3/10/2021

OPEN AND VIRTUALIZED

NETWORKS

Internet protocols and applications

planet.polito.it

INTRODUCTION

▪ A network is a combination of hardware and software that

sends data from one location to another

▪ The hardware consists of the physical equipment that

carries signals from one point in the network to another

▪ The software consists of instructions that make possible

services that we expect from a network

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NETWORK CRITERIA
A network must be able to meet a number of criteria:
1. Performance can be measured in many ways, including
transit time and response time. It depends on a number of
factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, H/W capabilities, and S/W efficiency
2. Reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time
it takes to recover from a failure, and the network’s
robustness in a catastrophe.
3. Network security includes protecting data from
unauthorized access, damage and change, and
implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses

AN INTERNET

▪ Today, it is very rare to see a network in isolation: networks are

connected to one another.
▪ When two or more networks are connected, they become an
internetwork, or an internet (lowercase “i”).
▪ A network is a group of devices, while an internet is two or more
networks that can communicate with each other thanks to the routers

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ROUTER

▪ A router is a device that forwards data packets toward their

destinations through a process known as routing
▪ It operates between computer networks creating an
overlay internetwork
▪ A router is connected to two or more data lines from
different networks. When a data packet comes in one of the
lines, the router reads the address information in the packet
to determine its ultimate destination
▪ Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy,
it directs the packet to the next network on its journey
performing the "traffic directing" functions on the internet

THE INTERNET

▪ The most notable internet is the Internet

▪ A collaboration of hundreds of thousands of interconnected
networks
▪ Private individuals, as well as various organizations such as
government agencies, schools, research facilities, corporations
and libraries in more than 100 countries use the Internet
▪ It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the Internet,
because it is continually changing: networks are added and
removed
▪ Today, most end users who want an Internet connection use the
services of Internet service providers (ISPs)

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WHAT ARE THE INTERNET EFFECTS IN OUT DAILY LIVES?

▪ An ISP: is an organization of two or more servers, connected

to the Internet through high-speed links
▪ There are International ISP, National ISP, Regional ISP, and
local SP
▪ The Internet today is run by private companies not the
government

WHAT IS A PROTOCOL?

▪ Rules and conventions explaining how something must be done

▪ Used to describe how devices can communicate
▪ Protocol also defines the format of Data exchanging.

If we both utilize the same protocol then you know how to format data
so I will understand it and I know how to format data so you will
understand it

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

▪ To divide the services required to perform a task, the Internet has

created a set of rules called protocols:

TCP/IP protocol suite

▪ These protocols allow different local and wide area networks,
using different technologies, to be connected together and carry
a message from one point to another
▪ The set, or suite, of protocols that controls the Internet today is
referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite
▪ TCP/IP is the abbreviation of (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol)

PURPOSE OF THE TCP/IP….

▪ The Internet Protocol defines the basic unit of data transfer (IP
Datagram)
▪ IP software performs the routing function
▪ IP includes a set of rules that process the idea of unreliable packet
delivery
▪ How hosts and routers should process packets
▪ How & when error messages should be generated
▪ The Conditions under which packets can be discarded

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CONSTRUCTION OF DATAGRAMS….

▪ Each #datagram has two components

▪ Header
▪ Payload

Header + Data (Payload)

Packet

Packets are in general a superset of datagrams with additional delivery-control

information

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TCP/IP SERVICE

▪ Delivery service of IP is minimal

▪ IP provides an unreliable connectionless best effort service

▪ Unreliable: IP doesn’t make an attempt to recover lost
packets
▪ Connectionless: Each packet is handled independently
▪ Best Effort: IP doesn’t make guarantees on the service ( No
through output , No delay guarantee…)

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TCP/IP SERVICE

▪ TCP/IP supports the following services

▪ One-to-one (unicast)
▪ One-to-all (broadcast)
▪ One-to-several (multicast)

unicast
broadcast multicast

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5-LAYER MODEL

The TCP/IP protocol suite today is normally

considered as a five-layer model

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SNTANDARDIZATION AGENCIES

▪ ISO
▪ The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an international standard-setting
body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations.
▪ Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary, industrial and
commercial standards. It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of 2015 works in 196
countries.
▪ OSI
▪ Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is an effort to standardize computer networking that was
started in 1977 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), along with the ITU-T
▪ ITU
▪ The International Telecommunication Union is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN)
that is responsible for issues that concern information and communication technologies.
▪ The ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is one of the three sectors (divisions
or units) of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU); it coordinates standards for
telecommunications.

