op-amp. Since Vi is negative, the output of op-amp A1 can only ramp up.

The rate of raise is given by VoR/t=Vi/RiC. The ramp voltage VoR is monitored
by the comparator A2. The output VoR is connected to the noninverting terminal of op-
amp A2, and a reference voltage. Set by a potentiometer V ref is connected to the
inverting input of comparator. When the capacitor C charges, and when the voltage
VoR is below Vref, the output of comparator is negative. Then the transistors Q 1 and
Q2 do not conduct. The dodes D1 and D2 protect the transistors from excessive
reverse bias voltages.

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Fig.5.4 Sawtooth wave generator (a) circuit diagram (b) Sawtooth wave and
comparator outputs and (c) Sawtooth wave design.
When VoR rises and just exceeds Vref, the output Voc of comparator goes to
positive saturation. This action forward biases the transistor Q2 into saturation. The
saturated transistor then acts as a switch across the capacitor C, which charges
quickly making the output Voc come down essentially to 0V. The positive saturation
Voc of A2 also makes the transistor Q1 ON, and the Vref or negative input of op-amp
A2 drops to 0V. As the capacitor C discharges rapidly making VoR zero volts, it drops
below Vref. This causes the comparator output to become negatively saturated. This
action switches the transistor Q2 OFF, and C begins charging linearly, and the cycle
repeats.

Frequency of Oscillation: The charging time Tc is obtained from period

.
The frequency is the reciprocal of the time period. Therefore,

The sawtooth output waveform is shown in Fig 5.4(b).

5.5. ICL8038 FUNCTION GENERATOR

The ICL8038 waveform generator is a monolithic integrated circuit which is
capable of producing sine, square, triangular, sawtooth and pulse waveforms.

FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

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The main part of waveform generator is a VCO that generates the triangular
wave and square waves. Sine wave is generated from triangular wave by passing
the later through an on-chip wave shaper. Sawtooth and pulse waveforms are
obtained by the use of highly asymmetric duty cycle for the oscillator. The most
common VCO circuit configurations are grounded capacitor and emitter coupled
types. The grounded capacitor arrangement is used in the waveform generator
ICL8038. The principle of operation of a grounded capacitor type VCO is shown in
Fig.5.5(a) When the switch S is in position 1, the capacitor C charges at a rate fixed
by the current source tH. When voltage vTR across the capacitor reaches the upper
threshold of Schmitt trigger, it changes state and flips the switch S to position 2.
The capacitor C now discharges through the current sink iL. When vTR reaches
the lower threshold level of Schmitt trigger, it triggers flipping the switch S to position
1. This sequence produces the waveforms shown in Fig.5.5 (b). The current source
iH and current sink iL can be made programmable through the control voltage Vi.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.5 Grounded capacitor type of VCO (a) circuit arrangement (b) waveforms

5.7 .TIMER IC 555

The IC 555 timer is very versatile and its applications include oscillator, pulse
generator, square and ramp wave generator, one-shot multivibrator, safety alarms
and timer circuits, traffic light controllers etc. The 555 timer can provide time delay,
ranging from microseconds to hours.

General Description of the IC 555

Fig.5.6 shows the functional block diagram of 555 IC timer. The positive dc
power supply terminal is connected to pin8 (VCC) and negative terminal is

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connected to pin 1(Gnd). The ground pin acts as a common ground for all voltage
references while using the IC. The output (Pin3) can assume a HIGH level (0.5V less
than VCC) or a LOW level(approximately 0.1v).

Two comparators namely upper comparator (UC) and lower comparator

(LC) are used in the circuit. Three 5KΩ internal resistors provide a potential divider
arrangement. It provides a voltage of (2/3)Vcc to the (-) terminal of the upper
comparator and (1/3)Vcc to the (+) input terminal of the lower comparator. A control
voltage input terminal accepts a modulation control voltage applied externally. Pin 5
is connected to ground through a bypassing capacitor of 0.1microF. It bypasses the
noise or ripple from the supply. The (+) input terminal of the UC is called threshold
terminal (pin 6) and the (-) input terminal of the LC is the trigger terminal (pin 2). The
operation can be summarized as shown in Table.

Fig.5.6 Function block diagram of IC 555 timer.

States of operation of IC 555

The standby (stable) state makes the output Q’ of flip-flop HIGH. This
makes the output of inverting power amplifier LOW. When a negative going trigger

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pulse is applied to Pin 2, as the negative edge of the trigger passes through 1/3
(Vcc), the output of the LC becomes HIGH and its sets the control FF making Q=1
and Q’=0. When the threshold voltage at pin 6 exceeds 2/3(Vcc), the output of UC
goes HIGH. This action resets the control FF with Q=0 and Q’=1.

The reset terminal (pin 4) allows the resetting of the timer by grounding the
pin 4 or reducing its voltage level below 0.4V. This makes the output low overriding
the operation of lower comparator. When not used, the reset terminal is connected to
Vcc. Transistor Q2 isolates the reset input from the FF and transistor Q1. The
reference voltage Vref is made available internally from Vcc. Transistor Q1 acts as a
discharge transistor. When output (pin 3) is high, Q1 is OFF making the discharge
terminal (pin 7) open. When the output is low, Q1 is forward biased to ON condition.
Then, the Discharge terminal appears as a short circuit to ground.

Monostable operation of Timer IC 555

Monostable multivibrator has one stable state and one quasi-stable state. It is
also known as monoshot multivibrator or uni-vibrator. It remains in its stable state
until an input pulse triggers it into its quasi-stable state. It stays in quasi-stable state
for a time duration determined by an RC timing circuit. The output returns to its
original stable state automatically at the end of the time and stays there until the next
trigger pulse is applied. Therefore, a monostable multivibrator cannot generate
square-waves on its own like an astable multivibrator. Only external trigger pulses
will cause it to generate the rectangular pulses.

The functional block diagram and connection diagram of a monostable

multivibrator using 555 timer is shown in Fig 5.7. In the standby mode, the control
flip-glop holds Q1 ON, thus clamping the external timing capacitor C to ground. The
output (pin3) during this time is at ground potential, or LOW. The three 5KΩ internal
resistors act as voltage dividers providing bias voltages of (2/3)Vcc and (1/3)Vcc
respectively. Since these two voltages fix the necessary comparator threshold
voltages, they aid in determining the timing interval.

The lower comparator (LC) is biased at (1/3)Vcc and it remains in the standby
state as long as the trigger (pin 2) input is held above (1/3)Vcc. When triggered by a
negative going pulse, the output of the lower comparator goes HIGH setting the FF

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with Q=1 and Q’=0. This turns the transistor Q1 OFF, and the output goes HIGH.
Since the timing capacitor is now unclamped, the voltage across it now rises
exponentially through R towards Vcc with time constant RC. After a period of time,
the capacitor voltage will equal (2/3)Vcc and upper comparator resets the internal
FF. This makes Q’=1 and the transistor Q1 is ON. This in turn discharges the
capacitor rapidly to ground potential. As a consequence, the output now returns to
the standby state or ground.

