PANDIT DEENDAYAL PETROLEUM UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MANUFACTURING PROCESS –II (19ME310P

(19ME310P)
LAB
LABORATORY MANUAL
SEMESTER – VI

Name:

Enrollment No:

Batch:
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

Mr/Miss ____________________________________
Roll no.______________________ of class 6th sem. of
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Has satisfactorily completed the course in

MANUFACTURING PROCESS –II (19ME 310P)
Within four walls of
PANDIT DEENDAYAL PETROLEUM UNIVERSITY,
Gandhinagar.
Gandhinagar.

Date of submission:

Faculty in charge
 INDEX

Exp. Page
Date Name of the Experiment Mark Sign
No No.
To study the safety aspects of
conventional and non-conventional
1 machining operations and Study of
specification of machines through
different catalogs.
2 A study on Lathe and its operations.
Prepare a Job of required shape and size
on Lathe Machine by using facing, plain
3 turning, step turning, knurling, external
thread cutting, boring, and internal
thread cutting operations
Prepare a Job of required shape and size
4
on Milling Machine
Prepare a Job of required shape and size
5
on Drilling Machine.
Prepare a Job of required shape and size
6
on Grinding Machine.

Prepare a Job of required shape and size

7
on Shaping Machine

Non-Conventional machining by using

8 RAM-EDM and effect of process
parameters
Non-Conventional machining by using
9 Wire-EDM and effect of process
parameters
Non- Conventional machining by using
10 Electrochemical Machining (ECM) and
effect of process parameters

TOTAL
 Experiment 1

Aim: To study the safety aspects of conventional and non-conventional machining operations
and Study of specification of machines through different catalogs.

PRODUCTION LAB SAFETY RULES

1. Approved safety glasses shall be worn at ALL times when in the lab area. Your eyes can
be damaged even if you are not running a machine. Prescription glasses made in the
USA are required to provide a minimal level of protection, but do not provide side
protection. These will be accepted if the student chooses, but goggles or a face shield
may be worn over prescription glasses for maximum protection.

2. Never operate a machine unless you have been properly trained to run it safely. If you
have not taken a course on the machine you would like to run, you must be checked out
on it by an instructor. If you are uncertain about anything, ask someone who knows, DO
NOT GUESS what to do.

3. Short sleeves, long pants, and substantial shoes are preferred dress. Students with loose,
or otherwise hazardous clothing will not be allowed to operate machines. Long hair must
be tied up out of the way. Loose long sleeves should be rolled up to avoid getting caught
in rotating equipment. Rings and loose or dangling jewelry must be removed. When in
doubt, check with your instructor. You will be involved with oil and dirt, so the clothes
you wear should be work clothes.

4. Handling metal chips with your bare hands can result in injury and should be avoided.
Use the chip brushes provided for cleanup.

5. Never take your hand off of a lathe chuck wrench or drill press chuck key while it is in
the chuck. This helps you to avoid leaving the wrench in the chuck, starting the machine,
and causing injury and damage.

6. Safety glasses must be worn when using compressed air nozzles. Compressed air nozzles
are to be used only inside the hooded cleaning stations provided in each lab. Never direct
an compressed air blast toward a person: compressed air can penetrate the skin, enter the
blood, and cause immediate death.
7. Never leave a machine tool motor running if you need to leave the immediate vicinity of
the machine. If a power feed is engaged, do not move out of easy reach of the controls of
the machine.

8. Immediately report any faulty operation of a machine to the instructor and do not
proceed until safety to do so have been established.

9. Immediately report any broken or missing tool to the instructor, whether broken by you
or not. Do your part to keep things up.

10. Carefully clean all chips and dirt from any machine accessories before assembly: your
safety and accuracy depend on taking this care.

11. Tools that are racked on a machine should be returned to the rack when not actually in
use; all other small tools and parts should be placed on the wooden tray provided on each
machine.

12. Use the chuck block when mounting or removing a chuck or drive plate.

13. Cutting tools that can cut metal can cut you! Always handle them with a folded paper
towel to avoid cutting yourself. Remove cutting tools and other sharp objects from a
machine as soon as possible following use.

14. Always keep your hands and the rest of your body at least six inches from any moving
cutter or part. Remember that you are not alone in the lab and that you need a margin of
safety in case someone should bump into you.

15. Always stop any machine tool motor before making a setup, making an adjustment,
taking a measurement, or oiling. This does not apply to making feed adjustments by
using the hand wheels and cranks.

16. Belt guards and machine covers must be in place before starting and during operation of
any machine.

17. As a normal course of action, disengage all feeds before disengaging or shutting off the
main drive of the machine. Leaving feeds engaged can set yourself or the next person up
for a dangerous surprise.

18. The judgment of the instructor regarding the safety of a student running a machine will
be the last word. Any student who argues with the instructor regarding continuing to
operate a machine in a manner that the instructor considers unsafe will be expelled from
the lab.
19. A student that persists in behaving in an unsafe manner, whether through haste,
indifference, or lack of understanding may be suspended from further participation in the
lab and will be assigned a term paper in lieu of the lab. In most cases the first safety
infraction will result in a verbal warning, the second in a written warning, and
suspension will follow a third offense.

20. A major part of safety comes from the understanding of the processes provided by the
lab demonstrations and the lab manual. Any student that misses demonstrations by
arriving late or shows evidence of not reading the lab manual instructions will be subject
to suspension from the lab as behaving in an unsafe manner.

21. Liquid spills are to be cleaned up immediately.

 MANUFACTURING LAB OPERATING RULES

1. Smoking, soft drinks, or music systems are not permitted in the building during class
meetings. Smoking or soft drinks are authorized on the porch area during a break period.