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7-LEVEL OSI REFERENCE MODEL

▪ Open Systems
Interconnection Reference Layer 7: Application
Model
Application Layer 6: Presentation
▪ Splits communication
system into seven layers Layer 5: Session

▪ Each layer performs their Layer 4: Transport

task and passes the data Layer 3: Network
to the next layer
Layer 2: Data Link

Layer 1: Physical

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OSI Model (from wikipedia)

Protocol data
Layer Function[3]
unit (PDU)
High-level APIs, including resource sharing, remote file
7. Application access

Translation of data between a networking service and

6. Presentation an application;including character
Data encoding, datacompression and encryption/decryption
Host
layers Managing communication sessions, i.e. continuous
5. Session exchange of information in the form of multiple back-
and-forth transmissions between two nodes

Reliable transmission of data segments between points

Segment (TCP) on a network,
4. Transport / Datagram (UDP) including segmentation, acknowledgement and multiple
xing

Structuring and managing a multi-node

3. Network Packet
network,including addressing,routing and traffic control
Media
layers Reliable transmission of data frames between two
2. Data link Frame
nodes connected by a physical layer

Transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a

1. Physical Bit
physical medium
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APPLICATION CONNECTION

▪ The layers involved when a message is sent from device A to

device B. As the message travels from A to B, it may pass
through many IP routers. IP routers use only the first three
layers.
▪ Each layer calls – and relies on - the services of the layers
immediately below it

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LAYERS AND PROTOCOLS

▪ We review the function of each layer in the TCP/IP

protocol suite and the structure of the related
protocol

▪ We show how an application message travels

through the different layers until it reaches the
physical layer – the binary symmetric channel - and it
is sent by the transmission media – wireless, wired,
etc…

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APPLICATION LAYER

▪ The application layer enables a user, whether human

or software, to access the network.
▪ It provides support for services such as electronic
mail, remote file access and transfer, browsing the
World Wide Web, peer-to-peer connections, and so
on

The application layer is responsible for providing services

to the user

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APPLICATION LAYER

▪ This layer is what the user sees…

▪ Loading an application such as web browser or email..

▪ Provides Interface for users to communicate with

applications

▪ Examples
▪ Email, Instant Messengers, Http , SMTP, Telnet, Ping… etc…

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CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE

▪ There are two architectures (designs) that allow two

application programs, running on two remote computers, to
communicate with each other
▪ client-server architecture is more common
▪ Alternative is a peer-to-peer connection that most of the time uses
in any case a server

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APPLICATION-LAYER ADDRESS

▪ When a client needs to send a request to a server, it needs

the server application-layer address. For example, to identify
one particular site, the client uses a Uniform Resource
Locator (URL). As we will see later, the server application-
layer address is not used for delivery of messages, it only
helps the client to find the actual address of the server
computer.

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APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS

▪ Application layer protocols defined the rules when

implementing specific network applications

▪ Examples :
▪ FTP – (File Transfer Protocol)
▪ Telnet – (Remote Terminal Protocol)
▪ SMTP – (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
▪ HTTP – (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
▪ … many others…

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TRANSPORT LAYER

▪ The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

delivery of the entire message: logical communication is
created between the transport layer of the client and the
server computer.
▪ Although physical communication is between two physical
layers (through many possible links and routers), the two
application layers consider the transport layer as the agent
that takes responsibility for delivering the messages

The transport layer is responsible for the logical

delivery of a message between
client and server processes
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TRANSPORT LAYER

▪ The transport layer is responsible for delivering data to the

appropriate application process on the host computers. This
involves statistical multiplexing of data from different application
processes, i.e., forming data segments, and adding source and
destination port numbers in the header of each data segment
▪ Breaks information into segments and is responsible for
connection (TCP) & connectionless (UDP) communication
▪ Hardware
▪ Proxy Server , Gateways , Firewall, etc.
▪ Transport Layer Protocols
▪ TCP
▪ UDP

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COMMUNICATION AT THE TRANSPORT LAYER

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TRANSPORT-LAYER ADDRESSES: PORT NUMBERS

