Jimma University

Jimma Institute of Technology-JiT

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering
MSc in Computer Engineering

Advanced Computer Networks

Henock Mulugeta (PhD)

(AAU, AAiT)

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 Chapter – 1

Networking Fundamentals

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 Networking fundamentals

Outline
 Protocol layers, service models
 what’s the Internet?
 TCP Vs UDP Communication
 network edge; hosts, access net
 network core: packet/circuit switching
 Mobile and ubiquitous computing
 Trends in Computing Technology
 Computing: Trend, evolution

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 Introduction
Internet and WWW have emerged as global
ubiquitous media for communication and are
changing the way we conduct science, engineering,
and commerce
They are also changing the way we learn, live, enjoy,
communicate, interact, engage, etc.
It appears like the modern life activities are getting
completely centered around the Internet

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Internet Applications Serving Local and Remote
Users

PC client

Internet
Server
Local Area Network

PDA

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 Protocol “Layers”
Networks are complex!
Question:
Is there any way of organizing
 many “pieces”:
structure of network?
 hosts
 Network architectures consist
 routers
of layers.
 links of various
 A protocol is defined
media
between two entities of the
 applications same layer.
 protocols  The ISO Reference Model has
 hardware, software seven layers.
 The Internet (TCP/IP) has
five layers.

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 ISO/OSI reference model
 presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., application
encryption, compression, machine-
presentation
specific conventions
session
 session: synchronization,
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange network
 Internet stack “missing” these layers! link
 these services, if needed, must be physical
implemented in application

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 Internet Protocol Stack
 Application: supporting network
applications and end-user services Application
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP, DNS
 Transport: end to end data transfer Transport
 TCP, UDP

 Network: routing of datagrams from Network

source to destination
 IPv4, IPv6, routing protocols Data Link
 Data Link: hop by hop frames, channel
access, flow/error control Physical
 PPP, Ethernet, IEEE 802.11b 001101011...
 Physical: raw transmission of bits

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 Layers and data units
Hosts, routers, link-layer switches

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 What’s the Internet?
PC  millions of connected Mobile network
server computing devices: Global ISP
wireless hosts = end systems
laptop
 running network
cellular
handheld apps Home network
Regional ISP
 communication links
access  fiber, copper,
points
wired
radio, satellite Institutional network
links
 transmission rate
= bandwidth
 routers: forward
router
packets (chunks of
data)
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 What’s the Internet?...

 protocols control sending, Mobile network

receiving of msgs Global ISP
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Ethernet

 Internet: “network of Home network

networks” Regional ISP
 public Internet versus private
intranet
Institutional network
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force
 IEEE

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 What’s the Internet: a service view
 communication infrastructure
enables distributed
applications:
 Web, VoIP, email, games,
e-commerce, file sharing

 communication services
provided to apps:
 reliable data delivery from
source to destination
 “best effort” (unreliable)
data delivery

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A closer look at network structure:
 network edge:
applications and hosts

 access networks,
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication links
 network core:
 interconnected
routers
 network of networks

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 The network edge
 end systems (hosts):
 run application programs
 e.g. Web, email
 at “edge of network” peer-peer

 client/server model
 client host requests, receives
service from always-on server client/server
 e.g. Web browser-client;
 Web server
 peer-peer model:
 minimal (or no) use of
dedicated servers
 e.g. Skype, BitTorrent
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 Client-Server Architecture Types
(Tier arch compliments layer architecture)
• Two-tier model (classic)

client server

• Three-tier (when the server, becomes a client)

client Server/client server

• Multi-tier (cascade model)

server

client Server/client Server/client

server
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 Client-Server Basic Model:
Clients invoke individual servers

Client Web server Server

invocation invocation

result result Oracle DB

Server

Client
Key:
Process: Computer:

• Example:
• Querying a web server, which could then query a mysql or oracle database
before returning the content of a page
• Web server is a client of the database server
– Browser  search engine -> crawlers  other web servers.
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 A service provided by multiple servers
Service

Server

Client

Server

Client
Server

• Services may be implemented as several server processes in separate host

computers.
• Example: Cluster based Web servers and apps such as Google, parallel
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databases Oracle
 A service provided by multiple servers…
• This topology is extremely common.
• A web site like Google serves approximately 100M
searches a day.
• It is obviously simply not feasible to serve them from a
single server.
• Google uses clusters containing 10’s of thousands of
machines offering equivalent services, and you are
redirected (via DNS and other means) to one of them.
• Similar techniques can be used for Oracle databases, that
are replicated over many servers to offer redundancy and
performance.