2. Personal belongings that are not directly needed for the activity being performed should
be stored in the lockers provided, or hung on the hooks provided in the lab. You must
provide your own lock for the quarter; a combination lock is suggested if you share a
locker.

3. Always lubricate any machine properly before starting work. The oils are color coded by
painting the oil containers. Red- and orange-coded oils are lubricating oils for the lathes
and mills, respectively. The black-coded oil is cutting oil, used for application at the point
of cutting only. If using a machine with a chip tray, place newspaper in it to speed up
your cleanup.

4. No tools or work pieces should be placed on the machine ways or table. Use the wooden
trays provided.

5. Never use a wrench that does not fit properly.

6. All threaded assemblies should have the nut completely engaging the bolt or stud. In
many cases, the use of partially engaged nuts causes distortion of the threads, causing
difficulty for the next person.

7. When "CLEANUP" is called, finish any cut that is in progress, return tools to the
cabinets, and clean your machine and any other area assigned to you. When all areas are
secured, you will be checked out, and then you may leave. Leaving early is only
permitted by special arrangement with the instructor. Leaving the lab without being
checked out may affect your grade adversely.

8. When assigned a special cleanup duty, return all tools and do it promptly so that the rest
of the class may be checked out.

9. Air nozzles are not to be used for machine cleaning. Air drives grit into the ways of the
machine and spreads dirt around the lab. When cutting dusty materials, the shop vacuum
should be run concurrently.

10. The hand brooms are not to be used for machine cleaning. They are typically loaded with
highly abrasive dirt and grinding grit, and their use on precision guide surfaces will
severely impact machine life. Use the paint brushes provided.
11. The installed shop vacuum is for use only after you have used the appropriate brushes to
remove the majority of chips.

12. The instructors make every effort to insure that machines and tools are as "right" as
possible prior to your coming each week. This can only happen if you help by letting use
know if you find something maladjusted or broken -- even if you are the culprit. You will
NOT be held responsible, either academically or financially for non-culpable negligence.
You are all students, not experts, and we know that, despite your best efforts, things may
go wrong. Just let us know!!
 Experiment 2

AIM: A Study on Lathe and Its Operations.

INTRODUCTION

Machining is the process of converting the given work piece into the required shape and
size with help of a machine tool. The most widely used machine tool is lathe. In simple
words machining is the process of removing certain material from the work piece.

LATHE

Lathe is the machine tool which is used to perform several operations on the work piece.
Lathe is useful in making several parts which is further assembled to make new machine.
Hence lathe is known as “mother of machines”.

BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LATHE

In lathe, the work piece is held in the chuck, a work holding device. The cutting tool is
mounted in the tool post. The chuck is rotated by means of power. When the chuck
rotates, the work piece also rotates. The tool is moved against the rotating work piece by
giving small amount of depth of cut. The material is removed in the form of chips.
Continuous feed and depth of cut is given until the required dimensions are obtained in
the work piece.

TYPES OF LATHE MACHINES

There are different types of lathe machines, they are

1. Centre lathe
2. Tool room lathe
3. Bench lathe
4. Capstan lathe
5. Turret lathe
6. Automatic lathe

DESCRIPTION OF LATHE

Lathe is a machine which has several parts in it. They are

1. Bed
It is the base of the machine. On its left side, the head stock is mounted and on its
right it has movable casting known as tailstock. Its legs have holes to bolt down
on the ground.
2. Head stock
It consists of spindles, gears and speed changing levers. It is used to transmit the
motion to the job. It has two types one is the headstock driven by belt and the
other one is the gear driven.
3. Carriage
Carriage is used to carry a tool to bring in contact with the rotating work piece or
to with draw from such a contact. It operates on bed ways between the headstock
and tail stock.
4. Saddle
It is a ‘H’ shaped part fitted on the lathe bed. There is a hand wheel to move it on
the bed way. Cross slide, compound rest, tool post are fitted on this saddle.
a) Cross slide
 It is on the upper slide of saddle in the form of dove tail. A hand wheel is
provided to drive the cross slide. It permits the cross wise movement of the
tool (i.e.) movement of tool towards or away from the operator
b) Compound rest
It is fittedd over the cross slide on a turn table. It permits both parallel and
angular movements to cutting tool.

c) Tool post
It is fitted on the top most part of the compound rest. Tool is mounted on this
tool post. Cutting tool is fixed in it with the help of screws.

5. Apron
It is the hanging part in front of the carriage. It accommodates the mechanism of
hand and power feed to the cutting tool for carrying out different operations.

6. Lead screw
 It is a long screw with ACME threads. It is used for transmitting power for
automatic feed or feed for thread cutting operation.
7. Tail stock
It is located at the right end of the lathe bed and it cn be positioned anywhere in
the bed. It is used for supporting lengthy jobs and also carries tool to carry out
operations such as tapping, drilling, reaming.

WORK HOLDING DEVICES

1. Lathe centers

They are used to support work. It has two categories of centers. Live center is one which
is fitted in the headstock spindle. Dead is another one which is fitted in the tail stock.