▪ The server computer may be running several processes at

the same time
▪ For example an FTP server process and an HTTP server
process
▪ When the message arrives at the server, it must be directed
to the correct process. We need another address for server
process identification, called a port number

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TRANSPORT-LAYER PROTOCOLS

▪ During the life of the TCP/IP protocol suite two main transport layer protocols have
been designed: UDP and TCP. The choice of transport layer protocol depends on the
application
▪ User Datagram Protocol (UDP): it is the simplest and faster of all protocols. Do not ask for
packet resending. Used for instance in video streaming
• Communications to/from Domain Name System (DNS)
• Streaming media applications such as movies
• Online multiplayer games
• Voice over IP (VoIP)
▪ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): it is a protocol that supports all the duties of a
transport layer. It is the most commonly used by Internet applications. It relies on
buffering and packet resending requests. However, it is not as fast and as efficient as UDP.
• World Wide Web(HTTP)
• E-mail (SMTP TCP)
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Secure Shell (SSH)

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THE NETWORK LAYER

▪ The network layer is responsible for the source-to-

destination - computer-to-computer or host-to-host -
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks and
links
▪ The network layer ensures that each packet gets from its
point of origin to its final destination

The network layer is responsible for the delivery

of individual packets from the source host to the
destination host

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FUNCTIONS OF THE NETWORK LAYER (I)

▪ Connection model: connectionless communication

▪ For example, IP is connectionless, in that a datagram can travel
from a sender to a recipient without the recipient having to send
an acknowledgement. Connection-oriented protocols exist at
other, higher layers of the OSI model: transport layer
▪ Host addressing
▪ Every host in the network must have a unique address that
determines where it is. This address is normally assigned from a
hierarchical system. On the Internet, addresses are known as
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses.

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FUNCTIONS OF THE NETWORK LAYER (II)

▪ Message forwarding
▪ Since many networks are partitioned into subnetworks
and connect to other networks for wide-area
communications, networks use specialized hosts,
called gateways or routers, to forward packets between
networks.
▪ Routing
▪ To find out the best path to forward the packets using
shortest path and Routing Table. It happens only in
routers at Network Layer

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NETWORK LAYER

▪ This layer deals with Packets (Data Bundles)

▪ Responsible for logical addressing and routing

▪ Devices
▪ Routers, Layer 3 Switches, Firewalls.. Etc.

▪ Network Layer Protocols

▪ ARP, IP, RIP, IGRP..

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NETWORK-LAYER ADDRESSES

▪ Packets traveling from the client to the server and packets

returning from the server need a network-layer address
▪ The server address is provided by the server, as discussed
above, while the client address is known by the client
computer

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ROUTING

▪ The network layer has a specific duty: routing

▪ Routing means determination of the partial or the total path
of a packets
▪ As the Internet is a collection of networks (LANs, WANs, and
MANs), the delivery of a packet from its source to its
destination may be a combination of several deliveries:
▪ a source-to-router delivery
▪ several router-to-router delivery
▪ a router-to-destination delivery

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ROUTING AT THE NETWORK LAYER

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NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS

▪ Network layer protocols define the rules of how to find the

routers for a packet to the destination.
▪ It only gives best effort delivery: packets can be delayed,
corrupted, lost or out of order
▪ The TCP/IP protocol suite supports one main protocol (IP) and
several auxiliary protocols to help IP to perform its duties.
▪ Examples :
▪ IP – Internet Protocol (Provides packet delivery)
▪ ARP – Address Resolution Protocol (Defines the procedure of network address /
mac address translation)
▪ ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol (Defines the procedure of error
message transfer)

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INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)

▪ The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal communications protocol in the

Internet protocol suite for relaying datagrams across network boundaries. Its
routing function enables internetworking, and essentially establishes the
Internet
▪ IP has the task of delivering packets from the source host to the destination
host solely based on the IP addresses in the packet headers. For this
purpose, IP defines packet structures that encapsulate the data to be
delivered. It also defines addressing methods that are used to label the
datagram with source and destination information
▪ Historically, IP was the connectionless datagram service in the original
Transmission Control Program introduced by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974;
the other being the connection-oriented Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
The Internet protocol suite is therefore often referred to as TCP/IP

