A Handbook on

Electronics Engineering

04
Communication Systems
CONTENTS

1. Basics..........................................................................................116-116

2. Amplitude M odulation............................................................... 117-121

3. Angle M odulation.......................................................................122-124

4. Effect of Noise on Analog Communication Systems........... 125-127

5. Random Processes....................................................................128-134

6. Pulse Modulation Techniques...................................................135-138

7- Digital Modulation Schem es.....................................................139-142

8- Information Theory...................................................................... 143-144

8- Optical Communication............................................................145-150

10. Propagation of W aves................................................................151-154

11. Radar and Satellite Communication........................................ 155-164

1 2. Miscellaneous............................................................................. 165-167
• Basic elements or a i
. a device that converts the in fo rm a tio n into

signal. di m t pa t carries the e le c tric a l signal.

. Channel is a P ^ al m e
c o n v e r t s e le c tric a l s ig n a l in to orig

• R eceiver is a device
information.

modul a t ion _______ ____ _____ ______________

Modulation is a process of transforming signal from sig n a l bandwidth

to channel bandwidth.

Need for Modulation

• It is needed inorder to match the characteristic of in p u t signal to that of

channel characteristic.
• Multiplexing is possible due to modulation only.
• Wireless transmission of low pass signal is po ssib le due to modulation
only.
• Some modulation techniques reduces the e ffe ct of noise on signal.
• Some modulation techniques are power efficient.

• Message signal is modulating signal and it m o d u la te s carrier

signal.
• In modulation some properties of carrier sig n a l are varried in
k
accordance with the message signal.

Baseband signal is a signal having sig nifican t fre q u e n c y componen

near to zero or low frequencies

• Noise mainly added to s^naH n^h r ®p r e s e n t a t i o n of a signal.

• Bandwidth of a sianal k rt r C a n n e l.
which amplitude of sianal k T V as b a n d of Q roup o f freq ue ncie s fof
• Carrier frequency is '! ° 2 e ro '
-hiuch higher than m e s s a g e signal f r e q ^
 2. Amplitude Modulation

■M PL ITUDE mo d u l at io n t ec hniq ues

Let VC
= V c C0S<ac t
Vm = Vm sin<om t
then amplitude modulated signal is

S(t) = v j 1+ ^ c o s w m t j.cos<oc t

Frequency Spectrum o f AM W ave

B.W. = (fc + fm ) - ( f c - fm ) = 2fm

Significant frequencies from fc to (fc + fm ) is called upper

sideband.
1 Significant frequencies from (fc - fm ) to fc is called lower

sideband.
[118] , p of am plitude of a m p litu d e m o d u la te d w
e
Minim um value o

m value of am plitude of a m p litu d e m o d u la te d w a V e

Maximum value v

v max ~ , ncjv
v m n will b e
'--------- " T Z T T n d e x in terms of V m ax aana
Now modulation moe --------—
m_ , Vmax + V-nin
C
Note: For avoiding phase reversal Ikl < 1.

Power Relation in AM Wave

p _ V car , V LBS . V USB where, All the voltages are R M S voltages

Pa m - - ^ + - ^ - + - 5 -
R is resistance of antenna across
which pow er is d issipated.
vcar -
~ x/2

Similarly

V ^ _ [k V c /21
2 k 2 V2
- -
'LSB ' USB “ “ p
2 -------- 8R

V2 V2 k2 Vc2 Pam _ i | k2
PAM =—
2R 4 2R ' 4 2R ’ Pc 2
* Maximum power dissipated in the A M w ave is P AM
A M = 1.5 P cb for

a
k = 1 and this is maximum power that am plifier c a n handle
without distortion.

Current Relations in AM Wave

Let l? be the unmodulated current and I the total or m odulated current of an
A M transmitter, both being rms va l ues and R is the re sista n c e in which
current flows then

Pam _ i f R _ k2 l L k2
1+
Pc IC R + 2 i? 1+ T ; k2
2
M o dulatio n by Several Sine Waves
y \j 3 ....etc. be the simultaneous m odulation v o lta g e
total modulating voltage V, will be
 A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [119]

k t = V k i2 + k 22 + k 3 2 + .......... w h e r e , kt -> is o v e r a ll
m o d u la tio n in d e x k r k 2 , k 3 are
re sp e ctive m odulation index for
in d ivid u a l w aves.

P k2
Pam = Pe + = Pc + PS B w here, P SB is total s id e b a n d power.

Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) Technique

Let S(t) is D S BS C m o d u la te d sig n a l then

S(t) = Vm c o s coc t. c o s com t S (t) = k Vr c o s coc t. c o s <x>m t

> * kx V III

Frequency Spectrum o f DSBSC W ave

_ k2 p
dsbsc == '4r “ ; 'DSBSC ’ ^ 0

A single s id e b a n d (S S B) A M s ig n a l is re p re s e n te d m a th e m a tic a lly as

~S(t) = Vc m(t)cos27cfc t A c m(t) sin fc t

where -> m ( is H ilb e rt tra n s fo rm of m e s s a g e s ig n a l m (t).
where (-) sign re p re s e n t USB
(+) s ig n re p re s e n t LSB
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation Technique
Mathematical representation of VSB wave is

where F -> represent the fraction

Frequency Spectrum of VSB Wave

♦ USB

OR
fc
~W fc fc + fm

Power Relations in VSB Wave

AM Modulators and Demodulator

• Power law modulation is used r
linear devices. o r generation of AM waves using nOf1

• Switching modulator is also used fn

r generation of AM waves.
, A nF£ASY a h a n d b o o k o n ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [1211

Balanced modulator and ring modulators are used for generation of

DSB-SC waves.
$SB wave is generated using analog multiplier and bandpass filter.
Filter method and phase shift methods are also used for generation of
SSB wave.
Analog multiplier is also used for generation of VSB wave.

Envelope Detector
It is used for detection of AM wave. Its circuit is

m(t)

rft) is received signal and m(t) is message signal and for better reception
RC must be selected such as

r <RC<<w where -> W is bandwidth of message signal.

• Demodulation of DSB-SC and SSB waves is done using coherent carrier

signal at receiver.
• Envelope detector can also be used to recover message by passing
received VSB signal through it.

Comparison of D ifferent A M Techniques

• AM is used where receiver circuit cast is less that is we want less
complex receiver circuit but it is less power efficient technique.
• DSB-SC is power efficient technique but receiver in this case is complex
due to requirement of coherent detection.
• SSB is a bandwidth saving technique but in this case also receiver is
complex in nature.
VSB is used for television broadcast and its generation is easy and
also bandwidth efficient technique.
 Angle Modu|a t)(j

schem e and phase modulation sc.i om ■ '

also called non linear modulation sc ion

Representation of FM and PM Signals

An angle modulated signal In general can bo written a s
where. 8(1) is the p h a se of the signal an
<jlb
u(t) = A c cos[G(t)J instantaneous frequency is given by

1 d 1
— (0 (t)]; |u(t)« A o OO8[2fffo t4 -0 (tj]l; W ) ■ <3 + 27t d t*
2 n 'd t
• If m(t) is the message signal, then in PM system wo have

0(t) = k p m (t)

• And in FM system we have

w here k |} a n d k t are phase and
« t) - f0 = k | m (t) = - L
2rc dt frequency d e v ia tio n constants

k Dm(t) PM d $ = lk p ^ m (t) PM
0(t) = -
2rtk ( f ’ m(z)dT FM ’ dt
J —‘ <w> 2nk f m(t) FM
---------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------- -------- -I,
B
* y passing m essage through an in teg ra to r and then PM
modulator we get FM modulated signal.
• By passing message through a differentiator then through a FM
> modulator we get Pjdm odulaled signal, J

PM and FM Modulated Signals for Sinusoidal Message Signal

m(t) =• a cos (2tu fm t) *
u(t) = A c cos[2n fe t + k p a cos 2rctTtT
■> PM

U (,) = A “ C 0S^ V ^ a s in l^
+
* FM
----- —— ----- ’m
k( a
ft fm are known as modulation in d ic e s for PM

system s respectively.
>o ££A5Y___ * H ftNP g °O K ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING n 231
e x te n d *h e m o d u la t io n in d e x definition for a general signal m(t)
I
k y n a x [m (t)l

where, W is bandwidth of
message signal.