2. Chuck
It is a device used to hold a job. It is easily fitted on the thread cut on the end of
head stock spindle. Various types of chuck are
a) Two jaw chuck b) three jaw chuck c) four jaw chuck d) collet chuck
e) Magnetic chuck

Three Jaw Universal self-

self
centering chuck
 3. Face plate

4. Catch plate
5. Lathe carriers or dog’s
6. Steady rest
7. Mandrel
8. Follower rest

CUTTING TOOLS USED

For making a finished job on lathe machine, various types of cutting tools are used. One
of them is single point cutting tool which is used to perform several operations on the
work piece. Various types of cutting tools are

1. FACING TOOL
It is used for facingg the longitudinal ends of the job. Its shape is like a knife.
2. ROUGH TURNING TOOL
It is used to remove excess material from the work piece in quick time. It can be
used to give large depth of cut and work at coarse feed.
3. FINISHING TOOL
It is used for getting
ng smooth finish on the work piece. Its point is a little more
round.
4. RADIUS TOOL
Jobs which need round cutting are done with this tool. Its type is
a) Convex radius tool b) concave radius tool
5. PARTING TOOLS
It is used to cut the jobs into two parts. It is al
also used for grooving.
6. FORM TURNING TOOL
It is used for jobs which require both convex and concave turning.

7. THREAD CUTTING TOOL

It is used for making internal or external threads on the work piece. The tool nose
is designed with a definite profile for taki
taking threads.
8. DRILL TOOL
It is used for making holes of various diameters on the job. Drill bit of various
sizes of diameter are available.

9. BORING TOOL
It used for enlarging the drill hole.
10. KNURLING TOOL
Drawing slanting or square projecting lines on the surface of a job is known as
knurling. It is used for making better grip on the surface of a job.
TOOL MATERIALS

The single point cutting tools are made of high speed steel. (H. S. S)

The main alloying elements in 18 – 4 – 1 HSS tools are 18 % tungsten, 4%
chromium and 1 % Vanadium. 5 to 10 % cobalt is also added to improve the heat
resisting properties of the tool.

General purpose hand cutting tools are usually made from carbon steel or tool
steel.

Carbide tipped tools fixed in tool holders, are mostly used in production shops.

NOMENCLATURE OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

CUTTING TOOL ANGLES

 Top rake angle (back rake angle)

If the slope is given to the face or surface of the tool and if this slope is along the
tools length then it is called top rake angle. It is usually 15° to 20°.
 Side rake angle
If the slope is given to the face or top of the tool along the tools width then it is
called side rake angle. It lies between 6° and 15°.
 Clearance angle (relief angle)
Types: 1. Side clearance angle 2. End clearance angle.
 They are provided to keep surface of the tool clear of the work piece.
 Cutting edge angle
Types: 1. Side cutting edge angle – (generally 15°)) it is an angle, the side cutting
edge makes with the axis of the tool 2. End cutting edge angle – (from 7°
7 to 15°)
it is an angle, the end cutting edge makes with the width of the tool.
 Lip angle (cutting angle)
It is the angle between the face and the end surface of the tool.
 Nose angle
It is the angle between the side cut
cutting edge and end cutting edge.

LATHE OPERATIONS

1. FACING
♣ It is done for getting fine finish (good surface finish) on the face of the
job.
♣ Facing tool is set at an angle to the work piece.
♣ The tool is fed from the centre of work piece towards the outer surface
against the rotating work piece.
♣ Depth of cut is low for the facing operation.

2. PLAIN TURNING
♣ It is done for reducing the diameter of the work piece.
♣ A cutting tool with 70
70° setting angle is used for roughing operation.
♣ More feed is given for rough turning while less feed is given for finishing.
♣ Work piece is held in chuck and tool is set to center height of the work
piece.
 3. STEP TURNING
♣ It is similar to the process of turning but in this case different diameter in
step of various sizes is tak
taken on the work piece.
4. TAPER TURNING
♣ It is different from the turning operation.
♣ Taper is defined as uniform change in the diameter of a work piece
measured along its length.

Where D – large Diameter

d – Small diameter
l – Length of taper

5. KNURLING
♣ It is process of making serrations on the work piece.
♣ Knurling tools of different shape and size are used to make grip on the
work piece.. It has two hardened steel rollers.
♣ The tool is held in tool post and pressed against the rota
rotating
ting work piece.
 ♣ Work piece is rotated at lower speed and small amount of feed is given.
6. DRILLING
♣ It is a process of making a hole on the work piece
♣ Job is held in chuck while the drill is held in the tail stock sleeve.
♣ Feed is given by rotating the hand wheel in the tail stock which pushes the
tailstock sleeve.

CUTTING SPEED

♣ It is the peripheral speed of the work past the cutting tool.

♣ It is the speed at which metal is removed by the tool from the work piece.
♣ It is expressed in meter / minute.

࣊ × ࢊ࢏ࢇ࢓ࢋ࢚ࢋ࢘ × ࡾ. ࡼ. ࡹ
ࢉ࢛࢚࢚࢏࢔ࢍ ࢙࢖ࢋࢋࢊ =
૚૙૙૙
࣊ࡰࡺ
= ࢏࢔࢓/࢓࢏࢔
૚૙૙૙

D – Diameter in mm

N – Spindle speed in rpm

FEED

♣ It is defined as the rate of tool travel across a surface cutting it.

♣ It is the distance of the tool advances for each revolution of the work piece.
♣ It is expressed in mm/revolution.

DEPTH OF CUT

♣ It is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the uncut
surface of work. It is expressed in mm.
ࢊ૚ି ࢊ૛
ࢊࢋ࢖࢚ࢎ ࢕ࢌ ࢉ࢛࢚ =
૛
d1 = diameter of work before machining
d2 = diameter of work after machining
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1) Job should be tightly held in the chuck.
2) If the job is held in between the centers, then apply grease on the nose of
dead center, otherwise it will burnt out due to excess heat.
3) Do not measure the job while it is rotating.
4) Do not leave the chuck key in the chuck.
5) Do not try to stop the lathe chuck or job with hands
6) Do not handle metal chips by hand.
7) Do not give more depth of cut while the job is rotating at high speed.
8) Tighten the tool I n the tool post.
9) Do not stand close to the rotating job or bring your face to it.
10) Do not reduce or increase the speed during the lathe operations.