Fig. 5.7(a) Functional block diagram of Monostable Multivibrator using IC 555

5.7.1. APPLICATIONS OF MONOSTABLE MULTI VIBRATOR USING IC555

The important applications of monostable multivibrator are (i) Ramp
generation (ii) Frequency division and (iii) Pulse-width modulation.
Ramp generation: Linear ramp signal can be generated suing the circuit shown in
Fig.5.7 (a). The timing capacitor C is charged by constant current source instead of
charging by a resistor. The transistor QL forms a constant current source. Assuming
that I is the current supplied by a constant current source, the capacitor voltage Vc is
given by thereby resetting the FF. This discharges the capacitor C

When the capacitor voltage Vc just goes above (2/3)Vcc the upper
comparator triggers and the output remains at zero until another trigger pulse is
applied.

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Frequency divider: The monostable multivibrator, when continuously triggered by a

square wave signal can be used as a frequency divider, if the timing interval T of the
monostable multivibrator is designed to be longer than the period of the triggereing
square wave signal. The one shot is triggered by the first negative edge of the
square wave input.

During the second negative edge of the square, the output of monostable
multivibrator remains HIGH. However, during the third negative edge of the square
wave signal, the mono-shot once again triggers ON. In this manner, the output pulse
can be made any integral fraction of the input triggering square-wave signal. The
waveform of the input square wave and output of monoshot are shown in Fig 5.7 (b)
for a frequency divided-by two operation.

Fig.5.7.(b) input and output waveforms of frequency divider circuit

Pulse width modulation: The monostable multivibrator, when applied with a
modulating control input signal at pin 5 can act as a pulse width modulator. The
circuit of the mono-shot with modulating input signal at pin 5 as shown in Fig.5.7(c).
The series of trigger pulses at pin 2 generates a series of output pulses. The
duration of the output pulses are determined by the triggering of UC, which in turn
depends on the modulating signal input at pin 5. This is due to the fact that, the
modulating signal is superimposed upon the voltage (2/3)Vcc obtained through
voltage divider circuit. The threshold level of the UC thus changes, and the output
pulse modulation occurs. The modulating control input signal and the output
waveforms are shown in Fig.5.7.(c) (i) & (ii).

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Fig.5.7(c) Pulse width modulator using monostable multivibrator (i) circuit diagram (ii)
input and output waveforms

Astable Operation of the Timer IC 555

The functional diagram of the IC 555 connected for astable operation is
shown in Fig. 5.8 Resistors RA and RB forms the timing resistors. The discharge (pin
7) terminal is connected to the Vc terminal, and control (pin 5) terminal is by-passed
to ground through a 0.01µF capacitor.

Fig. 5.8 The functional block diagram of Astable Multivibrator using IC 555
5.8.1 Applications of Astable Multivibrator
The important applications of the astable multivibrator are FSK generator,
Pulse position modulator and Schmitt trigger.
FSK generator: A timer IC 555 connected for FSK generation is shown in Fig 5.8
(a). The FSK method transmits data by identifying the logic 0 and 1 by means of two
preset frequencies. The digital data input frequency is normally 150Hz. Here, when

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the input is HIGH, QM is OFF. This makes the timer work in normal astable mode
with the present frequency defined by

When the input goes LOW, QM is ON and it connects resistance R C across RA. The
effective resistance RA\\ RC in series with RB now forms the charging path. Therefore,
the output frequency f2 is

Fig.5.8(a) FSK generator connection diagram

Schmitt trigger:
The two internal comparator inputs (pin2 and 6) are connected together and
externally biased with a voltage Vcc/2 through R1 and R2 potential divider network.
Since the voltage at (pin2 and 6) will trigger the UC at (2/3)Vcc and LC at (1/3)Vcc,
the bias provided by R1 and R2 is centered within these two threshold levels. The
input and output waveforms are shown in Fig 5.8 (b).

Fig 5.8 (b) Input and output waveform

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5.9. IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS

The IC voltage regulators are versatile, relatively inexpensive and are
available with features such as programmable output, current/voltage boosting and
floating operation for high voltage application. Some important types of linear IC
voltage regulators are:
(i) Fixed positive/negative output voltage regulators
(ii) Adjustable output voltage regulators.
5.9.1 Fixed voltage regulators:
78XX series are three terminal positive fixed voltage regulators. There are
seven voltage regulators with output voltages of 5V, 6V, 8V, 12V, 18V, 24V and 25V.
The two digits XX of 78XX are used to identify the fixed output voltage of the
regulator.
79XX series are negative fixed voltage regulators which are complements to
the 78XX series devices.
The standard circuit connection of the 78XX monolithic voltage regulators is
shown in Fig5.9. The input capacitor Ci is used to cancel the inductive effects due to
long distribution leads and the output capacitor Co improves the transient response
and acts as a ripple filter also.

Fig.5.9 IC 78XX monolithic voltage regulator

5.9.2. OUTPUT CURRENT BOOSTING

The output current of the three terminal regulator can be boosted or amplified
by connecting an external pass-transistor Q1 as shown in Fig.5.10 The voltage drop
across the resistor R1 for low value of load currents is insufficient to make the
transistor Q1 ON, and therefore the regulator supplies the load current. When the
load current IL increases beyond a certain limit, the drop across R1 increases and

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when it reaches 0.7V the transistor Q1 turns ON, and supplies the additional current
to the load. From transistor theory, the additional current is ß times the base current.

Fig.5.10 Boosting the output current of IC 7805

------------(1)
The output current Io is given by

----------------(2)
Substituting Eq 2 in Eq 1

5.9.3. LM117/LM317 THREE TERMINAL ADJUSTABLE VOLTAGE

REGULATOR
The fixed voltage regulators are designed and preset for a particular voltage
of positive/negative polarities. There are applications which require
(i) Regulated voltage sources which are precisely variable and
(ii) Some supply voltages which are not available from standard fixed voltage
regulators.

5.9.4. IC723 GENERAL PURPOSE REGULATOR

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Fig.5.11 IC 723 Regulator internal circuit diagram

Fig5.12. Functional block diagram of IC 723

The three terminal regulators such as 7805,7815,7905,7915 etc. are capable
of producing only fixed positive or negative output voltages. Moreover, such
regulators do not have short circuit protection.
The IC 723 general purpose regulator overcomes the limitations of three
terminal fixed voltage regulators. The IC 723 is a low current device, and can be
employed for providing a load current up to 10A or more by the addition of external
transistor.
The internal circuit diagram of IC 723 consists of a temperature compensated
Zener diode D1, biased with a constant current source. The reference voltage Vref is
available from a buffer amplifier realized by transistor Q 1 through Q6 and Zener
diodes, D1 and D2. The series pass element is realized by Darlington connected
transistors Q14 and Q15. Current limit protection is provided by the transistor Q16. The
sense voltage is the voltage drop obtained across a suitable resistor connected

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between the terminals current limit (CL) and current sense (CS) of the IC 723.
Transistors Q7 through Q13 and resistors R10 and R11 form the error amplifier. The
transistors Q11 and Q12 with their non-inverting and inverting input terminals produce
a differential amplifier. The transistor Q13 acts as the current source for the
differential amplifier.