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THE IP ADDRESS

▪ The current version is IPv4 (version 4) although IPv6

(version 6) is also in use, although not ubiquitously
▪ IPv4 is responsible for the delivery of a packet from the
source computer to the destination computer
▪ For this purpose, every computer and router operating
in the Internet is identified by a 32-bit IP address, which
is presented in dotted decimal notation

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IP ADDRESS V4
The notation divides the 32-bit address into four 8-bit
sections and writes each section as a decimal number
between 0 and 255 with three dots separating the
sections. For example, an IPv4 address

00001010 00011001 10101100 00001111

is written as

10.25.172.15
Dotted-Decimal Notation

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WHO CONTROLS IP ADDRESSES

▪ For the internet to work, everyone needs a unique Internet

Protocol (IP) address. To coordinate the distribution of these
addresses, the internet is broken up into five zones.
▪ Each zone has been assigned hundreds of millions of IP
addresses to manage.
▪ Unfortunately, the original internet architecture, called IPv4,
only allows for about 4 billion addresses, and the network
has nearly exhausted the supply
▪ The problem is particularly growing in fast-growing regions
like Asia.

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WHO CONTROLS IP ADDRESSES

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INTERNET DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS)

▪ IP addresses have a numeric format like this:

216.146.46.10.
▪ But it's easier for people to remember domain
names such as vox.com.
▪ The domain name system (DNS) acts like a directory
system, telling computers wanting to view a website
like www.vox.com what IP address to access

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NATIONAL INTERNET DOMAIN IN EU

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PRIVATE IP NETWORK

▪ I can set a private IP network defing IP addresses

operating only within the private network
▪ In this case, only the router to the Internet has a
public IP address that will be the «label» for every
packet incoming or outgoing the private network

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CLASS RANGES OF INTERNET ADDRESSES

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CLASS A

▪ Class A addresses are assigned to networks with a very large

number of hosts
▪ The high-order bit in a class A address is always set to zero.
▪ The next seven bits (completing the first octet) complete the
network ID.
▪ The remaining 24 bits represent the host ID.

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CLASS B

▪ Class B addresses are assigned to medium-sized to large-

sized networks.
▪ The two high-order bits in a class B address are always set to
binary 1 0.
▪ The next 14 bits complete the network ID.
▪ The remaining 16 bits represent the host ID.

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CLASS C

▪ Class C addresses are used for small networks.

▪ The three high-order bits in a class C address are always set
to binary 1 1 0.
▪ The next 21 bits complete the network ID.
▪ The remaining 8 bits represent the host ID.

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CLASS D & E

▪ Class D addresses are reserved for IP multicast addresses.

▪ The four high-order bits in a class D address are always set to binary 1 1 1 0.
▪ The remaining bits are for the address that interested hosts recognize.

▪ Class E is an experimental address that is reserved for future

use
▪ The high-order bits in a class E address are set to 1111.

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CLASS RANGES OF NETWORK IDS…

Address Class First Network ID Last Network ID

Class A 1.0.0.0 126.0.0.0

Class B 128.0.0.0 191.255.0.0

Class C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.0

▪ The network ID cannot begin with the number 127. The

number 127 in a class A address is reserved for internal
loopback functions.

▪ All bits within the network ID cannot be set to 1. All 1's in the
network ID are reserved for use as an IP broadcast address.

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SUBNETTING….

▪ Subnetting enables the network administrator to further

divide the host part of the address into two or more subnets.
▪ In this case, a part of the host address is reserved to identify
the particular subnet.
▪ This is easier to see if we show the IP address in binary
format.

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SUBNET MASK….

▪ Subnet masks are frequently expressed in dotted decimal notation.

▪ Subnet mask is not an IP address.
▪ Each host on a TCP/IP network requires a subnet mask even on a single
segment network.

Address Class Bits for Subnet Mask Subnet Mask

Class A 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000 255.0.0.0

Class B 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 255.255.0.0

Class C 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000 255.255.255.0

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JOURNEY TO IP VERSIONS…

▪ IPV(1-3) : were not formally assigned.

▪ IPV4 : TCP/IP , 32bit IP address currently used.

▪ IPV5 : Internet Stream Protocol (SP)

▪ Experimental Protocol
▪ Never Introduced for public use.

▪ IPV6 : Designed to replace IPV4 , 128bit IP address

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FEATURES OF IPV4…

▪ Connectionless protocol and best effort based.