Quiz:
1. Define cutting tool signature of a turning tool.
2. What is the main function of a lathe? List various types of lathes.
3. State the operations which may perform on a lathe.
4. What are the basic parts of an engine lathe? Discuss the function of head stock.
5. What is the function of a back gear?
6. Why chucks are used? List various types of chucks used in lathes. Describe any
one in brief.
7. What is a mandrel? Why they are used in lathes? List different types of mandrels.
8. What are the different machining operations performed on a lathe by
holding work pieces between centers or chucks?
9. Distinguish rough and finish turning.
10. How turning tools are classified? List various turning tools.
 Experiment 3

AIM: To Prepare a Job of required shape and size on Lathe Machine by using facing,
plain turning, step turning, knurling, external thread cutting, boring, and internal thread
cutting operations

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Mild steel polished round rod -

TOOLS REQUIRED:
1. Lathe machine
2. Cutting tool
3. Steel Rule
4. Vernier Caliper
PROCEDURE:
1. The given work piece is held firmly in a lathe chuck.
2. The cutting tool is set in a tool post such that the point of the cutting tool
coincides with the lathe axis.
3. The machine is switched on to revolve the work piece at the selected
speed.
4. By giving Cross feed and longitudinal feed to the cutting tool, the facing
and turning operations are done respectively.
5. The machine is switched off.
6. The work piece is removed from the chuck and all the dimensions are
measured and checked.

GIVEN WORK PIECE (FIG: 1)

FINISHED WORK PIECE (FIG: 2)

RESULT:
 Experiment 4

AIM: Prepare a Job of required shape and size on Drilling Machine.

Introduction:

The drilling machine or drill press is one of the most common and useful machine employed
in industry for producing forming and finishing holes in a workpiece. The unit essentially
consists of -

1. A spindle which turns the tool (called drill) which can be advanced in the workpiece either
automatically or by hand.

2. A work table which holds the workpiece rigidly in position.

Working principle:

The rotating edge of the drill exerts a large force on the workpiece and the hole is generated.
The removal of metal in a drilling operation is by shearing and extrusion.

Figure 1: Drilling operation

Types of Drilling Machines:

A wide variety of drilling machines are available ranging from the simple portable to highly
complex automatic and numerically controlled machines are as follows:

1. Portable drilling machine: It is a small light weight, compact and self contained unit that
can drill holes upto 12.5 mm diameter. The machine is driven by a small electric motor
operating at high speed. The machine is capable of drilling holes in the workpieces in any
position.
2. Sensitive drill machine/press: This is a light weight, high speed machine designed for
drilling small holes in light jobs. Generally the machine has the capacity to rotate drills of 1.5
to 15.5 mm at high speed of 20,000 rev/min.

Construction:

The machine has only a hand feed mechanism for feeding the tool into the workpiece. This
enables the operator to feel how the drill is cutting and accordingly he can control the down
feed pressure. Sensitive drill presses are manufactured in bench or floor models, i.e., the base
of machine may be mounted on a bench or floor.

The main operating parts of a sensitive machine/drill press are Base, Column, Table, and
Drill Head.

1. Base: The base is a heavy casting that supports the machine structure; it provides rigid
mounting for the column and stability for the machine. The base is usually provided with
holes and slots which help to Bolt the base to a table or bench and allow the work-holding
device or the workpiece to be fastened to the base.

2. Column: The column is a vertical post that Column holds the worktable and the head
containing the driving mechanism. The column may be of round or box section.

3. Table: The table, either rectangular or round. Drill machine/press in shape supports the
workpiece and is carried by the vertical column. The surface of the table is 90-degree to the
column and it can be raised, lowered and swiveled around it. The table can be clamp/hold the
required the workpiece. Slots are provided in most tables to allow the jigs, fixtures or large
workpieces to be securely fixed directly to the table.

4. Drilling Head: The drilling head, mounted close to the top of the column, houses the
driving arrangement and variable speed pulleys. These units transmit rotary motion at
different speeds to the drill spindle. The hand feed lever is used to control the vertical
movement of the spindle sleeve and the cutting tool.
 Prepare a Job of required shape and size on Drilling Machine.

GIVEN WORK PIECE (FIG: 2)

FINISHED WORK PIECE (FIG: 3)

Sequence of operations performed:

RESULT:
 Experiment 5

AIM: Prepare a Job of required shape and size on Milling Machine

5.1 Introduction

Milling is a machining operation in which a work part is fed past a rotating cylindrical
tool with multiple cutting edges. The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to
the direction of feed. This orientation between the tool axis and the feed direction is one of
the features that distinguish milling from drilling. In drilling, the cutting tool is fed in a
direction parallel to its axis of rotation. The cutting tool in milling is called a milling cutter
and the cutting edges are called teeth. The machine tool that traditionally performs this
operation is a milling machine. The geometric form created by milling is a plane surface.
Other work geometries can be created either by means of the cutter path or the cutter shape.
Owing to the variety of shapes possible and its high production rates, milling is one of the
most versatile and widely used machining operations.

5.2 Objectives
After completing this activity, the students will be able to:
•
Identify safe vertical milling machine practices.
•
Identify the important components and controls on the vertical milling machine.
•
•
Identify and select from commonly used vertical milling machine cutting tools.
To prepare job of required shape and size on milling machine.

5.3 Types of Milling Operations

There are two basic types of milling operations, shown in Figure 5.1: (a) peripheral milling
and (b) face milling.