5.9.5 FOLDBACK CURRENT LIMITING

Fig 5.13 Foldback current limit characteristics

The fold back current limiting method reduces both the output current and
voltage when IL(max) is reached. The important advantages of fold back method of
current limiting are (a) protecting the load from over-current operation and (b)
protecting the regulator itself. The base of Q3 is connected to the voltage divider
formed by R3 and R4. Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law around the loop, we get

The current limit transistor Q3 starts conducting only when its base to emitter
voltage VBE is approximately 0.7V, that is, VCL must become sufficiently large to
exceed the drop across R3 by a minimum of 0.7V. That is

At this point, current limit starts occurring. As the load resistance decreases,
the load voltage drops, and VR3 also reduces. As a consequence, a smaller value of
VCL is then required to maintain VBE of Q3 at 0.7V. Then, as transistor Q3 starts
conducting, transistor Q1 starts to turn OFF, and the load current decreases. The
drop across R3 further reduces, increasing the conduction of Q3 and reducing
conduction of Q1. The load current IL further reduces. This process continues until
Vo becomes 0V and load current becomes a minimum. If the load resistance is
brought to its nominal operating value, the circuit resumes its normal regulation
action.

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5.9.6 HIGH CURRENT LOW VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Fig.5.14 Low voltage regulator circuit with current boosting

The maximum current obtainable from IC 723 is 140 mA. For applications
requiring higher current values, boost pass transistor Q1 can be added to the
regulator as shown in Fig 5.14. The collector of Q1 is connected to unregulated dc
supply. The output terminal Vo of regulator drives the base of Q1. Therefore,
. A Darlington connected transistor pair can also be used
in place of Q1 as the pass transistor for obtaining much higher values of load
currents.
The width or ON time of the oscillator is controlled by the voltage fed back
from the secondary rectified output forming a closed loop regulator. The pulse width
applied to the power switch is inversely proportional to the output voltage. When the
output voltage drops, the switch is ON for a longer time, resulting in more energy
delivered to the transformer and a higher output voltage. As the output voltage
increases, the ON time becomes shorter until the loop stabilizes.

5.9.7 BUCKING SWITCHING REGULATOR

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Fig.5.15 Basic diagram of a step-down (Bucking) switching regulator circuit.

The input voltage Vi is a dc voltage. A pulse train is applied to the base of the
control transistor Q1, and the transistor acts as a switch, alternating between its cut-
off and saturation regions. When the transistor is ON, the diode D gets reverse
biased. When the transistor is OFF, it becomes forward biased providing a
continuous path for the inductive current. The LC filter functions as a smoothing
circuit for the input variations that provides a steady dc output voltage.
When the transistor Q1 is turned ON and OFF for equal time durations, i.e.
when duty cycle D of the pulse train is 50% the dc output voltage VO is given by
Vo=(tON/T)Vi=0.5Vi. Note that the voltage drop across transistor and diodes are
neglected.
The reference voltage Vref is obtained from the unregulated input voltage with
the use of a Zener diode. The error circuit compares the regulated output voltage
with the Vref voltage. The output of the error circuit operates the pulse width
modulator. The pulse width modulator generates pulses at a fixed frequency and
width of the pulses is dependent on the control voltage from the error circuit.
When the dc output voltage falls below the reference voltage, the error signal
is generated in the error circuit. This causes the width of the pulses to increase, thus
increasing the output voltage. If the output voltage is more than the reference
voltage, the error signal reduces the pulse width which results in reducing the output
voltage. Thus the constant output voltage is maintained.

5.9.8 BOOSTING SWITCHING REGULATOR

The basic circuit of a boosting or step-up switching regulator is shown in
Fig.5.16. The voltage induced in the inductor is made to add-up to the input voltage.
Thus, the resulting output voltage is more than the input voltage. Here, assuming
that Q1 is initially ON, the voltage from the inductor promotes current through this
element. The diode D1 is OFF since VD>VCE(sat) of Q1. When the transistor Q1 is OFF,
the collapsing magnetic field of L forward biases the diode D1. Then, the voltage
across L (VL=LdIL/dt) adds to the voltage Vi which makes the output greater than Vi.

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Fig.5.16 Basic diagram of a step-up(Boosting) switching regulator circuit.

5.10 MONOLITHIC SWITCHING REGULATOR

The internal block diagram and Pin configuration Of IC µA 78S40 are shown
in Fig 5.17. It is a pulse width modulated type of switching regulator. Switching diode
D1 and an op-amp. The reference voltage is available at pin 8. The oscillator is
controllable for its duty cycle with the use of an active current limit circuit. The
internal switching frequency of oscillator is set by the timing capacitor CT, connected
between Pin 12 and ground pin 11.

The initial duty cycle can be modified by the current limit circuiting which is
activated at pin 14(Ipk) and comparator outputs controlled by pins 9 and 10. The
typical frequency range of oscillator is between 100 Hz and 100KHz.

The output transistor can operate at 40V and supply current up to 1.5A. The
transistor Q2 operated by the output of SR flip-flop drives the base of Q1. The
transistors Q1 and Q2 can be connected as a Darlington pair. Increased base drive
to Q1 can be applied by connecting to the flip flop through an AND gate. The

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comparator is a high gain amplifier and the unconnected op-amp can be used for
voltage polarity changes, when required.

The connection diagram of µA78S40 for step down switching regulation is

shown in the above fig . The output of comparator determines the OFF time of the
switching transistors Q1 and Q2. The voltage reference of 1.3 V is applied to non
inverting input of the comparator. The output voltage Vo dropped across the potential
divider network consisting of R1-R2 is fed to the inverting input of the comparator.

When the output is at the desired voltage level, the comparator output is high
and no effect on the circuit operation is observed. Assume that the output voltage is
more than the required value. Then, the voltage at the inverting input comparator is
higher than the required value. Then, the voltage at the inverting at the inverting
input of the comparator is higher than Vref, and the comparator switches to negative
saturation, and this is applied to one input of the AND gate through the latch. This
makes output of AND gate low and Q1 is turned OFF. When the capacitor CT times
out, the oscillator turns Q1 ON again until IPK is reached or output voltage is once
again more than the desired value.

When the output voltage drops lower than the required value, the average
discharge current of inductor L1 increases. This increases the time t ON, since it
needs more time to charge the inductor to IPK. Increase in tON raises the voltage Vo to
the desired value. When Vo increases, the inductor discharges less during tOFF, and
IPK is reached faster when Q1 is ON. This causes tOFF to reduce.

Current limiting is achieved by connecting a sense resistor RSC between IPK

sense and the VCC. It is activated when a voltage of 330mV appears across R SC.
This terminates tON interval and starts tOFF interval. The voltage drop VDI of the power
diode D1 determines the OFF time of inductor L1 and the efficiency of the switching
regulator. This regulator circuit is designed for stepping down from an input voltage
of 25V to an output voltage of 10V.