A fmax
where, Afm ax represents maximum frequency deviation.

For low value of p anole — T____

band angle modulation scheme. N a r r o w b a n d T ° W

- 1 AM. It is used in mobile communication 'S S ' m 10

, for large value of (3 angle modulation scheme is called wideband

angle modulation scheme. wiueoano

Wrther Representation o f PM and FM Signals for Sinusoidal Message

u(t) = Y A c Jn (p)cos[2ic(fc + nfm )t]

where, Jn(P) is known as bessel function of first kind of order n.

Note: Total bandwidth requirement for angle modulated signal is

Bandwidth of Angle M odulated Signal

• Ingeneral the effective bandwidth of an angle modulated signal, which
contains atleast 98% of the signal power is given by
-> Carson's formulae
V 2 ( P + 1)fm
where, p -> modulation index.

^mber of harmonics in the bandwidth (including the carrier) is

Mc
+3 for PM
 rpMMI INiCATION SYSTEMS
LU1L MAgEj
By seeing the graph of angle modulation
whether it is P M or FM.

Angle Modulators and Demodulators

• FM wave can be generated using VCO called direct method
• FM wave can be generated using varacter diode called indirect m
• FM and PM both can be generated using reactance tubes '
• Another method is first generate narrow band FM then pa S s th
frequency multiplier. r o iJ 9hit j
• Demodulation is normally done using PLL.
4t Effect o f Noise on Analog Communication Systems

• SNR is defined as ratio of signal power to noise power.

Effect o f N o ise o n a B a s e b a n d S y s te m

• Its SNR is given by

SA _ Pr where, PR —■>is received signal phase.

n A> n ow No
2 -> two sided noise spectral density.
W -> message signal bandwidth.

SNR of baseband system.

Effect o f N o ise o n D SB-SC A M

For coherent receiver, SNR at the o/p is

s'] Agpm where, Pm -> message signal power.
=
n J0 2WN0 Ac -> Carrier signal amplitude

-> received power for DSB-SC receiver

fS ) = Pr fS )
I n Jo NqW (NA,

In DSB-SC the o/p SNR is the same as the SNR for a baseband

a system. Therefore DSB-SC does not provide any SNR

improvement over a baseband communication system.
Effect o f N o is e o n SSB A M

For coherent receiver

s'] Agpm
SNR at the o/p
N/qssb No W

SNR in case of SSB is same as that of DSB-SC and baseband

system.
L! 26] COMMU NICATIO^SJfSTEMS

Effect of Noise on Conventional AM

SNR for coherent modulator is

SJ| A**k 2 P,
2N()W
where. A. -> amplitude of carrier wave, k -> modulation index
G . •

SNR of conventional AM is always less than the SNR of a

baseband system.

Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation

• Noise spectral density at the o/p of angle modulation receiver is
N() where, Nq/2 is two sided power spectral density
PM of noise.
S no<f )
a |
Nn
A2

NOH
• Effect of noise is constant (independent) of frequency for PM
systems.
Effect of noise is more at higher frequencies and less at small
frequencies for FM systems.

SNR at o/p for angle modulation systems is

o 2 N0 W for PM
PM message signal power.

n ;0 JW 2 N0 W for FM
2
received signal power p
» R
 A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [127]

2
s
- Pm - I -> for FM system
N o (max[m(t)]) 2 In
- 3 p Pf
For FM systems ~ d r M ------- ------- - I
0
(max[m(t)]) 2 1 N / b

In both PM and FM systems output SNR is proportional to square of

modulation index.
With increase in p without increasing the transmitter power we can
increase SNR at output.
Increasing P will increase the bandwidth requirement for transmission
so we are increasing SNR by increasing bandwidth.
»' Increasing signal power at transmitter will increase the SNR at
A / * o/P b u t *n c a s e ° f AM K ' s due to increase in signal power but in
case of angle modulation it is due to decrease in noise power
(noise power at the o/p of receiver).

• In case of FM high frequency component suffers from more

MOTS
noise so pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is used to increase
the SNR for FM system.
In pre-emphasis we amplify high frequency component but low
frequency com ponent’s amplitude are unchanged.
In de-emphasis we deamplify higher frequencies amplitude keeping
low frequency amplitudesame^

de-emphasis and de-emphasis Filter Characteristics

 Random Pro Cess

. _q e value at a t i m e l s a Pr obiijS)i
Random V . ^ * & variable * ^ p | e s p a c e to the set of real n u ^
A random varab fro n rl the
measurement. (CDF)
Cumulative D is tr ib : ^ random variable X is define^

• Cumulative distn u 1P-7 -rc 7 p (X ? ^

properties of CDF
□ 0 5 F x W - 1 . r r p a s i n q function.
□ f x (x ) is non decreasing
• r / t_ n and lim F x ^ -
□ lim Fx ( x ) - ° a x- j +oo

0 •>-«■>
□ ip^XESESSESS
P(X = a ) - F x ( a )-F x (a )_
□
For discrete random variable Fx (x) is a stair ca se function
HO TI
For continuous random variable CDF is continuous.

probability Density Function

• Probability density function (PDF) of a random v a ria b le X is defined as

fx « = ^ -F x W
the derivative of CDF that is
vjA,
Properties of PDF
Basic properties of PDF are
□ fx (x)>0

□ J_JxW dx = 1 total probability

a Ja.Mx)dx=P(a<Xsb)

□ ^<W = fL*x(u)du
M AgFEASy A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [129]
□ For discrete random variables it is more common to define the
probability mass function (PMF) which is defined as
PMF = {PJ where P, = P(X = x()

IMPORTANT r a n d o m v a r ia b l e s
—------------- - ‘ -

Bernoulli Random Variable

This is a discrete random variable taking two values one and zero with
probabilities p and (1 - p ) .

Binomial Random Variable

This is a discrete random variable giving the number of 1's in a sequence of
n independent Bernoulli trials. The PMF is given by

P(X = k) = / C k p k (1 _ p )n ~k ’ ° ^ k ^ n

0 , otherwise

< In this random variable models the total number of bits received
/VO74 I
= | in error when a sequence of n bits is transmitted over a channel
with bit error probability p.

Uniform Random Variable

This is a continuous random variable taking values between a and b with
equal probability over intervals of equal length. The density function is given
by ,
1
fx (x) = < (b -a )
0 otherwise

Naia When the phase of a sinusoid is random it is usually modelled as

a uniform random variable between 0 and 2n.

Gaussian or Normal Random Variable

This is a continuous random variable described by the density function

* The CDF for the Gaussian random variable with m = 0 and o = 1 is

denoted by (j>(x) and given by
[1 3 0 , ^ON^MUNipATipN^—E —

— =P(X'—£ K L .T2^
x

. n M = 1 -<t>(x)- This function is well tabula,

’S X * - " " " ® **

relations

ForaGaussian random variablehaving m eanm and s ta n d a rd deviation,.

Function of a Random Variable

A function of a random variable Y = g(X) is itself a random variable.
• We can use the following relation to find PDF of the random variable Y in
terms of PDF of X is
where, {xj are countable num ber of solutions
L(y)
M y =V W
fferfc) of equation g(x) = y.