Figure 5.1 Milling Operations

5.3.1 Peripheral Milling

In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the tool is parallel to the surface
being machined, and the operation is performed by cutting edges on the outside periphery of
the cutter. Several types of peripheral milling are shown in Figure 5.2:
 Figure 5.2 Peripheral Milling

5.3.2 Face Milling

In face milling, the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being milled, and
machining is performed by cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter.
As in peripheral milling, various forms of face milling exist, several of which are shown in
Figure 5.3:

Figure 5.3 Face Milling

5.4 Milling Machines

Milling machines must provide a rotating spindle for the cutter and a table for
fastening, positioning, and feeding the workpart. Milling machines can be classified as
horizontal or vertical. A horizontal milling machine has a horizontal spindle, and this design
is well-suited for performing peripheral milling (e.g., slab milling, slotting, side and straddle
milling) on workparts that are roughly cube-shaped. A vertical milling machine has a vertical
spindle, and this orientation is appropriate for face milling, end milling, surface contouring,
and die sinking on relatively flat work parts.

Figure 5.4 Type of Milling Machine

5.5 Work holding Devices on the Milling machine

5.5.1 Vise

The most common method of work holding on a milling machine is a vise. Vises are simple
to use and can quickly be adjusted to the size of the workpiece. A vise should be used to hold
work with parallel sides if it is within the size limits of the vise, because it is the quickest and
most economical work holding method. The plain vise (Figure 5.5a) is bolted to the machine
table. Alignment with the table is provided by two slots at right angles to each other on the
underside of the vise. These slots are fitted with removable keys that align the vise with the
table T-slots either lengthwise or crosswise. A plain vise can be converted to a swivel vise
(Figure 5.5b) by mounting it on a swivel plate. The swivel plate is graduated in degrees. This
allows the upper section to be swiveled to any angle in the horizontal plane. When swivel
bases are added to a plain vise, the versatility increases, but rigidity is lessened. For work
involving compound angles, a universal vise (Figure 5.5c) is used. This vise can be swiveled
90 degrees in the vertical plane and 360 degrees in the horizontal plane. The most rigid setup
is the one where the workpiece is clamped close to the table surface.

Figure 5.5 Type of Vises

5.5.2 V Blocks

V-Blocks hold and support round work for milling or drilling (Figure 5.6a). V-Blocks come
in many different sizes. On milling machines, V-Blocks are typically clamped directly to the
table.

5.5.3 Angles Plates

An angle plate is an L shaped piece of Cast Iron or Steel that has tapped holes or slots to
facilitate the clamping of the workpiece (Figure 5.6b).

5.5.4 Parallels

Parallels are pieces of steel bar stock accurately machines so that the opposing sides are
parallel to each other (Figure 5.6c).
5.5.5 Clamps
Work that is too large or has an odd configuration is usually bolted directly to the table
(Figure 5.6d). This method of work holding takes the most ingenuity and expertise.

Figure 5.6 Work holding Device

5.6 Milling Cutters

5.6.1 Plain Milling Cutters

Light-duty plain milling cutters(Figure 5.7a), which are less than ¾ in. (19 mm) wide, will
usually have straight teeth; those over ¾ in. (19 mm) wide have a helix angle of about 25º
(Figure 5.7b). This type of cutter is used only for light milling operations since it has too
many teeth to permit the chip clearance required for heavier cuts.

Heavy-duty plain milling cutters (Figure 5.7c) have fewer teeth than the light-duty type,
which provide for better chip clearance. The helix angle varies up to 45°. This helix angle on
the teeth produces a smoother surface because of the shearing action and reduced chatter.
Less power is required with this type of cutter than with straight-tooth and small-helix-angle
cutters.

High-helix plain milling cutters (Figure 5.7d) have helix angles from 45° to over 60°. They
are particularly suited to the milling of wide and intermittent surfaces on contour and profile
milling. Although this type of cutter is usually mounted on the milling machine arbor, it is
sometimes shank-mounted with a pilot on the end and used for milling elongated slots.

Figure 5.7 Plain Milling Cutters

Side milling cutters (Figure 5.8) are comparatively narrow cylindrical milling cutters with
teeth on each side as well as on the periphery. They are used for cutting slots and for face and
straddle milling operations. Side milling cutters may have straight teeth (Figure 5.8a) or
staggered teeth (Figure 5.8b).

Staggered-tooth cutter shave each tooth set alternately to the right and left with an
alternately opposite helix angle on the periphery. These cutters have free cutting action at
high speeds and feeds. They are particularly suited for milling deep, narrow slots.

Half-side milling cutters (Figure 5.8c) are used when only one side of the cutter is required,
as in end facing. These cutters are also made with interlocking faces so that two cutters may
be placed side by side for slot milling. The interlocking type is more suited for slot cutting
than the solid-type, staggered-tooth cutter since the amount ground from the side of the cutter
during regrinding may be compensated by a washer between the cutters. Half-side milling
cutters have considerable rake and, therefore, are able to take heavy cuts.

Figure 5.8 Side Milling Cutters

Face milling cutters (Figure 5.9) are generally over 6 in. (150 mm) in diameter and have
inserted teeth held in place by a wedging device. The teeth may be of high speed steel, cast
tool steel, or they may be tipped with sintered-carbide cutting edges. The corners of this type
of cutter are beveled; most of the cutting action occurs at these points and the periphery of the
cutter. The face of the tooth removes a small amount of stock left by the spring of the work or
cutter. To prevent chatter, only a small portion of the tooth face near the periphery is in
contact with the work; the remainder is ground with a suitable clearance (8° to 10°).

Single-angle milling cutters (Figure 5.9c) have teeth on the angular surface and mayor may
not have teeth on the flat side. The included angle between the flat face and the conical face
designates the cutters, such as 45 ° or 60° angular cutter.