5.11 SWITCHED CAPACITOR FILTER

Active RC filters using ICs have advantages of not using inductors and of
offering easy implementation high performance low pass, high-pass, band-pass and

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band-elimination filters. The resistor values needed for these filters are generally
much too large for fabrication on a monolithic IC chip. Integrated resistors have poor
temperature and linearity characteristics. Large value resistors (≥10K Ω) take up an
excessive amount of chip area. This is the major reason that active filters have not
previously been fully integrated in MOS technology.

The switched capacitor filter offers an attractive alternative to the conventional

RC active filter. A switched capacitor filter shown in Fig.5.17 is a three terminal
element which consist of capacitors, periodic switches and operational amplifiers and
whose open circuit voltage transfer function represents filtering characteristic. It is
not possible to manufacture passive elements of an RC active filter with suitable
values and quality in the same technology as the op-amps.

For the range of frequencies within which the op-amp operates satisfactorily, it
is not possible in MOS technology to implement RC products of sufficient magnitude
and accuracy. On the other hand, in the case of switched capacitor filter, the Rc
products are set by capacitor ratios and the switch period. In MOS technology the
accuracy and the values of these quantities are suitable for the implementation of
selective filters. The large resistor values required for active filter are easily
simulated by the combination of small value capacitors and MOS switching
transistors. The equivalent resistor value obtained is high enough such that the filter
capacitance value should be small enough to be easily incorporated on a monolithic
IC chip.

Fig.5.17 Switched capacitor filter schematic

5.11.1Switched Capacitor Filter IC MF5

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It is the basic type of filter. This is called as universal filter because it can be
used to synthesize any type of filters such as Band pass, Low-pass, High-pass,
notch and all-pass. The block diagram of MF5 was shown here. It consists of an
operational amplifier, two positive integrators and summing node. A MOS switch is
controlled by the logic input given at pin 5.

This switch is useful in connecting one of the inputs of first integrator to either
ground or to the output of the second integrator. The way in which the external
resistors are connected determines the characteristics of the filter. The maximum
recommended clock frequency is 1 MHZ. There were three modes of operation and
out of all modes, mode 3 is best. All the modes have three outputs with the
combinations of different filter functions. And MF5 Can Operate with single or split
power supply. The clock frequency to center frequency ration is selected with a help
of pin 9. There were two ratio options 50:1 and 100:1.

5.11.2 Block Diagram of MF5:

It consist of an op-amp, two positive integrators and a summing node. The
outputs of the two integrators are the pins BP and LP i.e band pass and low pass
outputs respectively. The pin SA activates the switch S. It is MOS switch, controlled
by a logic voltage at pin 5 i.e SA. In one position, it connects one of the inputs of the
first integrator to the ground i.e AGND pin while in other position it connect the same
input to the output of the second integrator. This gives flexibility needed for obtaining
various filter configurations. With pin 9, the ratio of clock f CLK and center frequency f0
ratio can be adjusted to 50:1 or 100:1.

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Fig.5.18 block diagram of internal circuit of MF5

An extra uncommitted op-amp is also available for the additional signal

processing. The pin 8 accepts the TTL or CMOS logic level clock, which is decided
by the pin 7 i.e L.Sh. The important feature of MF5 is that f0 can be controlled
independent of Q and pass band gain and simply by varying fCI.K’ without affecting
the other characteristic of the filter.

5.12 FREQUENCY TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER

The frequency to voltage converter performs the reverse operation of the
VFC. It accepts a wide range and variety of periodic waveforms and produces an
analog signal linearily proportional to the input frequency.
V0 = Kf fin
V/F and F/V Convertor Device TC 9400
The TC9400 is low cost voltage to frequency convertor utilizing low power
CMOS technology. The convertor accepts a variable analog input signal and
generates an output pulse train whose frequency is linearly proportional to the input
voltage.

The device can also be used as highly accurate frequency to voltage (F/V)
converter, accepting virtually any input frequency waveform and providing a linearly

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proportional voltage output. A complete V/F and F/V system only requires the
addition of two capacitors, three resistors, and reference voltage.

Pin configuration:

Fig.5.19 Pin diagram of TC 9400

Threshold Detector Input

In the V/F mode, this input is connected to the amplifier output and triggers a
3µsec pulse when the input voltage passes through its threshold. In the F/V mode,
the input frequency is applied to this input.

Pulse Freq Out

This output is an open drain N channels FET which provides a pulse
waveform whose frequency is proportional to the input voltage. This output requires
a pull-up resistor and interfaces directly with MOS, CMOS and TTL logic.

Freq/2 Out
This output is an open drain N channel FET which provides a square wave
one half the frequency of the pulse frequency output. The Freq/2 output will change
state on the rising edge of pulse Freq Out. This output requires a pull up resistors
and interfaces directly with MOS,CMOS and TTL logic.

Output Common

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The sources of both the Freq/2 and the Pulse Freq Out are connected to this
pin. An output level swing from the drain voltage to ground or to the Vss supply may
obtained by connecting this pin to the appropriate point.

RBIAS
An external resistor, connected to Vss, sets the bias point for the TC9400.
Increasing the maximum frequency of the TC9400 beyond 100KHz is limited by the
pulse width of the Pulse Output. Reducing RBIAS will decrease the pulse width and
increase the maximum operating frequency, but linearity errors will also increase.
RBIAS can be reduced to 20 KΩ, which will typically produce maximum full scale
frequency of 500KHz.

Amplifier Out
This is the output pin of the operational amplifier. During V/F operation , a
negative going ramp signal is available at this pin. In the F/V mode a voltage
proportional to the frequency input is generated.

Zero Adjust
This pin is the noninverting input of the operational amplifier. The low
frequency set point is determined by adjusting the voltage at this pin.

IIN
This is the inverting input of the operational amplifier and the summing
junction when connected in the V/F mode. An input current of 10µA is specified, but
an overrange current up to 50 µA can be used without detrimental effect to the circuit
operation. IIN connects the summing junction of an op amp. Voltage sources cannot
be attached directly, but must be buffered by external resistors.

VREF
A reference voltage from either a precision source or the V SS supply is applied
to this pin. Accuracy of the TC9400 is dependent on the voltage regulation and
temperature characteristic of the reference circuitry.

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Fig 5.20 block diagram of TC9400 with external circuit components

The TC9400 V/F converter operates on the principal of charge balancing.

The operation of the TC9400 is easily understood by referring to Figure 5.20. The
input voltage (VIN) is converted to a current (IIN) by the input resistor. This current is
then converted to a charge on the integrating capacitor and shows up as a linearly
decreasing voltage at the output of the op amp.

The lower limit of the output swing is set by the threshold detector, which
causes the reference voltage to be applied to the reference capacitor for a time
period long enough to charge the capacitor to the reference voltage. This action
reduces the charge on the integrating capacitor by a fixed amount (q = CREF ×
VREF), causing the op amp output to step up a finite amount.