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 Proxy servers (replication transparency) and
caches: Web proxy server
Client Web
server
Proxy
server

Client Web
server

• A cache is a store of recently used data.

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 Web caches (proxy server)
Goal: satisfy client request without involving origin server

• user sets browser: Web origin

accesses via cache server

• browser sends all HTTP Proxy

requests to cache server
client
– object in cache: cache
returns object
– else cache requests object
from origin server, then
returns object to client
client
origin
server
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 Web caches (proxy server)…
• cache acts as both client and server
• typically cache is installed by ISP (university, company,
residential ISP)

Why Web caching?

• reduce response time for client request
• reduce traffic on an institution’s access link.
• Reduce costs to use access link.

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 Caching scenario
Assumptions origin
• average object size = 1Mb servers
• average request rate from public
institution’s browsers to origin Internet
servers = 15/sec
• delay from the router on the
Internet side of the access link to 1.5 Mbps
any origin server and back is = 2 access link
sec (Internet delay) institutional
network
Consequences 100 Mbps LAN

• total delay = Internet delay + access

delay + LAN delay
= 2 sec + >20 sec+ milliseconds

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 Caching scenario…
origin
servers
possible solution (expensive) public
Internet
• increase bandwidth of access link
to, say, 10 Mbps
Consequence 10 Mbps
• Total delay = Internet delay + access access link
delay + LAN delay institutional
network
= 2 sec + 2 sec + msecs 100 Mbps LAN

• often a costly upgrade

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 Caching scenario…
origin
possible solution: install cache servers

• suppose hit rate is 0.5 (up to 0.7) public

Internet

consequence
• 50% requests satisfied almost 1.5 Mbps
immediately access link

• 50% requests satisfied by origin institutional

server network
100 Mbps LAN
• utilization of access link reduced to
50%, resulting in lower delay rate
institutional
cache
• Cashes may not have up to date
version of the resource!
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 Conditional GET
server
• Goal: don’t send object if cache cache
has up-to-date cached version HTTP request msg
If-modified-since:
• cache: specify date of cached <date> object
copy in HTTP request not
If-modified-since: <date> HTTP response
modified
HTTP/1.0
• server: response contains no 304 Not Modified
object if cached copy is up-to-date:
HTTP/1.0 304 Not Modified
HTTP request msg
If-modified-since:
<date> object
modified
HTTP response
HTTP/1.0 200 OK
<data>
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Variants of Client Sever Model: Mobile code and
Web applets
a) client request results in the downloading of applet code

Client Web
Applet code server

b) client interacts with the applet

Web
Client Applet server

• Applets downloaded to clients give good interactive response

• Mobile codes such as Applets are potential security threat, so the
browser gives applets limited access to local resources (e.g. NO
access to local/user file system). 26
 Variants of Client Sever Model:
Mobile Agents
• A running program (code and data) that travels from one
computer to another in a network carrying out an
autonomous task, usually on behalf of some other process
– advantages: flexibility, savings in communications cost

• Potential security threat to the resources in computers they visit.

The environment receiving agent should decide which of the local
resource to allow. (e.g., crawlers and web servers).
• Agents themselves can be vulnerable – they may not be able to
complete task if they are refused access.

• Example technology:
– Java Agent Development Framework (JADE)

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 Thin clients and compute servers

Compute server
Network computer or PC

Thin network Application

Client Process

• Network computer: download OS and applications from the

network and run on a desktop (solve up-gradation problem) at
runtime.
• Thin clients: Windows-based UI on the user machine and
application execution on a remote computer. E.g, X-11 system.
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 Thin clients and compute servers…
• Network computer: Citrix Application Server does this,
loading applications over network as needed to run on
local desktop.

• Thin clients: X11 (Unix), RDC/Terminal Services

(Windows), VNC (Unix/Windows) “Presentation Server”
approach Sends raster of desktop image,
– user clicks and keyboard entries are sent to remote server.

• Centralized infrastructure is easy to maintain and secure(eg

keep antivirus and patches up to date centrally)!

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 Peer Processes: A distributed application based
on peer processes
Peer 2

Peer 1
Application

Application

Sharable Peer 3
objects
Application

Peer 4

Application

Peers 5 .... N

• All of the processes play similar roles, interacting cooperatively as peers to

perform distributed activities or computations without distinction between clients
and servers. E.g., music sharing systems Napster, Gnutella, Kaza, BitTorrent.
• Distributed “white board” – users on several computers to view and interactively
modify a picture between them. 30
Network edge: connection-oriented service
Goal: data transfer
between end systems
 handshaking: setup
(prepare for) data
transfer ahead of time
 3-phase for conn. est.
 4-phase for connection
termination
 TCP - Transmission
Control Protocol
 Internet’s connection-
oriented service
TCP service [RFC 793]
 reliable, in-order byte-
stream data transfer
 loss: acknowledgements and
retransmissions
 flow control:
 sender won’t overwhelm
receiver
 congestion control:
 senders “slow down sending
rate” when network
congested
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Network edge: connectionless service

Goal: data transfer App’s using TCP:

between end systems  HTTP (Web), FTP (file
 same as before! transfer), Telnet (remote
 UDP - User Datagram login), SMTP (email)
Protocol [RFC 768]:
Internet’s connectionless
service
App’s using UDP:
 streaming media,
 unreliable data
transfer teleconferencing, DNS,
Internet telephony
 no flow control
 no congestion control

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 Access networks
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access networks

Issues
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?
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Residential access: point to point access
 Dialup via modem
 up to 56Kbps direct access to
router
 Can’t surf data and voice at
same time: can’t be “always
on”
 DSL: digital subscriber line modem (High speed network)
 deployment: telephone company (typically)
 up to 1 Mbps upstream
 up to 20 Mbps downstream
 dedicated physical line to ISP
 simultaneously pass voice and data over a single telephone
line.
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 Company access: local area networks
 company/univ local area
network (LAN) connects end
system to edge router

 Ethernet:
 10 Mbs, 100Mbps, 1Gbps,
10Gbps Ethernet
 modern configuration:
end systems connect into
Ethernet switch

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 Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access network
connects end system to router
 via base station “access point” router

 wireless LANs: base

 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11 or 54 Mbps station

 wider-area wireless access

 provided by telcom operator
 ~1Mbps over cellular system mobile
(EVDO, CDMA) hosts
 WiMAX (10’s Mbps) over wide area
 (Wireless Sensor Networks)
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 Local Area Networks
Typical LAN components:
 DSL or cable modem
 router/firewall
 Ethernet
 wireless access
point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable router/
cable
modem firewall
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point

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Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP)
 Bit: propagates between  two insulated copper
transmitter/rcvr pairs wires
 physical link: what lies  Category 3: traditional
between transmitter & phone wires, 10 Mbps
receiver Ethernet
Category 5 TP: 100Mbps
 guided media:

Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely, e.g.,
radio, micro wave…

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Physical Media: coax, fiber
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
 glass fiber carrying light
 two concentric copper
pulses, each pulse a bit
conductors
 high-speed operation:
 bidirectional
 high-speed point-to-point
 baseband: transmission (e.g., 5 Gbps)
 single channel on cable  low error rate: repeaters
 legacy Ethernet spaced far apart ; resistant
 broadband: to electromagnetic noise
 multiple channel on cable
 HFC

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Physical media: radio
 signal carried in Radio link types:
electromagnetic spectrum  terrestrial microwave
 no physical “wire”  e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

 bidirectional  LAN (e.g., WaveLAN)

 2Mbps, 11Mbps
 propagation environment
effects:  wide-area (e.g., cellular)
 reflection  e.g. 3G: hundreds of kbps

 obstruction by objects  satellite

 interference  up to 50Mbps channel (or
multiple smaller channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus LEOS

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 Network Core: Circuit Switching

 A ''dedicated'' circuit is
set up for each
connection.
 The communicating
parties use this fixed
circuit during the
conversation.
 Once the
communication finish,
the circuit can be
released for other uses.