Double-angle milling cutters (Figure 5.9d) have two intersecting angular surfaces with
cutting teeth on both. When these cutters have equal angles on both sides of the line at a right
angle to the axis (symmetrical), they are designated by the size of the
 Figure 5.9 Face and Angular Milling Cutters

Formed cutters (Figure 5.10) incorporate the exact shape of the part to be produced,
permitting exact and more economical duplication of irregularly shaped parts than most other
means. Formed cutters are particularly useful for the production of small parts. Each tooth of
a formed cutter is identical in shape, and the clearance is machined on the full thickness of
each tooth by the form or master tool in a cam-controlled relieving machine. Examples of
formed-relieved cutters are concave, convex, and gear cutters.

Figure 5.10 Formed Milling Cutters

5.6.2 Vertical Milling Cutters

End mill is the most frequently used cutting tool for the vertical milling machine. End mills
are so named because their primary cutting is done on their ends. End mills may have two,
three, four, or more flutes and may be right-or left-hand cutting. To determine the cutting
direction of an end mill, observe the cutter from its cutting end (Figure 5.11). A right-handed
cutter will cut while turning in a counterclockwise direction. A left-handed cutter will cut
turning in a clockwise direction. The direction of flute twist or helix may also be right-or left-
handed. For example, a right-handed helix twists to the right.
Two-flute end mills can be used for plunge cutting. These are called center cutting
because they can make their own starting hole (Figure 5.11). Four flute end mills may also be
center cutting. However, if these are center drilled or gashed on the end, they cannot start
their own holes. This type of end mill will only cut on its periphery, but may be used in end
milling provided the cut is begun off the workpiece or in a pre-machined hole or other cavity.

Figure 5.11 End Milling

The high-speed steel end mill is a very common cutter for the vertical mill. These cutters may
be single ended (Figure 5.12a) or double ended (Figure 5.12b). They may also have straight
flutes (Figure 5.12c). Slow, regular, and fast helix angles are also available. An example of
slow helix is where the helix angle of the cutter is about 12 degrees. A regular helix angle
may be 30 degrees and a fast helix 40 degrees or more. Selection of helix angle will depend
on the machining task. For example, aluminum can be machined efficiently with a high-
helix-angle cutter (45 degrees) and with a highly polished cutting face to minimize chip
adherence (Figure 5.12d). Chips sticking to the cutting face can mar the surface finish of the
part being machined. The roughing end mill (Figure 5.12e) is used when large amounts of
material must be quickly removed (roughed) from the workpiece. These end mills are also
called hogging end mills and have a wavy tooth form cut on their periphery. These wavy
teeth form many individual cutting edges. The tip of each wave contacts the work and
produces one short compact chip. Each succeeding wave tip is offset from the next one,
which results in a relatively smooth surface finish. During the cutting operation, a number of
teeth are in contact with the work. This reduces the possibility of vibration or chatter.
Tapered end mills (Figure 5.12f) are used in mold making, die work, and pattern making,
where precise tapered surfaces need to be made. Tapered end mills have included tapers
ranging from 1 degree to over 10 degrees. Tapered end mills are also called die sinking mills.
Several types of end mills are used to form a particular geometry on the workpiece. Ball-end
end mills (Figure 5.13a) have two or more flutes and form an inside radius or fillet between
surfaces. Ball-end end mills are used in mold making and in die sinking operations.
 Figure 5.12 High Speed Steel End Mills

Figure 5.13 Formed End Mills

Several types of end mills are used to form a particular geometry on the workpiece. Ball
Ball-end
end mills (Figure 5.13a) have two or more flutes and form an inside radius or fillet between
surfaces. Ball-end
end end mills are used in mold making and in die sinking
sinking operations. Round
Round-
bottom grooves can also be machined with them. Precise convex radii can be machined on a
milling machine with corner rounding end mills (Figure 5.13b). Dovetails' are machined with
single-angle
angle milling cutters (Figure 5.13c). The two commonly
commonly available angles are 45
degrees and 60 degrees. T-slots
slots in machine tables and work-holding
work holding devices are machined
with T-slot
slot cutters (Figure 5.13d). TT-slot
slot cutters are made in sizes to fit standard T
T-nuts.
Woodruff key seats are cut into shafts to retain
retain a woodruff key as a driving and connecting
member between shafts and pulleys or gears. Woodruff key seat cutters (Figure 5.13e) come
in many different standardized sizes.
 Prepare a Job of required shape and size on Milling Machine

GIVEN WORK PIECE (FIG: 1)

FINISHED WORK PIECE (FIG: 2)

SEQUENCE OF OPERATION PERFORMED:

RESULT:
 Experiment 6

AIM: Prepare a Job of required shape and size on Grinding Machine.

Objectives:

From this experiment you will be able to:

To know the following operating faults in grinding operation:

- Loading
- Glazing

To understand the meaning of the following as applied to a grinding wheel
operation:
- Mounting of grinding wheel
- Balancing of grinding wheel
- Trueing
- Dressing

Operatting Faults:

Loading:

 It is the condition when the spaces (voids) between the abrasives become clogged
with the particles of material being ground.
 Reasons of loading:
- soft work material
- hard wheel
- more cut
- Less c/t speed & less c/t fluid
Glazing:
 After continuous use , the wheel become dull or ‘glazed’
 It is condition in which the cutting edge takes a glass like appearance i.e. cutting
points become worn out
 It takes place when wheel is too hard and revolves at high speed
Remedy: decrease the speed and use soft wheel
MOUNTING:

BALANCING:

Unbalance forces directly related to:

- More vibration
- Bad surface finish
- Failure of wheel
- Protection of operator

STEPS IN BALANCING A WHEEL:

WHEEL

Standard equipment for balancing grinding wheels consists of a balance stand and balancing
arbors to fit various sizes of wheel sleeves.