At the end of the charging period, CREF is shorted out. This dissipates the
charge stored on the reference capacitor, so that when the output again crosses
zero the system is ready to recycle. In this manner, the continued discharging of the
integrating capacitor by the input is balanced out by fixed charges from the reference
voltage.
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As the input voltage is increased, the number of reference pulses required

to maintain balance increases, which causes the output frequency to also increase.
Since each charge increment is fixed, the increase in frequency with voltage is
linear. In addition, the accuracy of the output pulse width does not directly affect the
linearity of the V/F. The pulse must simply be long enough for full charge transfer to
take place.

The TC9400 contains a "self-start" circuit to ensure the V/F converter

always operates properly when power is first applied. In the event that, during power-
on, the Op amp output is below the threshold and CREF is already charged, a
positive voltage step will not occur.

The op-amp output will continue to decrease until it crosses the –3.0V
threshold of the "self-start" comparator. When this happens, an internal resistor is
connected to the op-amp input, which forces the output to go positive until the
TC9400 is in its normal operating mode. The TC9400 utilizes low power CMOS
processing for low input bias and offset currents with very low power dissipation. The
open-drain N-channel output FETs provide high voltage and high current sink
capability.

Fig.5.21 Output waveforms for V/F

5.13. VOLTAGE TO FREQUENCY CONVERTER

A voltage to frequency convertor produces a pulse train whose frequency is linearly
proportional to an analog input voltage,

fout = Kv Vi

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In other words, it converts analog signals to digital form. The primary reason for this
type of conversion is that a pulse train can be transmitted and decoded much more
accurately than analog signal, especially if the transmission path is long and noisy.

5.13.1. TYPES OF VFCs

According to the the method of conversion there are two types of VFCs:
1. Wide sweep multivibrators 2. Charge-balancing VFCs

5.13.1.1. WIDE SWEEP MULTIVIBRATORS

Wide sweep multivibrator circuits are nothing but the voltage controlled
astable multivibrators designed with VFC performance specifications. Such circuits
are temperature stabilized. Fig shows block diagram and basic connections for
AD537.

As shown in the block diagram conversion takes place in two steps: Initially,
input voltage is converted to the current drive, and then current controlled oscillator
(CCO) produces pulses whose frequency is linearly proportional to the input current.
The input voltage is converted to the current drive with the help of op-amp and BJT
combination. The op-amp provides base current to ensure Vn = Vp. Thus I = Vi/R.
The CCO parameter is such that

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Subsituting value of I we get,

Let us assume C=1nF, R=10K and Vcc = 15V. Now variation of Vi from 1mV to 10V
gives current and hence frequency variations as follows.

The Ros (20K pot) is connected to minimize the V-I conversion error at the low
end . It does this by making input offset error of op-amp zero.VT is a voltage linearly
proportional to absolute temperature T. It is given by

5.13.1.2. CHARGE BALANCING VFCs

In charge balancing technique, a capacitor is supplied with a continuous

charge at a rate linearly proportional to the input signal. Then capacitor is discharged
and simultaneously discrete charge pulse is generated with the help of one shot
(monostable multivibrator). Therefore, for each charge-discharge cycle one pulse is
generated. The repetition rate of this train of pulses is directly proportional to the
input signal since charge rate is linearly proportional to the input signal.

Fig 5.22(a) shows block diagram of popular VFC32 monolithic VFC as a

charge balancing VFC.As shown in the Fig op-amp A1 converts Vi to current I= Vi/R,
which flows into a summing node of A1. The value of R is chosen such that I is
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always less than 1 mA. To understand circuit operation, let us consider switch SW is
open.With SW open, current I flows into capacitor C1 and causes the output of op-
amp A1(V01) to ramp downward, as shown in Fig5.22 (b)

Fig 5.22(a) Block diagram of VFC32 (b)

As V01 reaches 0V, comparator CMP1 fires and triggers a precision

one-shot, which closes SW and turns on transistor Q1 for a time interval TH set by
C. The one shot utilizes an internal threshold of 4.5V and a charging current of 1mA.
This gives

As soon as switch is closed, a resultant current of magnitude (1mA-I)

starts flowing out of summing node of A1. This cause output voltage of A1(V01) to
ramp upward by an amount such that ΔV01 = [(1mA-I) TH]/C1. After the timing
interval of one shot SW is opened and V01 resumes ramping downward at a rate
again set by I.
The output voltage of A1 takes time interval TL to reach 0V such that ΔV01 =I TL / C1

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Substituting TH + TL we get,

From the above Eq we can notice that duty cycle is also proportional to the input
signal V.

5.14. AUDIO AMPLIFIER

The final output stage of most communications receivers is an audio

amplifier. The audio amplifier is the circuit that drives the system speakers. the ideal
audio amplifier has the following characteristics:
1. High gain.
2. Minimum distortion in the audio frequency range.
3. High input impedance.
4. Extremely low output impedance

An op-amp audio amplifier is shown in Fig 5.23. The –V input to the op-amp is
connected to ground. This means that the op-amp output always has some positive
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value. Note that the coupling capacitor between the output of the op-amp and
speaker is used to reference the speaker voltage around 0V. That is, it removes the
positive dc reference from the op-amp output. Also C5 is included in the Vcc line to
prevent any transient current caused by the operation of the op-amp from being
coupled back to Q1 through the power supply.

Fig.5.23 Low power audio amplifier

The high gain requirement is accomplished by the combination of the amplifier

stages. The low Zout of the audio amplifier is accomplished by the op-amp itself, as is
the low distortion characteristic.

5.15. VIDEO AMPLIFIER

The function of the video amplifier is exactly opposite to that of tuned
amplifier. The tuned amplifier amplifies a narrow band of frequencies while the video
amplifier must amplify the signals over a wide band of frequencies say up to 20MHz.

By avoiding the tuned input and output circuits, the MC 1550 can be used as
a video amplifier. As it uses a cascade amplifier pair, the video amplifier is called as
Cascode Video amplifier.

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The properly terminate the co-axial cable carrying the video signal, a 50Ω resistance
is connected between the pins 1 and 4 of MC 1550. Such a small resistance has
very negligible effect on the biasing of the transistor Q1. The load resistance RL is
directly inserted in the collector of the transistor Q3.The transistor Q3 acts as a
common base stage and the video output is taken from the collector of Q3.

5.16 .OPTOCOUPLERS & OPTO ELECTRONICS ICs

Optocouplers or Opto isolators are a combination of light source & light
detector in the same package. They are used to couple signal from one point to
other optically, by providing a completer electric isolation between them. This kind of
isolation is provided between a low power control circuit & high power output circuit,
to protect the control circuit. Depending on the type of light source & detector used
we can get a variety of optocouplers. They are as follows,

(i) LED – LDR optocoupler

(ii) LED – Photodiode optocoupler
(iii) LED – Phototransistor optocoupler

5.16.1 TYPES OF OPTOCOUPLERS

(i) LED – Photodiode optocoupler:

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LED photodiode shown in figure, here the infrared LED acts as a light source
& photodiode is used as a detector.