▪ Simplicity
▪ It is simpler and easy to remember
▪ Require less memory

▪ Familiarity
▪ Millions of devices are already knowing it
▪ Existing infrastructure already support it

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BENEFITS OF IPV4….

▪ Widely support

▪ Shorter & Sweeter

▪ Support of all Operating Systems

▪ All commonly used protocols are supported

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SHORTCOMING OF IPV4….

▪ IPV4 specification didn’t identify any security mechanism.

▪ Millions of class A addresses are wasted.
▪ Many class B addresses also wasted.
▪ Not so many organizations are so small to have a class C
block.
▪ Class E addresses were reserved for future purposes.

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IPV4 SUPPORTING DEVICES..

▪ PCs
▪ Servers
▪ Modems
▪ Routers
▪ Printers
▪ Cameras
▪ Smart Phones
▪ Tablets & Gaming Systems
▪ Just about anything else connecting to the Internet

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WHY IPV6…..?

IPV6 provides a platform on new internet

functionality that will be needed in the
immediate future and provide flexibility for
future
growth and
expansion.

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BENEFITS OF IPV6…..
Large address space
New header format

Extensibility
IPV6

Built in Security Better support for QoS

Efficient & hierarchical addressing and routing

infrastructure

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DATA LINK LAYER

▪ As we saw in the previous section, the network layer

packet may pass through several routers in its journey
from its source to its destination
▪ Carrying the packet from one node to another, where a
node can be a computer or a router, is the responsibility
of the data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for

node-to-node delivery of frames

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DATA LINK LAYER

▪ This layer deals with MAC addresses of devices

▪ Responsible for Physical Addressing , Error correction &

preparing the information for the media frames.

▪ Devices
▪ Switches , Bridges , Wireless Access Points , NICs, etc.

▪ Data Link Layer Protocols & Standards

▪ L2TP, PPP,SLIP etc….

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COMMUNICATION AT THE DATA-LINK LAYER

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DATA-LINK LAYER ADDRESSES

▪ Two questions that come to mind are how computer A

knows the data-link layer address of router R1, or router R1
knows the data-link layer address of router R4
▪ A device can find the data-link address of another device
either statically or dynamically.

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MAC ADDRESS

▪ A media access control address (MAC address) of a

computer is a unique identifier assigned to network
interfaces for communications at the data link
layer of a network segment. MAC addresses are used
as a network address for most IEEE 802 network
technologies, including Ethernet and Wi-Fi. Logically,
MAC addresses are used in the media access
control protocol sublayer of the OSI reference model

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DATA-LINK LAYER ADDRESSES

▪ Unlike IP addresses, addresses at the data-link layer cannot

be universal. Each data link protocol may have a different
address format and size
▪ The Ethernet protocol, the most prevalent local area network
in use today, uses a 48-bit address, which is normally written
in hexadecimal format (grouped in six sections, each with
two hexadecimal digits) as shown below:

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PHYSICAL LAYER

▪ The physical layer coordinates the functions required to

carry a bit stream over a physical medium.
▪ Although the data link layer is responsible for moving a
frame from one node to another, the physical layer is
responsible for moving the individual bits that make up the
frame to the next node.
▪ In other words, the unit of transfer in the data link layer is a
frame, while the unit of transfer in the physical layer is a bit:
the physical layer is a cascade of BSC

The physical layer is responsible for node-to-node delivery

of bits
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PHYSICAL LAYER

▪ This layer deals with the Hardware of networks

▪ Physical Layer Hardware

▪ Cables , Connectors, Hubs, Repeaters.. Etc.

▪ Function :
▪ Manages signaling to and from physical network connections

▪ Physical Layer Protocols & Standards

▪ Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Token Ring (IEEE 802.5), Wi-Fi (IEEE
802.11)

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DUTY OF THE PHYSICAL LAYER

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SUMMARY OF LAYERS

▪ Summary of the duties of each layer in the TCP/IP protocol

and the addresses involved in each layer.

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AN EXCHANGE USING THE TCP/IP MODEL

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INTERNET APPLICATIONS

▪ The main task of the Internet is to provide services

for users

▪ Among the most popular applications are

▪ electronic mail
▪ remote login
▪ file transfer
▪ accessing the World Wide Web (WWW)
▪ chats
▪ ….