The procedure to follow in balancing a wheel is as follows:

1. Mount the wheel on its sleeve. (In case of wheels with arrow markings, the stenciled arrow
should point upwards). Tighten the flange bolts evenly and only enough to hold the wheel
firmly.

2. True the
he wheel so that it is in running truth on its own sleeve.

3. Remove the wheel and sleeve assembly from the grinding machine. Insert the proper size
balancing arbor and then place the arbor with the wheel on the balancing stand.

4. Remove the two balance weights from the wheel sleeve.

5. Allow the two wheel to turn until it has come to rest with the heavy side down.

6. Draw a chalk mark on the side of the wheel at the exact top (directly opposite the heavy
side).
7. Replace the two balancing weights in the flange groove with their adjacent ends meeting
under the chalk mark. Tighten the weights just enough to hold them in position temporarily.

8. Give the wheel a quarter turn. The wheel may not remain at rest in this position; move the
weights gradually and equally from the chalk mark until the balance is established.

9. Give the wheel a half turn. Test for balance and then keep turning the wheel for a complete
revolution, stopping and checking for balance at about eighth of a revolution.

10. Now tighten the balancing weights securely.

11. Carefully rest the wheel on the floor, remove the balancing arbor and mount the wheel in
the grinding machine. Finally retrueing the wheel preparatory to grinding.
Trueing:

It is the process of changing the shape of the grinding wheel as it is worn from its
original sharps.

This is done to make the wheel true and concentric with the bore.

Trueing is done with the same tool as that of dressing but not for the same purpose.
Dressing:

Removes the loading and glazing.

Breaks away the glazed surface so that sharp abrasives are again appear on the surface
of the wheel to do the work.

The dresser is held against the face of the revolving wheel and moved across the face
to dress the whole surface.
Tools used for dressing & trueing:

Steel cutter

Abrasive sticks

Small abrasive wheels

Diamonds are most commonly used for trueing wheel for precision grinding
Grinding Applications:

To optimize surface finish, smaller grit size and dense wheel, higher wheel speed and
lower work speed, smaller depth of cut and large wheel diameter.

To max. MRR, select large grit size, more open wheel structure and vitrified bond

For steels and cast iron, alumina wheel

For non-ferrous metals, SiC wheel

For harden materials and aerospace alloys, CBN wheel

For soft metal, large grit size and harder grade

For harder metal, small grit size and softer grade

To min. heat damage, smaller d, lower v and faster vw

To avoid burn, softer grade and more open structure

To avoid break down, harder grade & more dense structure
 Prepare a Job of required shape and size on Grinding Machine.

GIVEN WORK PIECE (FIG: 1)

FINISHED WORK PIECE (FIG: 2)

Sequence of operations performed:

RESULT:
 Experiment 7

AIM: Prepare a Job of required shape and size on Shaping Machine

Introduction:

Shaper is commonly used to produce flat surfaces can be horizontal, vertical or

inclined by machining with the help of a reciprocating tool. Due to its limited length of its
ram stroke, shaper is conveniently adapted to smaller jobs. However it’s a slow machine and
is only considered suitable only for unit or batch production rather than mass production. It is
even preferred to other quick metal cutting machines with even multiple teeth cutters because
it can give all kinds of surface finish on this single machine along with ease of machining
varieties of surfaces with minimum change over time since the set up time for a shaper is
much less for most of the jobs.

Figure 1: Schematic of Shaper machine

Principal Parts:

• Base: It’s a heavy cast iron structure supporting all the other parts and assembly and
bolted down to the shop floor through foundation bolts.
• Column: A cast iron box structure housing the operating mechanism. It provides
support for other parts f the machine such as ram, cross rails, etc.
• Cross rails: It is mounted on the front two vertical guide ways of the column.
 • Saddle: It moves on the cross rail block and carries the table on it such that it can be
moved sideways withers by power or by hand using a cross feed screw.
• Table: It is firmly attached to the saddle. It gets its sideways motion from the saddle.
• Ram: It is a reciprocating member with the tool head mounted on it.
• Tool head: It is mounted on the front end of the ram and has the provision of being
swiveled in any direction for shaping angular surfaces. The vertical feed may be given
with tool feed handle.

Working Principle:

• On a shaper machine, job is fixed on the work table and the tool cuts while
reciprocating over the job.
• The tool is mounted on a reciprocating ram and the table which supports the job is fed
normal to the tool motion at each stroke of the ram.
• The tool cuts only in the forward stroke of the ram except for a draw-cut shaper in
which the tool cuts in the backward stroke of the ram. The other stroke in both the
cases remains idle.
• The job may be indexed in horizontal or vertical direction.
GIVEN WORK PIECE (FIGURE):

FINISHED WORK PIECE (FIGURE):

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:

RESULT:
QUIZ:

1. Explain the types of machining geometry can be performed by Shaper.

2. Classify and list shapers.

3. Describe the principle of a quick return mechanism as used in shaper.

4. How you can adjust length of stroke in shaper? Explain.

5. Name and describe the various work holding devices in shapers.

6. Which way a shaper tool differs from that of a lathe tool? Discuss.

7. Define speed, feed, and depth of cut in shaper.

8. In a shaper work the length of stroke is 300 mm. number of double stroke per min is

40 and the ratio of return time to cutting time is 1:2 find the cutting speed.
 Experiment 8

AIM: Non-Conventional machining by using RAM-EDM and effect of process

parameters

Introduction:

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most widely used non-traditional
machining processes. The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such
as metal cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique utilizes
thermoelectric process to erode undesired materials from the work piece by a series of
discrete electrical sparks between the workpiece and the electrode.