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 Network Core: Circuit Switching…
 network resources (e.g., bandwidth)
divided into “pieces”
 pieces allocated to calls
 resource piece idle if not used by owning call (no
sharing)

 dividing link bandwidth into “pieces”

 frequency division
 time division

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Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
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 Network Core: Circuit Switching…
 Advantage
 Fixed bandwidth,
guaranteed capacity (no
congestion)
 Low variants in end-to-
end delay (delay is
almost constant)
 Disadvantages:
 Connection set-up and
termination introduces
extra overhead (thus
initial delay)
 User pay for circuit, even
when not sending data
Other users can't use the
circuit even if it is free of traffic
• statistics show that during a
typical phone conversation:-
- 64-73% of the time one
speaker talking
- 3-7% of the time both
spearkers talking,
- 20-33% of the time both
speakers silent.
Example: Ordinary voice phone
service
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Network Core: Packet Switching
each end-end data stream
divided into packets
 user A, B packets share
network resources
 each packet uses full link
bandwidth
 resources used as needed
Bandwidth division into “pieces”
Dedicated allocation
Resource reservation
resource contention:
 aggregate resource
demand can exceed
amount available
 congestion: packets
queue, wait for link use
 store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
 Node receives complete
packet before forwarding
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 Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing
100 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern,

bandwidth shared on demand  statistical multiplexing.
TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM frame.
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Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L
R R R

 takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out)  L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to  R = 1.5 Mbps
link at R bps
 transmission delay = 15
sec
 store and forward: entire
packet must arrive at
router before it can be
transmitted on next link

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 Packet switching
Advantage
 Packet Switching is more efficient and robust for data
that can withstand delays in transmission.
example:- e-mail messages and Web pages.
 great for bursty data
 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup

 Disadvantage
 excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control

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 Mobile and Ubiquitous Computing
 Mobile Computing
• People traveling with their computers while
staying connected to other computers or the
Internet.
 Ubiquitous Computing
• Weiser’s idea of one person, many
computers as opposed to the mainframe
technology.
•(also known as “pervasive computing”)
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 The Trends in Computing Technology
● Mainframe computing (60’s-70’s)
– massive computers to execute big
data processing applications
– very few computers in the world

● Desktop computing (80’s-90’s)

– one computer at every desk to help in
business related activities
– computers connected in intranets to a
massive global network (internet), all
wired

● Ubiquitous computing (00’s?)

– tens/hundreds of computing devices
in every room/person,
- becoming “invisible” and part of the
environment 51
 Computing: Trend

Size

Number
One Computer for Many One Computer for Many Computers for
People One Person One Person
(Mainframe Computing) (PC Computing) (Ubiquitous/Pervasive
Computing)
 Computing: Evolution

Mobile
Centralized
Computing  Distributed
Computing
 Computing  Ubiquitious
Computing

Remote Communication Mobile Networks Context Awareness

Fault Tolerance & availability Mobile Information Access Ad-hoc Networks
Remote Information Access Adaptive Applications Smart Sensors & Devices

Research Problems   

Today, Internet of Things

Tomorrow’s ubiquitous world of
tags, sensors and smart systems

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 Computing: Evolution
New Forms of Computing

Wireless Computing
Mobile Computing
• Distributed
Ubiquitous Computing
Computing
Pervasive Computing
(Client/Server)
Invisible Computing

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 Why Mobile Computing ?

People are mobile

Devices are mobile

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 What is Ubiquitous Computing
(ubicomp)?
 Ubicomp is a post-desktop model of human computer
interaction in which information processing has been
thoroughly integrated into everyday objects and activities.

 Integrate computers seamlessly into the world

– invisible, everywhere computing.
– Often called pervasive/invisible computing.

 Ubicomp is about making computers invisible.

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Mobile Computing vs. Ubiquitous Computing

● Mobile computing:
– Abe owns Mobile phone with web access, voice and short
messaging.
- Remains connected while he drives from Piasa to Bole.

● Ubiquitous computing:
– Abe is leaving home to go and meet his friends.
- While passing the fridge, the fridge sends a message to his
shoe that milk is almost finished.

– When Abe is passing grocery store, shoe sends message to

glasses which displays BUY milk message.

– Abe buys milk, goes home.

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 Wireless Technologies
• Wireless communication technologies provide powerful
building blocks for next-generation applications
– WPAN (RFID, IRDA, Bluetooth, NFC)
– WLAN (IEEE 802.11 “Wi-Fi”) hot-spots for broadband access
• Smart phones, PDAs, and laptops with integrated WLANs
– Broadband Wireless access technology- WMAN
• IEEE 802.16 10-30 Km 40 Mbps WiMax
– Wide area wireless data also growing
• GSM, GPRS, CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (2.4 Mbps data optimized)

• Networking of ubiquitous and embedded devices

– Smart spaces, sensor networks (IEEE 802.15.4a- ZigBee)
– Context-aware mobile data services
– Wireless sensor networks for monitoring and control
– VOIP for integrated voice services over wireless data networks
– MANET, VANET,…
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