The advantage of using the photodiode is its high linearity. When the pulse at
the input goes high, the LED turns ON. It emits light. This light is focused on the
photodiode.

In response to this light the photocurrent will start flowing though the photodiode.
As soon as the input pulse reduces to zero, the LED turns OFF & the photocurrent
through the photodiode reduces to zero. Thus the pulse at the input is coupled to the
output side.

(ii) LED – Phototransistor Optocoupler:

The LED phototransistor optocoupler shown in figure. An infrared LED acts as

a light source and the phototransistor acts as a photo detector. This is the most
popularly used optocoupler, because it does not need any additional amplification.

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When the pulse at the input goes high, the LED turns ON. The light emitted by
the LED is focused on the CB junction of the phototransistor. In response to this light
photocurrent starts flowing which acts as a base current for the phototransistor.

The collector current of phototransistor starts flowing. As soon as the input

pulse reduces to zero, the LED turns OFF & the collector current of phototransistor
reduces to zero. Thus the pulse at the input is optically coupled to the output side.

Advantages of Optocoupler:
 Control circuits are well protected due to electrical isolation.
 Wideband signal transmission is possible.
 Due to unidirectional signal transfer, noise from the output side does not get
coupled to the input side.
 Interfacing with logic circuits is easily possible.
 It is small size & light weight device.

Disadvantages:
 Slow speed.
 Possibility of signal coupling for high power signals.

Applications:
 Optocouplers are used basically to isolate low power circuits from high power
circuits.
 At the same time the control signals are coupled from the control circuits to
the high power circuits.
Some of such applications are,

(i) AC to DC converters used for DC motor speed control

(ii) High power choppers
(iii) High power inverters

One of the most important applications of an optocoupler is to couple the base

driving signals to a power transistor connected in a DC-DC chopper.

Note that the input & output waveforms are 180º out of phase as the output is taken
at the collector of the phototransistor.

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5.16.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTOCOUPLERS

(i) Current Transfer Ratio (CTR) (ii) Isolation Voltage

(iii) Response Time (iv) Common Mode Rejection
(v)VCE (max) (vi) IL(max)
(vii) Bandwidth

(i) Current Transfer Ratio:

It is defined as the ratio of output collector current (Ic) to the input forward current (If)
CTR = Ic/If * 100%
Its value depends on the devices used as source & detector.

(ii) Isolation voltage between input & output:

It is the maximum voltage which can exist differentially between the input & output
without affecting the electrical isolation voltage is specified in K Vrms with a relative
humidity of 40 to 60%.

(iii)Response Time:
Response time indicates how fast an optocoupler can change its output state.
Response time largely depends on the detector transistor, input current & load
resistance.

(iv)Common mode Rejection:

Even though the optocouplers are electrically isolated for dc & low frequency
signals, an impulsive input signal (the signal which changes suddenly) can give rise
to a displacement current Ic= Cf*dv/dt. This current can flow between input & output
due to the capacitance Cf existing between input & output. These allow the noise to
appear in the output.

(v) VCE(max) : This is the maximum permissible dc voltage that can be allowed to flow
in the output transistor or output photodiode.

(vi) IL (max) : This is the maximum permissible dc current that CAN BE ALLOWED TO
FLOW IN THE INPUT led. Typical values vary from 40 mA to 100mA.

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(vii) Bandwidth: This is the maximum signal frequency that can be usefully passed
through the optocoupler when the device is operated in its normal mode. Typical
values vary from 20KHz to 500 KHz.

5.17. IC OPTOCOUPLER

The optocouplers are available in the IC form MCT2E is the standard

optocoupler IC which is used popularly in many electronic application. This input is
applied between pin 1& pin 2. An infrared light emitting diode is connected between
these pins. The infrared radiation from the LED gets focused on the internal
phototransistor. The base of the phototransistor is generally left open. But
sometimes a high value pull down resistance is connected from the Base to ground
to improve the sensitivity.

Fig 5.24 Circuit of MCT2E optocoupler

5.18. ISOLATION AMPLIFIER

An isolation amplifier is an amplifier that offers an ohmic or electrical isolation

between its input and output terminals. Isolation amplifiers are often used when there
is a very large common mode voltage difference between the input and output sides
of the device. They can provide voltage difference of several thousands of volts
between input and output. The isolation in the isolation amplifier is achieved by use
of transformer or by use of optically coupled devices.

Fig5.25 Different symbols used for isolation amplifiers

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An important characteristic of an isolation amplifier is the linearity of the input to

output transfer characteristic. But the non linear input current to light output
characteristic is a problem in this regard. There are various methods of obtaining a
high degree of linearity in optically coupled isolation amplifiers.

Fig5.26 LED-Phototransistor linearized isolation amplifier

Fig 5.26 shows an isolation amplifier in which a LED photo transistor couplers
are used as an opt isolators. As shown in Fig first LED phototransistor coupler is
used in the feedback loop of amplifier A1 and the second LED phototransistor
coupler is used at the input of amplifier A2. Both LED phototransistor couplers are
used with matched characteristic, are driven by the same amplifier, amplifier A1. Due
to the matched characteristic of the two LED photo transistor pairs the non linear
characteristic and temperature dependence get compensated.

5.19. FIBER OPTICS

Thus optical transmitter, optical fiber and optical receiver are the three
important components of a fiber optic system. But in practice when light propagates
along the fiber, it experiences an attenuation and delay distortion. The variable fiber
length and other conditions, distort the signal. Hence a quantizing circuit is generally
used after an optical receiver. The quantizer squares the signal and conforms to the
standard interface levels.

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Fig 5.27 Typical block diagram of fiber optic network

The implementation of fiber optic system requires highly reliable optical

emitters and transmitters at appropriate wavelengths and input-output characteristic.
The optical fiber with low attenuation and acceptable delay distortion are also
required. High sensitivity optical detectors and good deal of electronic circuitry, to
interface the optical components are also must in fiber optic system.

The two important advantages of fiber optic system over copper wire conventional
systems are,

1. The low level of attenuation on high frequency signals. This is hat is required for
long distance telephone lines and computer networks.

2. a lack of RFI radiation and a low sensitivity to EMI noise which increases the
accuracy and the security of the data transmission.

5.19.1. INTEGRATED FIBER OPTIC SYSTEM

All the devices such as optical modulator, optocouplers, wavelength

multiplexers and optical switches can be fabricated on a single wafer using diffusion
to obtain integrated fiber optic components. it is possible to fabricate electronic
components along with optical components to obtain monolithic fiber optic chip.
This chip provides low cost, highly reliable, highly functional, highly accurate
optical transmitters and receivers which can operate at very high data rates.

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Fig 5.28 Integrated optic modulator chip

An unmodulated light is obtained by a laser. It is coupled in to waveguide 1.

Waveguide 1 and 2 pass under a pair of electrodes which can be used to modulate
the coupling between the two waveguides. the optical power obtained from laser is
periodically switched between the two waveguides using square wave signal to drive
the electrodes. The waveguides 1 and 2 take modulated signal to another pair of
modulators. The modulator B can vary the coupling between waveguide 1 and 3
while the modulator C can vary the coupling between waveguide 2 and 4. Using
separate signals, the pulse streams from these waveforms are recombined in final
modulator D. Thus a composite optical bit stream is created.

TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

1.What is an Oscillator?
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An oscillator is a circuit used to generate ac signals without any ac input signal.

2. What are the conditions to be satisfied for sustained oscillations? (or) State
Barkhausen’s Criterion.(May 15)
 The Magnitude condition |Aβ|=1
 The Phase shift around the closed loop is 0° or 360°

3. How sine wave oscillators are classified on basis of frequency?

1.RC oscillator for audio frequency 2.LC oscillator for radio frequency.

4. Why there is no phase shift provided in feedback network in Wien bridge

Oscillator?
In the Wien bridge circuit, feedback network is connected to non- inverting input
terminal. So Op-amp works as non-inverting amplifier. Hence feedback does not
provide any phase shift.

5. What is a multivibrator?
Multivibrators are a group of regenerative circuits that are used extensively in timing
applications. It is a wave shaping circuit which gives symmetric or asymmetric
square output. It has two states either stable or quasi- stable depending on the type
of multivibrator.

6. What do you mean by monostable multivibrator?

Monostable multivibrator is one which generates a single pulse of specified duration
in response to each external trigger signal. It has only one stable state. Application of
a trigger causes a change to the quasi-stable state.An external trigger signal
generated due to charging and discharging of the capacitor produces the transition
to the original stable state.

7. What is an astable multivibrator?

Astable multivibrator is a free running oscillator having two quasi-stable states. Thus,
there is oscillations between these two states and no external signal are required to
produce the change in state.
8. What is a bistable multivibrator?

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Bistable multivibrator is one that maintains a given output voltage level unless an
external trigger is applied . Application of an external trigger signal causes a change
of state, and this output level is maintained indefinitely until an second trigger is
applied . Thus, it requires two external triggers before it returns to its initial state .

9. List the important basic building blocks of 555 Timer.

The important basic building blocks of 555 Timer are
1. A relaxation oscillator. 2. R-S flip-flop
3. Two comparators 4.Discharge transistors.

10. What are the modes of operation of a 555 Timer? (OR) list two types of
multivibrator (may 2014)
555mer has two basic operating modes, namely
1.Astable mode 2.Monostable mode.

11. Give the application of the 555-timer monostable multivibrator. .

(Nov/Dec 2013)
The applications of 555-timer monostable multivibrator are,
a) Frequency divider b) Pulse with modulation
c) Linear ramp generator d) Missing pulse detector
12. Give the applications of 555-timer Astable multivibrator. (Nov/Dec 2013)
The applications of 555-timer Astable multivibrator are,
a) Square wave generator b) Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
c) FSK Generator d) Schmitt trigger.

13. In a astable multivibrator using 555 timer RA=6.8K,RB=3.3K C= 0.1Μf.

Calculate the free running frequency. (DEC 2012)
Free running frequency F=1/T= 1.44/((RA+RB*2)*C)=1.074KHz

14. Give the formula for period of oscillations in an opamp astable circuit.(MAY
2013) F=1/T= 1.44/((RA+RB*2)*C)

15.Define duty cycle of a periodic pulse waveform.( MAY 2013)

Duty cycle D of a circuit is defined as the ratio of ON time to the total time period T=(
ton + toff ). It is expressed as, D=ton/T
For periodic pulse waveform Duty cycle D=50%

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16. Define duty cycle in astable multivibrator using IC555?(Apr-2011,DEC 2011)

Duty cycle D of a circuit is defined as the ratio of ON time to the total time
period T=( ton + toff ). It is expressed as,

17. Sketch the monostable multivibrator circuit diagram using IC555.(Nov-

2010)

18. In the monostable multivibrator, R= 100 KW and the time delay T=

100ms.Calculate the value of C.
Time delay of 555 monostable multivibrator, T=1.1 RC.
C=(T/1.1R) C = 0.9mF

19. What is a voltage regulator?

A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable DC voltage
independent of the load current, temperature and AC line voltage variations.

20. What is the main function of voltage regulator?

The main function of a voltage regulator is to provide a stable DC voltage for
processing other electronic circuits.

21. What are the different types of voltage regulators?

Voltage Regulators are classified as,
a) Fixed output voltage regulator (positive or negative)
b) Adjustable output voltage regulators (positive or negative)
c) Switching regulators.
d) Special regulators.

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22. What are switching regulators?

Regulators which operate the transistor as a high frequency ON/OFF switch, so that
the power transistor does not conduct current continuously is called switching
regulator.
23. What are the four main parts of voltage regulators?
The four main parts of voltage regulators are,
a) Reference voltage circuit b) Error amplifier
c) Series pole transistor d) Feedback Network.

24. What are the main advantages of voltage regulators?

The main advantages of voltage regulators are,
a) Short circuit Protection. b) Output Voltage can be varied.

25. Define line regulation or source regulation. (Nov/Dec 2013)

Line regulation is defined as the percentage change in the output voltage for a
change in the input voltage. It is usually expressed in millivolts or as percentage of
the input voltage. Mathematically expressed as,

SR = VHL – VLL and %SR = (SR /Vnom) * 100

Where, VHL is Load voltage with high line voltage

VLL is Load voltage with low line voltage
VNOM is Nominal Load voltage
26. Define Load regulation.
Load regulation is defined as the change in regulated output voltage for a change in
load current. It is usually expressed in millivolts or as a percentage of V 0.
% Load regulation = ( (VNL – VFL)/VFL) * 100
Where, VNL is Load voltage with no load current
VFL is Load voltage with full load current
27. What are the limitations of 723 regulators?
The limitations of 723 regulators are,
a) No built in thermal protection. b)It has no short circuit current limits.

28. What are the limitations of three terminal regulators? (May/June 2012)
1. Required input step down transformer is bulky and expensive

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2. Efficiency is very low

3. Input must be greater than output voltage
4. Due to low line frequency large value of filter capacitors are required

29. What is current limiting ability?

Current limiting ability refers to the ability of the regulator to prevent the load current
from increasing above a preset value.
30. What are the limitations of a linear mode or series regulator?
The limitations of a linear voltage regulator are,
 The input step down transformer is bulky and the most expensive component
of the linear regulated power supply mainly because of low line frequency.
 Since it operates at low line frequency, large values of filter capacitance are
required.
 Efficiency is less.
 More power is dissipated in the series pass transistor, which is always in the
active region.

31. Define ripple rejection with respect to voltage regulators.

Ripple rejection is a measure of regulator’s ability to reject ripple voltage and it is
expressed in dB.

32. What is a switching regulator?

Regulator which operate the transistor as a high frequency ON/OFF switch, so that
the power transistor does not conduct current continuously is called switching
regulator or switched mode regulator.

33. What is a switched capacitor filter? (May/June 2012)

A switched capacitor filter is a three terminal element, which consists of capacitors,
periodic switches and operational amplifiers and whose open circuit voltage transfer
function represents filtering characteristics. The operation of the filter is based on the
ability of on-chip capacitors and MOS switches to stimulate resistors.

34. What are the main advantages of switched capacitor filter?

a) Low system cost. b) Low external component count.
c) High accuracy. d) Excellent temperature stability.

35. What is meant by thermal shutdown applied to voltage regulators?

(Nov-2010)

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It is an important feature due to which the IC automatically gets turned off if internal
temperature becomes very high. The output current will drop and remain there until
the IC has cooled significantly.
36. What is frequency to voltage converter?
A converter which generates an output voltage (VO) that is linearly proportional to the
frequency of the input waveform (fI) is called frequency to voltage converter.

37. What is tuned amplifier?

Tuned amplifier circuits are designed to amplify a signal over a narrow band of
frequency at f0. To achieve this, tuned amplifier uses a tuned or resonant circuit as
load.

38. List the advantages of tuned amplifiers.

The advantages of tuned amplifiers are,
a) They amplify defined frequencies.
b) Signal to noise ratio at output is good.
c) They are well suited for radio transmitters and receivers.
d) The band of frequencies over which amplification is required can be
varied.

39. List the disadvantages of tuned amplifiers.

The disadvantages of tuned amplifiers are,
a) Since they use inductors and capacitors as tuning elements, the circuit
is bulky and costly.
b) If the band frequency is increased, design becomes complex.
c) They are not suitable to amplify audio frequencies.
40. Define current transfer ratio (CTR).
The current transfer ratio (CTR) refers to the ratio of the output collector current (Ic)
to the output forward current (IF).Current transfer ratio,

41. What is isolation amplifier? (DEC 2012)

An isolation amplifier is an amplifier that offers an ohmic or electrical isolation
between its input and output terminals. Isolation amplifiers are often used when there

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is a very large common mode voltage difference between the input and output sides
of the device.

42. List the advantage of fiber optic system over copper wire conventional
system.
The advantages of fiber optic system over copper wire system are,
 A low level of attenuation on high frequency signals. This is what is required
for long distance telephone lines and the computer networks.
 A lack of RFI radiation and a low sensitivity to EMI noise, which increases the
accuracy and the security of the data transmissions.
43. What is Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N).
In analog and digital communications, signal-to-noise ratio, often written S/N or SNR,
is a measure of signal strength relative to background noise. The ratio is usually
measured in decibels (dB). If the incoming signal strength in microvolts is V s, and the
noise level, also in microvolts, is Vn, then the signal-to-noise ratio, S/N, in decibels is
given by the formula
S/N = 20 log10 (Vs/Vn)

44. Draw the internal circuit for audio power amplifier. (Apr-2010)

Fig. Audio power amplifier using LM380

45. What are the three different wave forms generated by ICL80380.(Apr-2010)
o Sine Square Triangular
46. What is an optocoupler? Mention its applications? (Apr-2011, MAY2014)
In electronics, an optocoupler is a device that uses a short optical transmission path
to transfer a signal between elements of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a
receiver, while keeping them electrically isolated — since the signal goes from an
electrical signal to an optical signal back to an electrical signal, electrical contact
along the path is broken.

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The most common industrial use of the optocouplers (or optically-

coupled isolators) is as a signal converter between high-voltage pitot devices (limit
switches etc.) and low voltage solid-state logic circuits.
47.Name the various protection circuits used for voltage regulators.(Dec 2012)
1.current limit protection 2.current foldback 3.current boosting
PART B QUESTIONS

1. (i) How is voltage regulators classified? Explain a series voltage regulator. (8)
(ii) What is an opto coupler? Briefly explain its characteristics. (8)( May -
2010)
2. With a neat circuit diagram and internal functional diagram explain the
working of 555 timers in astable mode. (16) ( May - 2010)

3. (i) How can the current drive capability be increased while using three
terminal voltage regulators?
(ii) Design an adjustable voltage regulator circuit using LM317 for the
following specifications : Input dc voltage = l3.5 V Output DC voltage = 5 to 9 V
Load current (maximum) =1 A [16]( Dec-2010)

4. Describe the working of IC723 voltage regulator and explain the importance of
current limiting techniques. [16] ( Dec-2010)

5. (i) Draw the circuit using op-amp to generate triangular wave. Explain its
operation.(8)
(ii) With a neat diagram, explain the working of step-down switching
regulator.(8)(May - 2011)

6. (i) With suitable diagram, explain the working of a switched capacitor filter.
Also explain how resistor can be realized using switched capacitor filter.(8)
(ii)with necessary diagrams explain the operation of frequency to voltage
converters.(8) (May - 2011)

(i)with a neat functional block diagram, explain the working of IC555 in astable
mode(8) (Dec - 2011)
(ii) Describe in detail the working principle of IC 8038 function generator.(8)

7. (i) With a neat functional diagram explain the operation of LM 380 power
amplifier.(8)
(ii) Explain the operation of switched capacitor filter. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of this type of filter? (Dec - 2011)

8. Sketch the functional block diagram of the following and explain their working
principle:( May - 2012)
(i)IC 555 Timer. (8) (ii) General purpose voltage regulator IC 723. (8)

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9. (i) With neat diagram, explain the working principle of isolation amplifier. (8)
(ii) With neat diagram, explain the principle of operation of optocouplers. (8)
(May - 2012)

10. Draw the functional block diagram, explain the working of IC555 in astable
mode and derive expression for frequency.( Dec - 2012)

11. (i) Draw and explain the function block diagram of a 723 IC regulator and
make the necessary changes to make it as low voltage regulator. ( Dec -
2012)(May15)
(ii) Write short notes on( Dec - 2012)
(i) opto couplers (ii) switching regulators

12. State the advantages of IC voltage regulators. Explain the features and
internal structure of general purpose linear IC723 regulator. Design a regulator
using IC 723 to meet the following specifications: v0=5v: I0=100Ma,vin= 15+- 20%
Isc=150mA vsense=0.7v(May – 2013)

13. Write detailed notes on the following:

1) low noise op amps 2) integrated fiber optic system(May – 2013)

14. (i)Explain the working of monostable multivibrator with necessary diagram and
drive for ON time and recovery time.(10)(May 15)
(ii)what are opto couplers?( Dec - 2013)

15. (i)Explain the working of general purpose voltage regulator.(14)

(ii)What is the need for isolation amplifiers?(2) ( Dec - 2013)

16. With neat diagram explain IC723 General Purpose regulator. (16)( May -
2014)

17. Explain in detail voltage to frequency and frequency to voltage converters.

(16)( May – 2014, 15)

18. Design a phase shift oscillator to oscillate at 100Hz.(May 15)

19. Briefly describe about monolithic switching regulators(10) (May 15)

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