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ELECTRONIC-MAIL (E-MAIL)

▪ Electronic mail (e-mail).

▪ This application cannot be supported by one client process
and one server process: it is actually the union of two client-
server provesses
▪ The reason is that e-mail is exchange of messages between
two entities. Although the sender of the e-mail can be a
client program, the receiver cannot be the corresponding
server, because that implies that the receiver must let their
computer run all the time, as they do not know when an e-
mail will arrive

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E-MAIL ARCHITECTURE

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E-MAIL ACCESS PROTOCOLS

▪ Stored e-mail remains on the mail server until it is retrieved

by the recipient through an access protocol. Currently two e-
mail access protocols are in common use: Post Office
Protocol, Version 3 (POP3) and Internet Mail Access Protocol
(IMAP)

▪ E-mail addresses

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MULTI-PURPOSE INTERNET MAIL EXTENSION (MIME)

▪ Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) is a

supplementary protocol that allows non-ASCII data to be
sent through SMTP. MIME is not an e-mail protocol and
cannot replace SMTP, it is only an extension to SMTP

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FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)

▪ File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the standard mechanism for

one of the most common tasks on the Internet, copying a file
from one computer to another: it is indeed a client-server
process

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REMOTE LOGIN – TELNET

▪ The main task of the application layer is to provide services for

users. One way to satisfy these demands is to create different
client-server application programs for each desired service
▪ Programs such as file transfer programs (FTP and SMTP), and so
on are already available. However, it would be impossible to write
a client-server program for each specific application
▪ TELNET is a general-purpose client-server program that lets a
user access any application program on a remote computer. In
other words, it allows the user to log onto a remote computer.
After logging on, a user can use the services available on the
remote computer and transfer the results back to the local
computer

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LOCAL LOGIN

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REMOTE LOGIN

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THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

▪ The World Wide Web (WWW), or just “the Web”, is a

repository of linked information spread all over the world
▪ The WWW has a unique combination of flexibility, portability
and user-friendly features that distinguish it from other
services provided by the Internet
▪ The WWW today is a distributed client-server service in
which a client using a browser can access a service using a
server
▪ However, the service provided is distributed over many
locations, called web sites.

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HYPERTEXT AND HYPERMEDIA

▪ The WWW uses the concept of hypertext and hypermedia. In

a hypertext environment, information is stored in a set of
documents that are connected together using the concept of
links.

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COMPONENTS OF WWW

▪ To use the WWW we need three components:

▪ a browser
▪ a web server
▪ a protocol called Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

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HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTTP)

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used

mainly to access data on the World Wide Web.

HTTP transaction
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THE UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR (URL)

▪ A client that wants to access a document needs an address

▪ To facilitate the access of documents distributed throughout
the world, HTTP uses the concept of locators
▪ The uniform resource locator (URL) is a standard for
specifying any kind of information on the Internet.

URL structure
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CATEGORIES FOR WWW DOCUMENTS

▪ The documents on the WWW can be grouped into three

broad categories:
▪ Static
▪ Dynamic
▪ Active
▪ This categorization is based on the time at which the
contents of the document are determined.

▪ Static documents are fixed-content documents that

are created and stored on a server

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HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE (HTML)

▪ Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is a language for

creating Web pages.

HTML example
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EXTENSIBLE MARKUP LANGUAGE (XML)

▪ HTML adds formatting capability to a document, but it does

not define the type of data
▪ Extensible Markup Language
(XML) is a language in which tags can be used to define the
content (type) of the text between two tags

Comparing HTML and XML

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DYNAMIC DOCUMENTS

▪ A dynamic document is created by a Web server

whenever a browser requests the document
▪ When a request arrives, the Web server runs an
application program that creates the dynamic
document
▪ The server returns the output of the program as a
response to the browser that requested the
document.

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ACTIVE DOCUMENTS

▪ For many applications we need to be able to run a program or a

script at the client site. These are called active documents
▪ Example
▪ Suppose we want to run a program that creates animated graphics on the screen,
or a program that interacts with the user
▪ The program definitely needs to be run on the client computer where the
animation or interaction takes place
▪ When a browser requests an active document, the server sends a
copy of the document or a script
▪ The document is then run under the control of the client’s
browser

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VIDEOCONFERENCING

▪ Videoconferencing can eliminate the cost of traveling, and

save time and energy, by providing communication between
two or more groups of participants or a set of individual
participants

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CHAT

Another popular class of Internet application is

chat
This is a real-time application like
videoconferencing, in which two or more parties
are involved in an exchange of text and optionally
audio and video.
The two parties can send text to each other, talk to
each other (the same way as they might talk on the
phone), and even see each other with suitable
cameras.

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PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING

▪ Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed

application architecture that partitions tasks or work loads
between peers
▪ Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the
application
▪ They are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes
▪ The concept was popularized by file sharing systems such as the
music-sharing application Napster (1999)
▪ The peer-to-peer movement allowed millions of Internet users to
connect directly, forming groups and collaborating to become
user-created search engines, virtual supercomputers, and
filesystems

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PEER-TO-PEER ARCHITECTURE

▪ A peer-to-peer network is designed around the notion of equal peer nodes

simultaneously functioning as both "clients" and "servers" to the other nodes on the
network
▪ This model of network arrangement differs from the client–server model where
communication is usually to and from a central server.
▪ Peer-to-peer networks generally implement some form of virtual overlay network on
top of the physical network topology, where the nodes in the overlay form a subset of
the nodes in the physical network.
▪ Data is still exchanged directly over the underlying TCP/IP network, but at the application
layer peers are able to communicate with each other directly, via the logical overlay links
(each of which corresponds to a path through the underlying physical network).
▪ Like any other form of software, P2P applications can contain vulnerabilities.
▪ What makes this particularly dangerous for P2P software, however, is that peer-to-peer
applications act as servers as well as clients, meaning that they can be more vulnerable to
remote exploits

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WEB BROWSERS

▪ For the first decade of the 21st century, the internet was dominated
by Microsoft Internet Explorer.
▪ In 2009, the software was the most popular way to browse the web
in most countries, with Firefox popular in some parts of Eastern
Europe and Asia
▪ Since then Google's Chrome browser, which first released in 2008,
has exploded in popularity. It is now the most popular browser in
almost every developed country
▪ On the other hand, in much of sub-Saharan Africa, the most popular
browser was Opera. This is probably because many people in these
countries access the internet using their cell phones, and Opera
offers a mobile browser that works well on low-end smartphones

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WATCH GOOGLE CHROME TAKE OVER THE WEB

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SOCIAL NETWORKS

▪ In 2009, Facebook was already one of the most popular

social networks in the world, but over the last five years it
has become totally dominant.
▪ For example, in 2009 Brazil was dominated by Orkut, a social
network created by Google in 2004. But Facebook surpassed Orkut
in Brazil in 2011.
▪ One factor in Facebook's growing global popularity is
Facebook Zero. Under this program, Facebook pays the data
charges for users who log into a stripped down version of
Facebook from their mobile phones. The program has made
Facebook accessible to millions of users who wouldn't
otherwise be able to afford it.

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WATCH FACEBOOK TAKE OVER THE INTERNET

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DATA CENTER

▪ If you've entrusted your data to Google, Facebook, or Microsoft, there's

a good chance it's stored at a location marked on the following map.
Smaller web companies store their servers in data centers managed by
third parties, but the internet's largest companies have their own
dedicated data centers (and networks) with hundreds of thousands of
servers in them.
▪ These data centers are located around the world. That has two
advantages.
▪ First, locating data centers close to users allows data to be delivered more
quickly.
▪ Second, it helps provide redundancy: if user data is kept in multiple locations, it
will be safe even in the event of a catastrophic failure at one data center.

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MAP OF DATA CENTERS

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WATCH PEOPLE WAKE UP ON TWITTER

▪ One of the amazing

things about the
internet is the way it
permits the collection
and aggregation of
large-scale data about
human behavior
▪ For example, this map
shows where people
are tweeting about
sunrises over the
course of a 24-hour
period

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WHAT WIKIPEDIA KNOWS

▪ Wikipedia is a global online encyclopedia that anyone can

edit, and it has editions in more than 280 languages.
▪ Many articles are "geotagged" with a physical location.
▪ Researchers at the Oxford Internet Institute plotted these
points on a map, providing a beautiful map of the locations
that are subjects of Wikipedia articles.

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WHAT WIKIPEDIA KNOWS

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LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD ACCORDING TO TWITTER

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