Statistical Averages
• Expected value of random variable X is defined as

E (X) = j M Xf x (x )d x

nth order moment of a random variable X is defined as

"H /M x )d x

Expected value of Y = g(X) js

For discrete random variable

6 y -----------
X, expected value of X is

Properties of Expected Value

□ E(CX) = CE(X), where C r
ls a constant.
□ E(C) = C
□ E(X + C) = E(X) + C
 <AOEEASY------- A H A N M O O j ^ E l E C T R O N ,C S E N G | N K „

jrlancefo 2 )
It is defined as
_________
P = E[X ? ] - { E ( X ) } 2

r \ T i 2 C e r e P r e S e n 'S
W° A C -P 0w er c o n ,e n t ° f random signal
Properties o f Variance y

□ v, (ex)« c2 v„ <x) □ v„ (C) =o □ va, (x+ c) =vaf (X)

.’haracteristic Functions
Characteristic function of random variable X is denoted by V x (v) and defined

JxW e |v x d x
iS

• To obtain n,h moment of the random variable X we use the relation

1 cf
j n dv n

Multiple Random Variable

> Joint CDF for two random variable X and Y is given by

FXY(x,y) = P ( X s x , Y s y )

W x y ) - ^
Joint PDF is defined as

3asic properties o f jo in t P D F a n d CDF

□ Fx (x) = Fx y (x , oo) □ FY (y) = FX Y (oo,y)
□ fx (x)= J_~ jx.Y ( x -y) d y □ f Y (y) = J_"jx,Y(x.y)dx

►<x> f oo
□ fX Y (x,y)d xd y = 1 □ FY Y (x,y) = J* f fx ,Y (u,v)dudv
J —« — co ‘ ---- A ,I' J —oo J —00

□ Conditional PDF of random variable y, given that the value of the

random variable X is equal to x is denoted by FY/x (y/x) and defined as

fx.Y (x.y)
fx (x) # 0
WvM=
0 otherwise
* The expected value of g(X,Y) where g(X,Y) is any function of X and Y, is
obtained from
 -JjApg
132

— Y) = (X - nn ) (Y - rn ) w e obtain t /
. In the special case>whereJ . ) o v a r i a n c e 0 | X a n d Y. Hero m
= E(XY)-m xmy , which is ca x
are expected value oft X and _r i a n c e ig c a |t e d c o r r e |a l j o n
• The normalized version of th ■, iq ^

= C O V (X ,Y )‘
and is defined as P«.y
and is denoted by px y °x ct y

If X and Y are independent random variable then the COV (x, yj =

p x y but if px y = 0 it does not im ply n e ce ssa rily that random
variables are independent._____________________ ____

Var (X C|X ' I = I q% (X i)+ L Z QQCOV(Xi,x j

' 1 ' i i j* i
Multiple Functions of Multiple Random Variable
• If we define two functions of the random variable X and Y by

z = g(x,Y) ........... (1)

W = h(X,Y) ........... (2)
then joint PDF of Z and W is

dZ dzl
—* rW /vz i
where J(x, y) =
dX dy
dW dW

Xj and y j are the solution of two dX

equations given as (1) and (2).
Central limit Theorem
This theorem says that some of randn
practical systems) takes the form nf v a r ia b le s (w hich generally occur in

Random Processes v a r ia b le ‘
Random process is a collection t
to various outcomes of a random or ^ n a l s c o rre s p o n d
Autocorrelation X P S r im e n ’
F u n c t lo n

• This represents t h e r e i n . . .

with its shifte d version.

 c o rre la tio n fu n c tio n of the ~~ " ------ —- L■ J

• . . . r- ■, ------------------------
* (t), denoted by

process w h o s e s ta tis tic a l p ro p e rtie s am inHo

a
' tirne o r '9 i n i s o a l l e d s t a t i o " a r y p ro ce ss. p e n d e n t of choice of

a process X(t) is c a lle d w id e -s e n s e stationarv if n

• a r y lf t h e f o l l o w | og
s a tisfied conditions

j mx (t) = E [X (t)] is in d e p e n d e n t of t.
0 Rxx(‘ v y d e p ®n d s o n | y o n th e tim e diffe ren ce t = (t - t la n d not
on t| and t 2 in d iv id u a lly . 1 ana not

m x ( t ) a n d RxxCt + t , t) are p e rio d ic with period T then process is

|f

& called c y c lo s ta tio n a ry p ro ce ss.

properties of auto correction function Rx (i)

□ R (t ), the
x a u to c o rre c tio n fu n ctio n of stationary process X(t) has
following p r o p e r tie s :

□ R (x) is an eve n fu n c tio n i.e. R (t ) = R ( - t ).

x x x

□ The m a xim um a b s o lu te va lu e of R ( t ) is achieved x at t = 0 i e

IRx (t )I < R x (0).

□ If for som e T o w e have RX (T O) = Rx (0), then for all integers K, RX (KT O)

= RX (O).

*074
• Rx (0) g iv e s p o w e r c o n te n t of a pow er s ig n a l.
—J Rx (0) give s e n e rg y c o n te n t of a signal (if signal is energy signal).

• Fourier tra n s fo rm o f R x x ( t ) g*v e s po w e r spectral density for power

signal an d e n e rg y s p e c tra l d e n s ity for energy signal.

P°Wer and Energy of a Random Signal

Power co n te n t o f a ra n d o m s ig n a l X is given by

Px = lit" Tt f Tr E [ X 2 ( t ) l d t
x _>0O2 T J - t ______
t
 C O M M W d C A T IO N S Y ^ S
134
of Random Signal l» Given by
Energy Content
Ex * J M R xx(M )dt
Ex

“ "I X^
re tic a^
la n d^
p ra c d^
ro ces s
c a lin ie re s r'
ony
l powor ,y
po pr
t._______________ _ <_

Cross correladon” unction between two random processes X(t) a r ia V (|H

iR x Y p ^ z l^ E fW W ll; jg.xy(ti't ? ) ~ R Yx(t;.t) )]

Random Processes and Linear Systems

LTI Y O )^
x(t)
h(t)

• Let random process X(t) is input to an LTI system having iiripui»>t

response h(t) and Y(t) is o/p of LTI system then
• If X(t) is stationary process then X(t) and Y(t) will be jointly stationary
with

E[Y] = E[X(t)]j’ _h(t)dt Rxy(t) - Rx (t) * h(-t)

RY (T) = Rx W h (-t)-h (T )|; |s Y (f) = Sx (f)|H(f)|g

where ’ -> represent convolution.

Power Spectral Density

• Power spectral density of a random process X(t) is given by

----------------------------- - '' a n q Y (t) are jointly stationary proces

 Pulse Modulation Techniques

YDere are two types of pulse modulation techniques, pulse analog modulation
techniques and pulse digital modulation techniques

Pulse Analog Modulation Technique

• pulse analog modulation techniques are of three types namely PAM
PWM and PPM.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

• |n th is m o d u la tio n sch e m e
amplitude of a high frequency
carrier is varried in accordance
with the s a m p le d v a lu e s of
message signal. c(,) inr|nnnn|nnnnn
• Time dom ain representation of
PAM is
Where m(t) is message signal, C(t)
is carrier signal and S(t) is PAM
modulated signal.

Pulse Width Modulation

• In this m o d u la tio n schem e
width of c a rrie r p u lse s are
varried in accordance with the
sampled values of m essage °"'innnnnn nnnn
•
signal.
Time domain representation of s.jnnn.nnnn o__ “
PWM is

Speed control of DC motor is done using PWM.

Pulse Position Modulation

• In this modulation scheme position of
high fre q u e n c y c a rrie r p u ls e s is c(l) i nhnnnnn
changed in a c c o rd a n c e w ith the

•
sampled value of message signal.
Time domain representation of PPM is
s,)uiumim
 COMMUNlCATIONSYSTEMS
IU 6 ] _
^ S i e f f u S ^ ... C
f __ •" pW £
mods. 3 nerated u»lno & " r n 0 r b y " f 9 W M as 9

• PPM fs gene
^ h e l e n w ^bratorniode. «*

Comparison of PAM, PWM, PPM____________ _____________ ——

Pow erefficiency (SNR) Complex^ ,
PAMI I L e s s ’ Low est ' ^ 7 ^ "

PWM High Moderate Moderate

PPM High (Highest ighest

PPM is most effective pulse analog m odulation schem e in terms

of SNR._ _ _ _ _ _ _____________________ _____

Pulse Digital Modulation Techniques

• Important pulse digital modulation techniques are pulse code modulation
[PCM], delta modulation, DPCM

Pulse Code Modulation [PCM]

• In this modulation scheme we first sam ple the analog signal then
quantize it to convert it into levels and encode it and then send it in the
form of digital codes.
• If there is n bit quantizer and sampling rate is fs then bit rate will be

Rb = nf s bits/sec.

Sampling must be done at a rate greater than or equal to Ny

quist rate in order to avoid aliasing.
Higher will be sampling rate, easy will be reconstruction of
signal at receiver.

B.W. requirement is minimum and m axim um R

c. b’
If we are using uniform quatizer with step size A.

A= = Vnax- Vm n

then maximum quantization error will be —

______________________ _ 2 '
Normally used uniform Quanti?aro ris&
type. uzers are mid tread type and nnid
M^p£EASY____A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [137]
f S ignal t 0 Qu a r | ti z atio n noise ratio for PCM for S inusoidal input is (for
uniform quantizer)
[SQNR = 6n + 1.76] dB W here, n is bit of quantizer

As nu m be r of b its of q u a n tize r incre ase SQNR increases bu t at

the sam e tim e b a n d w id th re q u ire m e n t for tra n s m iss io n also
— increase.

Companding
« Companding is c o m pre ssio n of signal at transm itter end and expansion
of signal at re ce ive r end.
There are tw o typ e of c o m p a n d in g tech niqu es p-law c o m p a n d in g and
A-law com panding.
Formulae for p-law c o m p a n d in g is

w h ere. M m a, = 255

Formulae for A -law c o m p a n d in g is

A|Mn| for 0 s |V n | s 4
IV J = 1 + lnA FV

1 + ln A |Vn|
for ^ < |V n K l
1+ ln A
A ma>. = 8 7 6
where

*O7«
• C o m p a n d in g is d o n e to avoid non linear distortion of channel.
• C o m p a n d in g is w id e ly used in telephone system s to reduce
non linear disto rtion and also to com pensate for signal level
\ _______
d iffe ren ce be tw een soft and loud talkers.

Differential Pulse C o d e M o d u la tio n

* When the sam ples of a signal are highly correlated then we go for DPCM
in order to save bandwidth or using the same bandwidth at higher data rate.
Note: In DPCM p rin c ip le used is p redictio n.
Delta M o d u la tio n

* Delta m odulation is a special case of differential pulse code m odulation.

* It is called one bit DPCM as it transm its only one bit per sam ple.
* In delta modulation problem of slope overload occurs if input is changing
very fast that is

A_
< dm(t) -> slope overload occurs.
dt
 coMMyNSSierr553® - -------------
[138] overload error w e ctroo se o p tim u m s ® ol >
• To overcome slope M]

^opt _ dm(t)
th a t Ts

^261 = 2Jtfm A m
For m(t) = cos 2n fm t
. Second problem occurs is hunting, which occur when message is

constant.
Adaptive Delta Modulation
. In adaptive delta modulation step size is ch o se n m accordance
message signal sampled value to overcom e s lo p e overload error

hunting. . .. ,
. If message is varying at a high rate then step size is high and if message
is varying slowly then step size is small.

Multiplixing
• There are many types of m ultiplexing out of w h ic h tw o are FDM anc
TDM.
• In FDM we divide whole bandwidth of channel in sm all segments anda
lot it to different users so that they can a c c e s s cha nn el at the same
time by using their allotted bandwidth.
• In TDM, whole time slot is divided am ong d iffe re n t users so at a time
only one user is accessing the channel.
Bandwidth requirement in TDM and FDM is alm ost same for san?,
num ber of users.

If we are using TDM + PCM and there are N -m e ssa g e s having saw
bandw idth and are sampled at same rate f th e n b it rate will be
_________ s
Rb = N.nfs where, n - bits in quantizer.
lf B W ’ of m essa g e s and sam pling rates are d iffe re n t then overall
r a t e w il1 |R b = Rb i + Rb 2 + K 7 +
_______ R bN
R b1 ■R 2- R
where b M .......... R b N a re h it ra te
B.W. requirem ent it raised cosine "pulses h a ^ X e r x i s used
D
B.W. = ^ - ( 1 + a)
where, a -> lies b e tw e e n 0 a n d 1 •

Note: In case of ADM and

nd D m
h M u
b a nd w idth re q u ire d is alm ost s a ^
 7. Digital Modulation Schemes

Commonly used digital modulation schemes are amplitude shift keying,

frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying.

AmpHt u d e S h ift Keying

• In this scheme am plitude of a high frequency carrier is varied in
accordance with digital data (0 or 1).
• For digital input 1 amplitude level is high and for digital input 0 amplitude
level is low.
• Signalling used is on-off signalling.

B.W. = ^ - = 2 R b
» B.W. requirement for ASK is
’b

• In ASK probability of error (Pe ) is high.

• SNR is less.

Frequency Shift Keying

• In frequency shift keying frequency of carrier is varied in accordance
with digital data(1 orO).
• For digital data 1 we use frequency f, and for digital data 0 we use
frequency f2 , normally f, > f2 .
• NRZ signalling is used.

• Bandwidth requirement in case of FSK is B.W. = 2R b + (f1 - f 2 )

G ^j • In case of FSK Pe is less and SNR is high.

|z~e | • Multiplexing is difficult.
• Used in modem

PSK
* In phase shift keying phase of high frequency carrier is varied in
accordance with digital data 1 or 0.
* NRZ signalling is used.

* Bandwidth requirement for PSK is B.W. = 2R b = 2x bit rate

• In case of PSK probability of error is less.

I_ _
§ •
*
SNR is high.
Mainly used technique in wireless transmission.
 [140]
Comparison of ___ Pe SNR
S?(t)&
Scheme high lo w
S 1(t) = A co so ) c t
2 Rb
C o herent
s 2 (t) = o
ASK
high lo w
2 Rb low
S 1(t) = Acos<o c t
Non-coherent
ASK S2 (t) = 0 _____
2R b +(f) y m o d e ra te high h 'gh
S ^ t j^ A c o s 2k f|t
C o h e re n t
S2 (t) = A cos 2p f2 t
FSK

>2R b m o d e ra te high low

Non-coherent S,(t) = A c o s 2 n f 1t

FSK S2 (t) = A c o s 2k f2 t

S 1(t) = A co so ) c t 2Rb lo w high high

C o h e re n t
PSK S2 (t) = - A cos a)c t

S 1(t) = A co so ) c t 2Rb lo w high low

Non-coherent
PSK S2 (t) = - A cos o)c t
J
Complexity of coherent schemes is always high compare]?
noncoherent schemes.
Coherent schemes have less probability of error compare to
noncoherrent schemes under same conditions.
• ASK scheme has lowest noise immunity against noise.
• PSK is best among all shift keying schemes.
• Coherent schemes requires lesser power com p are to noncoherrent
schemes for same probability of error.

M-array Signalling
• In M-array signaling we use M number of phases (in ca se of PSK). M
number of frequencies (in case of FSK), M num ber of am plitude levels
(in case of ASK) for sending digital data.
By using M-array scheme we can send data at higher rate at the expense
of increased probability of error
• Bandwidth requirement for M-array scheme is

B.W. = S ^ y j^ b in a ry scheme
log2 M

• For M-array PSK B.W. = JL5 b_

__Jog2M
MAp t EASY A HANDBOOK ON El ECTHONICS ENGINEERING (1411

, IIMti « •» .... ''I " ' " I " "I lhc> o/p of if,,, modulator.

Baud rate * ru ,°
(Wild mln Ih given by
_________ log2 M

Q^drflture A m p litu d e M o d u latio n (QAM)

» In QAM dlQltal Information Is contained In both amplitude and phase of
lha signal.
• |i in i mt h I li 11m>ll i (li<jlU.il rru jdulatiori scheme and analog modulation scheme.

In digital cul)le television and in cable modem applications QAM

J Is used.

Nolle In Digital C om m unication

• In digital com m unication for bolter SNR matched filter is used whose
impulse response h(t) is
|h(l) - S ‘ Ot ~- 61 w h ° r G <* represent complex conjugate.
I------------------------ Tb —> bit duration.
S(l) -> Input signal to filter.
• Probability of error Po Is

whore Ed - f (S1(t)-S 2 (t)]2 dt

Tb________________

Nq/2 Is two sided noise power spectral density.

Probability of Error fo r ASK (Coherent)
• Let S,(t) = Ac c o s 2 jrf c t s 2(t) = 0

P J lS i W - S j f f lf d t
td Tb

Probability of Error fo r PSK (Coherent)

* In PSK S^t) = A c cos 2k fc t
S2 (t) = - A c cos 2k fc t
 communicat ion syst ems.--------------

For FSK (coherent) probability of error is ______

Pe for Non-coherent ASK and Non coherent FSK

• Probability of error for non-coherent ASK is

( A
= 221exp [ ’ i ^
p’ 1
'c 0

Pe **" 0X01 — !
Probability of error for non-coherent FSK is 2 4N 0

x L ^ e - ’ 2' 2
,2). •■ QW =
_ „2

1 x ’b
Probability of error for differential PSK is e x P 2N 0

i >
• In case of FSK f, and f2 are chosen such that f 1 = mfs and
f? = kfs where m, k are integers.
• Bandwidth efficiency for PSK is

Be - Transmission rate~
____ B W signal at o/p = 2f% = 0 ,5
 Information Theory

|nl0 r mation content in a signal will be high if its probability of occurrence

’ i l l be less.

Kprobability of o ccurrence of m essage is p then its information content

I will be

bits Hartley or de cit nat

Entropy
, Average information content per symbol in a group of sym bols is known
as entropy and represented by H.
, if we have M sym bols w hose probability of occu rre nce is p 1( p 2 .........

M i
H = X P t lo 9 2 ^
.......p M then entropy H will be bits / sym bols
1=1 Pi

Z—----- ’
Entropy will be m axim um it probability of occurrence of all M
I zEE symbols will be equal and H m ax = log 2 M bits/sym bols.

Source Information Rate

• If source is em itting sym bols at a rate rs sym bols/sec then source

information rate R is given by R = rs H bits/sec

Entropyof Markoff Sources

' Entropy of Markoff source is
n n / 1\ where, P, -> proba bility that source is in
H = S PiLPi|l092 —
state i.
p. -> p ro b a b ility that it going from
state i to j.
Note: Markoff source is source w hich em mits the sym bols dependently.
J°urc« Encoding

, length coding.
^ r! ablelength coding
* SHANNON f ano c o d in g
Huf f man c o d in g
 t 10nsyst ews----- --------
to Shannon

• sr2221
S eSs
N O It

Channel codinQ.—d o n
- e t o ^ ^ ^
I

Efficiency is given by
i------Tn where, H -> is entropy.
e L —>is ave rag e n u m b e r o f b its p e r S y rr) .
according to en cod in g technique. ° Oi

Capacity of a Channel
• Capacity of a channel is defined as m axim um d a ta rate that can be
supported by channel with minimum pro ba bility of error.
• Capacity of a channel having bandwidth B and a d d itiv e Gaussian band
i
limited white noise is

C = Blog2 f i + -
bits/se c
\ N
this is Shannon Hartley theorem.
When B is tending to ~ then capacity does not b e co m e « as S
tends to zero due to high noise power, so
where, S -> signal power.
No
— -> tw o sid ed noise spe ctral density.
 Optical Communication

* General m odel of an op tical com m unication system is as

, Transducer basically converts information from source into electrical

signal.
Optical source (laser or LED) converts electrical signal into optical (light)
signal.
• Optical channel is optical fiber.
• Optical detector converts optical signal into electrical signal. Mainly
avalanche photo dio d e is used.

• When we have to com pare the behaviour of light in two medium

then we go for R a y theory.
When we deal with transmission of optical signal or reception of
optical signal then we go for Wave theory.
If there is interaction between a material and light then we go for
Photon Theory.

Refractive In d e x (n )
• Refractive index is defined as ratio of velocity of light in free space to
velocity of light in m edium for which we are calculating refractive index,

c
that is n = —
v
Note: Value of refractive index is always greater than or equal to 1.

Total In te rn a l R e fle c tio n

by snell’s law
n^sin 0 1 = n 2 sin (|>2
if 02 = 90; internal reflection takes
place.

01 = sin’ 1 —
L___ n!
 ON TE—
(146] COMMUNlgALI - ^ - - -------- -
l ,, h l l W 1 >,,„>! A c tio n i' ^ g t e of
von
w l |l b 0 greater !ha n or equal lo c n tic a l angle 00 = 3 1 0 - ^

. All the Information In optical fiber is carriecI out by J e p - w i p l e of to t a

internal reflection and all the information is carried c o re o f the O p tJCa|

• Cladding does not support any transmission of information.

Acceptance Angle (0a )

n p n2 -> refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.

• Acceptance angle is the maximum angle to the fiber axis at which the
light may enter inorder to propagate.

If angle of incidence to the fiber will be greater than 0, then total

a internal reflection will not take place in optical fibre and some
information will be lossed.

Numerical Aperture (N.A.)

• It is a measure of light collecting ability of fibre. It establishes the
relationship between acceptance angle and refractive indices of different
medium involved.

n0 sin 0a = n, s»n(9O-0 c ) n
o s in 0 a = n ^ l- s in 2 ^

no s in e a ; =
|n .A. = no s in e a =(n?

Relative Refractive Index Difference (A)

• It is defined as

4 = 21^1
2n; • | A. = n 1(2 A ) 1/z
 --------f t H A N D BQQK O N ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [147]

Me
ridon a l and s k e w Rays
, Meridonal rays are those rays which pass through core axis.
, Skew rays are those rays w hich do not pass through core axis.

numerical A pertu re fo r M e rid o n al and Skew Rays

. For meridonal rays N.A. is |n .A. = no s in e a = (n 2 - n | ) ,z2

» For skew rays N.A. is [n .A. = n 0 sinO a3 c o s y = (nf - n | ) 1/2 c o s y

where acceptance angle for skew rays.

y —> is the angle between angle of incidence and normal at the
point of incidence.

• Q O
is always greater than 6 a . O

• Skew rays will be in large number inside fiber.

Normalized Frequency (v)

• It is a dim ensionless quantity and is given by

— x a x (N.A.) = y x a x x (2A)1/2
X * X ____________

where a -» is core radius.

X -> wave length of operation.

Step Index Fiber .r

n(r) = n r<a — r
n 21 r > a |

• The refractive index profile for this ---------------

■
type of fiber makes a step change
at the core-cladding interface.

Mode
• Modes are
>
>
-► different phase
same phase but same energy
equal energy but unequal
and equal phase energy

Number of m odes or mode volume M is |M -

im
w it destination at !?re

Tn.s : '£ j£ J 2 _ r -

. if we reduce the radus s u c h J_

through core so no d-spers.cr a -

Graded Index Fiber

• Graded mdex fiber nas vanab e J - ue core
• Refractive index is max ■ - - - *
distance increases from the core.
. This type of profile for refractive r = e x =
multimode with equal delays.
• Refractive index profile is
a

where a is called pref ie 0' the f oer.

/ -----------------------------------

• Value of a Profile
oc step index
1 trianguiar
2 oarabotc
• A saincreases gradea indexfiber will tend to w a rd s s ie c indexfiber
behaviour

\
Number of modes or mode volume M ? is given b y Mg = i I a l|

>J r y * w e w an
f to transmit only single m o d e then normal
A A" frequency must be in the range 0 < v < v_, w here v = 2.40S
• For single mode transmission m inim um v a lu e of wave

X is given by

Losses in Optical Fiber

• Absorption losses
Intrinsic (due to interaction of one or m ajor c o m o o n e n t of a*®5 5 ’
♦ Extrinsic (due to OH~ n n co m p o n e t n <-
• Linear scattering losses U e *° t r a n s ‘t ’° n ele m e n t im p’

♦ Rayleigh
♦ Mie
 — — — b^ 3 1 nel ect r onksengineer ing n 4 9j
Non linear scattering losses
* Fiber bend losses

C r it ical Radius o f C u rv a tu re

. For multimode critical radius of curvature R, is given by

Rc = ------- ” 1*
__ __ 4rc(n? - n | ) 3/2
• For single mode, critical radius of curvature is given by

20 X -3
c ( n ? - n | ) gjj-
3 /2 2 .7 4 8 -0 .9 9 6 —

Optical Sources
• Normally used optical sources are Laser and LED.
9 Laser is source of monochromatic and coherent light.
• LED is source of monochromatic and non coherent light.

N01*
In case of He - Ne Laser for same o/p optical power, less input
power is required as compared to Ruby laser.

In case of LED total recombination rate Rt is directly proportional to

forward biased current and is given by
where, Rnr -> non radiative recombination.
Rt —Rnr + Rf
Rr -> radiative recombination.
Internal Q u a n tu m E ffic ie n c y o f LED

Rr R .x e
^ = R? Rt a i; Tlint = “ h —

where e is charge on electron.

Internal power Pjnt is given by Pjn t = Photon rate x hf

x
i X
he
Pint = R r X h f | ; Pint ~ 'Hint ~

External power is somewhat lesser than internal power and is given by

where F —» is transmission coefficient and lies
p _ Pint F n between (0, 1). 0 for opaque and 1 for
e x t" 4 *n 2 transparent m edium .
n refractive index of the medium.
n -» refractive index of the crystal.
X

External quantum efficiency is equal to p , where P is input electrical

power.
 fOMMUNICATIONSYSTEMS
______
• Relation between overall mean life time (r,). mean life tj
corresponding to radiative recombination and mean life
corresponding to non radiative recombination is
-7 1 I T T KRr
_i_ = 2
+ and n 'nt R
Tt T nr _____ -1
Coupling Efficiency
• Coupling efficiency is a parameter which defines the amount of op(h
power coupled to the optical fiber from LED. It is given by

Jo0a 1(0) sin 0d0

~rHi2
I(0)sin0d0

for 1(0) = l0 cos 0

Optical Detector
• Optical detector used is normally avalanche photo diode or PIN diode
• Optical detector must have high sensitivity, high fidelity, short response
time and stability within the range of operation.
Quantum Efficiency of Optical Detector
• Quantum efficiency of optical detector is given by
_ electron generation rate
nD incident photon rate

Fe where re and rp are electron and photon generation rate

'p respectively.
Responsivity (R)
It gives the transfer characteristic of detector and is equal to
F F
A/W where, l —>is photo current
p

po -> is incident photon power

Po = photon rate x hf

R= ^ = e re The
Now
P0 Po ___ hf where |ip = er e

g
10, Propagation of Waves

Inan earth environment • ( l | , >(.iionumnoila waves propagate In ways that

depend not only on their own piopoiim>', bul nluoon thosoof environment
itself.
->e < 2h/IHz r a n g ° S W 0ve p ro PQ Qfillons are ground wave propagation

Sky wave / Ionospheric wave propagation _> 2 M H z < |< 30 MHz

Space wave propagation / LOS -> > 30 MHz.

Ground Wave Propagation

. Ground waves propagate along the surface of oarlh
. Ground waves are vertically polarized to proven! short circuiting of
electric component.
• These are also called su rfa ce waves.
* Ground waves are used up to medium frequency range.
Note: AM is an exam ple of Ground wave propagation.

Field Strength at a Distance for Ground Wave

• The field strength in volts/m is given as by taking into account the gain

c
120jch t l
of transmitting antenna t = — 1
*

If a receiving antenna is now placed at this point, the received signal

will be, in volts.

v _ 120nh t hr I where,
Xd 120 it - » characteristic impedance of free space
ht effective height of transmitting antenna
hr - > effective height of receiving antenna
I -> antenna current
d distance from the transmitting antenna
k wavelength
~~< If the distance between the two antennas is fairly long, the'
*O7<
I reduction of field strength due to ground and atmospheric
absorption reduces the value of the voltage received.
At low frequencies absorption is less due to ground so wave
propagation can take place for a large distance._______________
 COMMUNICAnONSYSTE^
made
[152]

Sky Wave sphere played a pan ■

e a r t h's a t m o
• Ionization ° f the upp P a t high frequencies.
propagation of rad© waves pa
r e fle c ts b a c X e a r th the high frequency w a ve s th a t w ould oth e ^

. l o Z p h e r e X u p p e r portion of the

quantities of radiant energy from the sun becom ing heated and lo n i^
. D layer is lowest, then E layer then Es layer then F, layer and in ia s tF _

layer. _______ ___________________ _____

r ^ \ Reflection occurs from ionization layers due to bending of waves
when it travels through different layers.

• This figure shows that as wave is refracted, it is bent down gradually

rather than sharply. However below ionized layer, the incident and
refracted rays follow path that are exactly the sam e as they would have
been if reflection had been taken place from a surface located at greater
height called Virtual Height.
Critical Frequency (f.)
• C ritic a l fre q u e n cy fc for a given layer is the hig h e st frequency that will
be returned down to earth by that layer after being been beamed straight
up at it.
N o te : Critical frequency range for F2 layer is from 5 M Hz to 12 MHz.

Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)

. Maximum usable frequency is a limiting frequency b u t for some s p * *
angle of incidence other than tho M y’

hormal and it is g ive n by

---------------- _ C O S 0 i |M UF = fc s e c 0
A bove equation is also called >
N o te : Norm al values of MUF mav ran
m a y r a n ge from 8 to 35 MHz.
 s ta n c e " ^ ^ ^ nj ^sengineer ing--------- L(153]
~ J

c* o distance is the shortest »

the surface of earth, al which a s k ? 3 ,r a n s m ilt e r ' measured
than y will be returned to the earth Y W aV® ,lx e d ,r e c ’ u e n c y

A frequency w hich makes a given distance correspond to the

skip distance is the MUF for that pair of points.
Transmission path is limited by the skip distance at one end
and the curvature of the earth at other end.
^Fading is the fluctuation in signal strength -at — •__________________ j
a receiver and may be
rapid or slow, general or frequency selective.
Fading can occur because of interference between the lower and upper
rays of a sky wave.
AM signals suffers from frequency selective fading.

Space Waves
. Space waves travels (m ore or less) in straight lines.
* Space waves are limited in their propagation by the curvature of the earth

Radio Horizon

* The radio horizon for space waves is about four thirds as far as optical
horizon.
• The radio horizon of an antenna is given by

|dt = 4 . 1 2 ^ km where, d t -> distance from transmitting antenna

ht -» height of transmitting antenna above
ground in meters.
The total d is ta n c e ’d ’ between transmitting and receiving antenna
is given by

d = dt + dr d = 4.12 + Th?

where, hr is height of receiving antenna above earth in meters.

Une of Sight (LOS) P ropagation

* This is also called Friis transmission.

----(g, 6 . ) --------

p, p.

t is power transmitted by antenna and Pf is power received by receiving

antenna.
Gr Gr are gains of transm itter and receiver respectively.
 made
[154]
Received powe_r is given b y ^ d is ta n ce between twoar.>e -„

p, G t x Ae W a effective area of receiver

4nd2
4n Ae
Now

C pt G t G±
2
( 4nd
So received power Pr will be

Received power in dB is

10log 1 0 Pr = 10log 1 0 Pt + 10log 1 0 G t + 10log 1 0 G r - 2 0 l o g ( ^ ?

______________ ' A (

N O 74
Term 20 log corresponds to path loss.

■ III
 Radar and Satellite Communication

A radar consists of a transmitter and receiver each connected to a

directional antenna.
Transmitter is capable of sending out a large UHF or microwave power
through the antenna.
Receiver collects as much energy as possible from the echoes reflected
in its direction by the target.
Basic radar systems diagram and its timing diagram are as

<— Pulse repetition time (PRT) —>

♦- PRRorPRF

Pulse reception frequency (PRF) or pulse repetition rate (PRR) is number

of pulses per unit time.
These pulses are transmitted by a highly directional parabolic antenna
at the target, which can reflect (echo) some of the energy back to the

same antenna.
The reflected energy is received and time measurements are made, to
determine the distance of the target.
 CATION
“ “ ---------- ..t e d a su fficie n t rest time mUs

« p o . » “ ” ” ,0 » ™

. After th€>rad a r p h n t0 return s ° d

bo allowed lor * * s s iv e p o is e s is ca lle d p u ls 6 V
pulse. netwe e n S I
• lim e diltem n p R T \ maximum d ista n ce to the targe tto |
r e p e t i t i o n s ^ ’d e te r m in e s m a x '
. pulse re P O '^n g r a n g e . ______
m iles
be
measured, - = ^S t
Range 12 36

■ n hv the formulae l _ _ _ — .— —
. Range is given by e ce iver in m icroseconds

.here, *
• For higher accura y ---------- .

Range = __ — J
I----------- ------ r as seco nd return echoes is
The range b e y o n d ^ j ^ X g e (mur) and is given by

called the maximum una 9

where, P R T is in p s e c .
? 5 L | miles
mur = 12.2
. ,„ „ M — » » ”“ * • ' - 2 “ i

maximum range.
• Minimum range is given by __________
'Mjnjmu rn T a n g e '^ G ^ P ^ J yards

where, PW - pulse width in fisec.

• Duty cycle is given by p u ty cycle - p R T ^

• Average power is given by

'Average power = peak pow er xd u ty c y c le j

|PRT = 1/PRF'

Maximum Range rmax po^

• Let Pt is peak transmitted power from transmitter, A p is maximum £
gain of transmitter, Ao is capture area of receiving antenna-
intercepted by the target depends upon effective area, tet us a S
that it is S, then maximum range rmax is given by
 [157]

•max ~
[ Pt A20 S 11/4 P|ApA.2 S'
1/4
r max -
or
l ______ \
(4itt 3 •P_
min /
where X -> wave length of EM radiation.
mm minimum power at receiver which can be recognized
w e : By Increasing P, by 16 times b e c o m e s |u s l d o u b te .

Effect of N o ise o n M a x im u m R a n g e

. Noise affects the maximum range insofar as it determines the minimum

power that the receiver can handle.
• Taking noise into account maximum range rmax is given by
1/4 where, k -> Boltzmann’s constant
P, Aq S
Qnax To -> Standard ambient temp.
4itA,2 kT 0 A f(F -1 )
= 290 K
f A -> Bandwidth of receiver
kT0 A f-> noise in p u t pow er of
receiver
F -> Noise figure of receiver
Maximum range in kilometers is given by
-11/4 where, D -> antenna d ia m e te r in
P P 4S
^max — 4 8
t
km meters
2
Af Jt (F -1 ) S -» effective cross-section
area in m2
Af —>in Hz
X -> in m

Bandwidth required for receiver is n/T, where T is the pulse duration

a
Blind Speed
and n is num ber whose value ranges from 1 to 10 depending on
circumstances.________________ _____________________ t

• Blind speed is a radial speed of the airplane at which the phase shifting
of echo-signal has the value ± n x 2n between two pulse periods.
* It is given by
where, v b Ijn d -> blind speed
v - 1 X wave length of transmitted EM wave
blind ’ 2L
T -> pulse repetition time (PRT)
s
D °PPler E ffect
‘ If the observer is moving with respect to source he observes change in
frequency of the wave em itted by source, this is called Doppler effect
°r D oppler shift.
 Observed frequency f is given by

doppler shift

s - v r is the relative velocity source with re S p ^ .

where v . .
3 ,I

receiver.
f _> js frequency of wave radiated by source.
In radar technology Doppler effect is using for the following tasks

□ Speed measuring
□ MIT - moving target indication
□ In air or space based radar system for precise determination
lateral distances.
Doppler frequency (fD ) is given by
where, fD Doppler frequency in Hz
v -» speed of the wave source (m/sec)
X -> wave length (m)

• This equation is valid if the speed of the source of wave is

like the radial speed.

• Another formulae for dopper frequency is given by

2 v r = 2v r . ^ where, vr -> radial speed of aim
f tx -> frequency of transmitter
X Co
Co -> velocity of light in free space
X -> wavelength of wave

Dopper frequency occurs twice at a radar once on the way from

d radar to aim and then for the reflected (already affected by a

Doppler shift) energy on the way back.

Radar beacons are normally used on aircraft to identify itself-

Another use of radio beacons is rather similar to that of Ii9^ i
houses but it can operate over much large distances._^^>

Satellite Communication
• Satellite communication system exist because earth is a sphere.
• Repeater is needed to convey signals over long distances.
• A repeater is simply a receiver linked to a transmitter
. Satellite systems operate in the microwave and millimeter
frequency bands us.ng frequencies between 1 and 50 GHz.
 -------^ ^ P g Q O K p H E LECTRONICS ENGINEERING [159]

t There are tour satellite system whose orbital velocity height and period
is given as

Satellite system O rb it height O rbit velocity Orbital

(km ) (km /sec) period
hr min sec
Intelsat (GEO) 35786.03 3.0747 23 56 4.1
New-ICO (MEO) 10255 4.8954 05 55 48.4
Skybridge (LEO) 1469 7.1272 01 55 17.8

Iridium 780 7.4624 01 40 27.0

• Time period of satellite orbit is given by

2icr3/2 where, r -> is distance of satellite's orbit from centre of

H1/2 earth.
Ill -> is constant which is product of gravitational
constant G and mass of earth M E .
i Kepler's third law gives the relation between orbital period and semi­
major axis of elliptical path and is
where, a -> semi major axis of ellipse and replaced
]-2_ 4 it 2 a3
by r if path is circular.
|i —> Kepler’s constant.

where, p is semilatus rectum of ellipse,

e eccentricity of ellipse.
 C O M M yN JC A Q ^
[160] Made
„d Geosynchronous Satellites
Geostationary and u 7 j t w h o s e p e rio d is
. Geostationary satellite is m a
earth's rotation pe n a d . re e c t t0 any point on earth at a n v t i
• It remains s ta l,0 " aJ
j H| b e at fixed position with resp e c t ^
• Geosynchronous sate n o t a || t h e tim e ap>r

. h a s a n i n c i i n a , i o n w i t h r e s p e c t '°

also its orbit is not circular.

• Average angular velocity of satellite is given y

g 1 /2 _ 2 it
where, n -> average angular velocity
71= ~ ^a ~ _y
Mean anomaly M is the arc length (in radians) that the satellite
have transversed since the perigee passage if it were moving on
circum scribed circle at the mean angular velocity r| and is given by

M - E - e s in E | where E -» is ecce ntric anomaly.

M is also given by

m = n (t-tp ) where t -> is the tim e of perigee.

Satellite Link Design

• Major bands used for satellite communications are 6/4 GHz, 14/11 GHz
30/20 GHz. The uplink frequency is written first by convention.
• As frequency increases attenuation in atm osphere increases.
• All communication links are designed to m eet certain performances
usually a bit error rate (BER) in a digital link or a signal to noise raw
(S/N) in a an analog link.
• The baseband channel BER or S/N ratio is determ ined by the carriers
noise ratio (C/N) at the input to the dem odulator in receiver.
• In most satellite communications applications, the (C/N) ratio a t^
dem odulator input must be greater than 6 dB
Overall (C/N) at earth station receiver d e p e n d s on both uplink
downlink. H

’ lf atransmitting source, in free space radiatino a total cower P / attS

uniformly in all directions and r ie • , n 9 a to ta P |ed
r is cal
effective i s o t r o p i c a ^ ^ 9 a ,n a n t e n n a t h e n P - G <*

Now received power bv an ant P 0 M , e r t a n s i^

having gain G r is V " a n te n n a a t a d 's ’^ R from t r a ^
, h decibel received power will be

W a g - * path loss in dB

(^p)dB = 20log10 4rcR)

------------ V X /
. In general received power is given as

^U slg R P ldB-KG,)^ ~(g j ^ ( L a)a~-(L,a)dB - (Lfa)a8|

\sten? (k jljg —> loss in dB in atmosphere.
^ a \iB “ * ^ s s associated with transmitter in dB.
^“ra^aB ~ * loss associated with receiver in dB.

System Noise T e m p e ra tu r e

• At microwave frequencies, a black body with a physical temperature,

Tp degrees Kelvin, generates electrical noise power in a wide bandwidth.
The noise power is given by
Pn = k TP B n ] where, k -> Boltzmann’s constant.
Tp -> physical temperature of source in Kelvin
degree.
B n -> noise bandwidth in which noise power is
measured in Hertz.

* kTp is noise power spectral density in Watt/Hz.

I
a • The power spectral density is constant for all radio frequencies
up to 300 GHz. ____________________

* To determine the performance of a receiving system we need to be able

to find the total thermal noise power against which the signal must be
demodulated, this is done by determining system noise temperature.
* System noise tem perature Ts is the noise temperature of a noise source
located at input of noiseless receiver which gives the same noise power
as the original receiver measured at the output of receiver and usually
includes noise from the antenna.
— --------- ---------------\ •„ n f receiver is and its narrowest b a n d > .
• If the overall end to end gai ^ o d u |a to r i/p js g jv e n b y

is B n Hz. the noise p o w e r^ system noise temperature.

jP™ = W p ’ 4 noise power at dem odulator i/p.

‘ q is the gain of receiver from Rf in D

n demodulator i/P.
, tn thP inout of receiver is P where
• The noise power referred to the input
Pn = kT s B n
If antenna delivers a signal power Pr to the receiver RF input. th6n

carrier to noise ratio at the demodulator is given by

System noise temperature Ts is given by

where, Tr -» is the noise temperature of the antenna measured at its

o/p port.
-> equivalent noise temperature of RF amplifier.
T1F -> equivalent noise temperature of IF amplifier.
Tm -> equivalent noise temperature of mixer
Grf gain of RF amplifier.
Gm -> gain of mixer.
G|F -» gain of IF amplifier.
Succeeding stages of receiver contribute less and less noise to the
total noise temperature and in this case system noise temperature is
simply the sum of antenna noise temperature and LNA (Low Noise
Amplifier) noise temperature that is
w h e r e - Lntenna noise temperature of antenna.
S ’ a n t e n n a * *LNA

Noise model for an equivalent n, n o is e tem perature of LNA-

temperature TTO given by P n ° IS e S 0 U r C e Pr o d u c e s a "

1 m e d lim ^ 9 a 'n
KESi Egj
le s s th a n u n it y o f attenuating device0'

degrees.t e m p e ra tu re of device or m edium in

^JADEEASY------- A HANDBggi<gNEIX C r R 0 N | C S E N < . |N E E R |N < . |1 6 3 ,

flois* Fi9u r e an d Noise Temperature

j w e figure is frequently used to specify the norse generated within a
device. The operational Noise Figure (NF) is defined as ratio of SNR at

■JPto the SNR at o/p of a device and g.ven by NF =

(S / N )out

Noise figure in terms of equivalent noise temperature is given by

NF = 1 + l o t v/here, T,^ -» equivalent noise temperature
o
- ------------ 2J TToo->
-> reference
referencetemperature
temperatureand
andisis290
290k.k.
If several devices are cascaded then overall noise figure can be found
using Friis formulae as

'n-1

vmere F v F2 . F3 .......... Fn are respective noise figure of devices

in cascade.

-> G v G 2 . G 3 ......... G n are respective power gams of devices

in cascade.

G/T Ratio for Earth Station

• Il is the ratio receiver gain G r to system noise temperature Ts .
• The link equation can be written in terms of (C/N) at earth station

CA Pt Gt Gf x / A V _ ( Pt Gt
N/ kTs Bn \ 4 j ir J ykB n J \4 t cr J Ts

* So higher the (G/T) ratio higher will be (C/N) radio and better

3
•
will be reception of signal at receiver so (G/T) ratio is figure of
merit for receiver.
Sometimes it is given that satellite terminal has -ve G/T which means
it is below 0 dB/k means numerical value of Gf is smaller than
numerical value of Ts . t

Link Budget
* A link budget is a tabular method for evaluating the received power and
noise power in a radio link
* Link budgets invariably use decibel units.
’ Relation between uplink attenuation and downlink attenuation is given
[164] c o mmu n ic a t io n s yst ems

where,
Aup —>uplink attenuation in atmosphere (mainly due to rain).
Adown -> downlink attenuation in atmosphere (mainly due to rain)
fu p , -> are uplink and downlink frequencies respectively.
Relation between overall (C/N) ratio and (C/N) for uplink and
downlink is as

1 7 1 i
+
(C /N U a . (C/N)u p (C/N) d 0 M ,

where, (C/N)overa)( -> overall (C/N) ratio

(C/N)up -> (C/N) ratio for uplink
^^dow n (C/N) ratio for downlink
 12.
M iscellaneous

• Frequency range of voice signal is 300 Hz to 3.4 kHz

• Frequency range of audio signal is 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
• Frequency range of TV signal is 0 to 4.5 MHz.
• Frequency range of data is based on operation.
• In case of guided channel
Copper cable — kHz
Coaxial cable — MHz
Wave guide — GHz
Optical fiber — Tera Hz

• Coaxial cable is also used for connection making as connectors

BNC (Bay Net Navy Connector) and TNC (Terminated Navy
Connectors).
Amplitude D isto rtio n
• This type of distortion results from production of new frequency in the
output which are not there in the input signal. These new frequencies
are caused due to non linearity of active devices.
frequency D isto rtio n
• This type of distortion exists when signal component of different
frequencies are amplified differently. It is caused by stray capacitances
and circuit capacitances.
Phase D istortion t f h a e in nals of different frequencies.
’ It results from unequal delays of 9___________ ______ _— —

• 540 kHz . ,600 KHZ -

■ t o e b a X e s s a g e signa! is bandlim ited! 0 5 kHz.

•ntermediate frequency used for AM is

 Frequency ol local w ca a to r-s 9 ^ 2
n where. t - * u3

. Polarization is vertical and wave p r o p a g a t e

• The tuning range of local oscillate -> Kl - Tu - J KT -
. An AM signal transmitted at a frequency + 'f * halted
m i ^ a i transmitted at frequency L = i _ *
frequency for an AM signal rr« - .
u
"■■l

image frequency is f \ - t o U_'

. In order to reject image frequency bandwidfri of RF ampimer
IB----- s — -57-1 where. Bc - * is bandwiotn oi AM radio sijna.
Oq
----------------------------- j . bandwidth of RF empire*
I _> intermediate frequency

FM Radio Broadcasting
• FM radio broadcasting utilizes the frequency band SS - ' 08 MHz
• The carrier frequencies are separated by 200 kHz and peas frequent
deviation is fixed at 75 kHz.
• Intermediate frequency f 1F in case of FM is 10.7 MHz
• Polarization is horizontal.
• Wave propagation is space wave propagation.

In case of TV signal picture carrier is VSB-FC modulated cow

a
EM Spectrum
sub carrier is QAM modulated and sound is FM modulated

Radio Frequency 3 Hz to 300 GHz

Infrared 3 x 1 0 12 to 4.3 x 1014 Hz
Visible 4.3 x 10™ to 7.5 x 10™ Hz
Ultraviolet 7-5x10™ to 3 x 1 0 17 Hz
X-ray 3 * 1 0 17 to 3 x 1019 Hz |
y-rays > 3 x 101 9 Hz J
 ------- ^ g g 9 ° ! < Q ! W JCTR0NIC S ENGINEERING [1671

Radio Frequency Spectrum

3 — 30 Hz r
SLF 30 - - 300 Hz - "— * Submarines
ULF 300 Hz — 3 KHz
Ground wave propagation
VLF 3 KHz — 30 KHz '

LF 30 KHz — 300 KHz - — ► Radio beacons

MF 300 KHz — 3 MHz - AM

HF 3 MHz — 30 MHz - — ► Sky wave propagation

VHF 30 MHz — 300 MHz - -— * FM and TV

Space wave propagation
UHF 300 MHz — 3 GHz

SHF 3 GHz — 30 GHz L _____________________

Short wave has range of frequencies from 6 MHz - 25 MHz and it

is an application of HF band.

• Digital communication has advantage that it can use repeaters over

analog communication.
• To overcome intersymbol interference we use raised cosine pulses or
duo binary signalling,