Figure 1: Schematic of EDM process

Working Principle:

As shown in Figure 1, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is applied

across the narrow gap between the electrode and the workpiece. This high voltage induces an
electric field in the insulating dielectric that is present in narrow gap between electrode and
workpiece. This cause conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the
points of strongest electrical field. When the potential difference between the electrode and
the workpiece is sufficiently high, the dielectric breaks down and a transient spark discharges
through the dielectric fluid, removing small amount of material from the workpiece surface.
In the sinker EDM process, both the workpiece and the electrode are submerged in a
dielectric fluid of oil or synthetic oil and the machine guides the electrode toward the
workpiece automatically using CNC technology. As in wire EDM, as the electrode
approaches the workpiece, the strength of the electrical charges breaks the barrier of
dielectric fluid and a spark is created, eroding away a small amount of material by melting
and vaporizing microscopic particles. The process repeats hundreds of thousands of times per
second, and as material is removed, the machine continues to direct the movement of the
electrode until the desired dimensions are achieved. After the initial “roughing” pass, during
which the bulk of the material is removed, we may perform additional 3-D orbiting passes in
order to achieve the best surface finish and tightest tolerances possible. Sinker EDM allows
us to machine complex 3-D shapes, blind cavities, intricate internal features, threads into
hardened parts, and much more. In addition, sinker EDM has the ability to use multi-up
electrodes for multi-up parts production—in some cases, we can sinker EDM 100 pieces
simultaneously.

EDM Process Parameters:

Sequence of Operations for EDM process:
Effect of Process parameters

RESULT:
 Experiment 9

AIM: Non-Conventional machining by using WIRE-EDM and effect of process

parameters

Introduction:

EDM, primarily, exists commercially in the form of die-sinking machines and wire process, a
slowly moving wire travels along a prescribed path and removes material from the
workpiece. Wire EDM uses electro-thermal mechanisms to cut electrically conductive
materials. The material is removed by a series of discrete discharges between the wire
electrode and the workpiece in the presence of dielectric fluid, which creates a path for each
discharge as the fluid becomes ionized in the gap. The area where discharge takes place is
heated to extremely high temperature, so that the surface is melted and removed. The
removed particles are flushed away by the flowing dielectric fluids. The wire EDM process
can cut intricate components for the electric and aerospace industries. This non-traditional
machining process is widely used to pattern tool steel for die manufacturing cutting machines
(Wire EDM). The wires for wire EDM is made of brass, copper, tungsten, molybdenum. Zinc
or brass coated wires are also used extensively in this process. The wire used in this process
should posse’s high tensile strength and good electrical conductivity. Wire EDM can also
employ to cut cylindrical objects with high precision.

Figure 1: Schematic of WIRE-EDM process

Working Principle:

Wire electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a non-traditional machining process

that uses electricity to cut any conductive material precisely and accurately with a thin,
electrically charged copper or brass wire as an electrode. During the wire EDM process, the
wire carries one side of an electrical charge and the workpiece carries the other side of the
charge. When the wire gets close to the part, the attraction of electrical charges creates a
controlled spark, melting and vaporizing microscopic particles of material. The spark also
removes a miniscule chunk of the wire, so after the wire travels through the workpiece one
time, the machine discards the used wire and automatically advances new wire. The process
takes place quickly—hundreds of thousands of sparks per second—but the wire never
touches the workpiece. The spark erosion occurs along the entire length of the wire adjacent
to the workpiece, so the result is a part with an excellent surface finish and no burrs
regardless of how large or small the cut. Wire EDM machines use a dielectric solution of
deionized water to continuously cool and flush the machining area while EDM is taking
place. In many cases the entire part is submerged in the dielectric fluid, while high-pressure
upper and lower flushing nozzles clear out microscopic debris from the surrounding area of
the wire during the cutting process. The fluid also acts as a non-conductive barrier,
preventing the formation of electrically conductive channels in the machining area. When the
wire gets close to the part, the intensity of the electric field overcomes the barrier and
dielectric breakdown occurs, allowing current to flow between the wire and the workpiece,
resulting in an electrical spark.

EDM Process Parameters:

Sequence of Operations for EDM process:
Effect of Process parameters

RESULT:
 Experiment 10

AIM: Non- Conventional machining by using Electrochemical Machining

(ECM) and effect of process parameters

Introduction:

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a metal-removal process based on the principle

of reverse electroplating. In this process, particles travel from the anodic material (workpiece)
toward the cathodic material (machining tool). A current of electrolyte fluid carries away the
depleted material before it has a chance to reach the machining tool. The cavity produced is
the female mating image of the tool shape.

Figure 1: Schematic of Electrochemical process

Working Principle:

• First the workpiece is assembled in the fixture and tool is brought close to the
workpiece. The tool and workpiece is immersed in a suitable electrolyte.
• After that, potential difference is applied across the w/p (anode) and tool (cathode).
The removal of material starts. The material is removed as in the same manner as we
have discussed above in the working principle.
 • Tool feed system advances the tool towards the w/p and always keeps a required gap
in between them. The material from the w/p is comes out as positive ions and
combine with the ions present in the electrolyte and precipitates as sludge. Hydrogen
gas is liberated at cathode during the machining process.
• Since the dissociation of the material from the w/p takes place at atomic level, so it
gives excellent surface finish.
• The sludge from the tank is taken out and separated from the electrolyte. The
electrolyte after filtration again transported to the tank for the ECM process.

Electrochemical Machining Process Parameters:

Sequence of Operations for Electrochemical process:
Effect of Process parameters

RESULT: