Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
Computer
Networking: A Top
Down Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley
March 2012
Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: introduction
our goal: overview:
v get “feel” and v what’s the Internet?
terminology v what’s a protocol?
v network edge; hosts, access net,
v more depth, detail
physical media
later in course v network core: packet/circuit
v approach: switching, Internet structure
§ use Internet as v performance: loss, delay,
throughput
example
v security
v protocol layers, service models
v history
Introduction 1-2
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
§ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
§ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history
Introduction 1-3
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
PC mobile network
v millions of connected
server computing devices:
wireless § hosts = end systems global ISP
laptop
smartphone § running network apps
home
v communication links network
regional ISP
wireless § fiber, copper, radio,
links satellite
wired
links § transmission rate:
bandwidth
Web-enabled toaster +
weather forecaster
IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/
Tweet-a-watt:
monitor energy use
Slingbox: watch,
control cable TV remotely
Internet
refrigerator Internet phones
Introduction 1-5
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
v Internet: “network of networks”
§ Interconnected ISPs
global ISP
v protocols control sending,
receiving of msgs
§ e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11 home
network
v Internet standards regional ISP
§ RFC: Request for comments
§ IETF: Internet Engineering Task
Force
institutional
network
Introduction 1-6
What’s the Internet: a service view
mobile network
v Infrastructurethat provides
services to applications: global ISP
Introduction 1-7
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
v “what’s the time?” v machines rather than
v “I have a question” humans
v introductions v all communication activity
in Internet governed by
… specific msgs sent protocols
… specific actions taken
when msgs received, or protocols define format, order
other events
of msgs sent and received
among network entities,
and actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt
Introduction 1-8
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:
Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time
Introduction 1-10
A closer look at network structure:
v network edge: mobile network
v network core:
§ interconnected routers
§ network of networks institutional
network
Introduction 1-11
Access networks and physical media
Introduction 1-12
Access net: digital subscriber line (DSL)
central office telephone
network
DSL splitter
modem DSLAM
ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer
Introduction 1-13
Access net: cable network
cable headend
cable splitter
modem
C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Channels
to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box
Introduction 1-16
Enterprise access networks (Ethernet)
institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router
Introduction 1-17
Wireless access networks
v shared wireless access network connects end system to router
§ via base station aka “access point”
to Internet
to Internet
Introduction 1-18
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
v takes application message
v breaks into smaller two packets,
chunks, known as packets, L bits each
of length L bits
v transmits packet into
access network at 2 1
transmission rate R R: link transmission rate
§ link transmission rate, host
aka link capacity, aka
link bandwidth
Introduction 1-20
Physical media: coax, fiber
coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:
v two concentric copper v glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
v bidirectional v high-speed operation:
v broadband: § high-speed point-to-point
§ multiple channels on cable transmission (e.g., 10’s-100’s
Gpbs transmission rate)
§ HFC
v low error rate:
§ repeaters spaced far apart
§ immune to electromagnetic
noise
Introduction 1-21
Physical media: radio
v signal carried in radio link types:
electromagnetic spectrum v terrestrial microwave
v no physical “wire” § e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
v bidirectional v LAN (e.g., WiFi)
v propagation environment § 11Mbps, 54 Mbps
effects: v wide-area (e.g., cellular)
§ reflection § 3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
§ obstruction by objects v satellite
§ interference § Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
multiple smaller channels)
§ 270 msec end-end delay
§ geosynchronous versus low
altitude
Introduction 1-22
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
§ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
§ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history
Introduction 1-23
The network core
v mesh of interconnected
routers
v packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
§ forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source
to destination
§ each packet transmitted at
full link capacity
Introduction 1-24
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L bits
per packet
3 2 1
source des+na+on
R bps R bps
R = 100 Mb/s
The image cannot be
C
A
displayed. Your
computer may not
have enough memory
to open the image, or
the image may have
been corrupted.
Restart your
computer, and then
open the file again. If
the red x still appears,
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link
Introduction 1-26
Two key network-core functions
routing: determines source- forwarding: move packets from
destination route taken by router’s input to appropriate
packets router output
§ routing algorithms
routing algorithm
frequency
time
TDM
frequency
time
Introduction 1-29
Packet switching versus circuit switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!
example:
§ 1 Mb/s link
§ each user: N
…..
users
• 100 kb/s when “active”
• active 10% of time 1 Mbps link
v circuit-switching:
§ 10 users
v packet switching: Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
§ with 35 users, probability >
10 active at same time is less Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
than .0004 *
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples Introduction 1-30
Packet switching versus circuit switching
is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”
v great for bursty data
§ resource sharing
§ simpler, no call setup
v excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss
§ protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion
control
v Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
§ bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
§ still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…
access access
net net
access
net
access
net
access
net
access
net
… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
… access
access net
net
access
to each other directly doesn’t access
…
net
scale: O(N2) connections. net
access
net
access
net
access
net
access
net
… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP? Customer
and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…
global
access
net
ISP access
net
access
net
access
net
access
net
access
net
… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
….
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…
access access
net ISP B net
access
ISP C
net
access
net
access
net
access
net
… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
…. which must be interconnected
Internet exchange point
…
access
access
access
net net …
net
access
access net
net
access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…
access
ISP C
net
access
net
access
net
peering link
access
net
… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
Internet structure: network of networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to
ISPS
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…
access
ISP C
net
access
net
access
net regional net
access
net
… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
Internet structure: network of networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft,
Akamai ) may run their own network, to bring services, content
close to end users
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…
access
ISP B
net
access
net
access
net regional net
access
net
… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
Internet structure: network of networks
POP: point-of-presence
to/from backbone
peering
… …
…
…
…
to/from customers
Introduction 1-41
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
§ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
§ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history
Introduction 1-42
How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
v packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link
capacity
v packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)
B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-43
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation
B
nodal
processing queueing
B
nodal
processing queueing
Introduction 1-46
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
Introduction 1-47
Queueing delay (revisited)
average queueing
v R: link bandwidth (bps)
delay
v L: packet length (bits)
v a: average packet arrival
rate
traffic intensity
= La/R
v La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss La/R -> 1
Introduction 1-48
“Real” Internet delays and routes
v what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
v traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along end-
end Internet path towards destination. For all i:
§ sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
§ router i will return packets to sender
§ sender times interval between transmission and reply.
3 probes 3 probes
3 probes
Introduction 1-49
“Real” Internet delays, routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
3 delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms
* Do some traceroutes from exotic countries at www.traceroute.org
Introduction 1-50
Packet loss
v queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite
capacity
v packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
v lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node,
by source end system, or not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A
B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss Introduction 1-51
Throughput
v throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits
transferred between sender/receiver
§ instantaneous: rate at given point in time
§ average: rate over longer period of time
server,
server withbits
sends linkpipe
capacity
that can carry linkpipe
capacity
that can carry
file of into
(fluid) F bits
pipe Rs bits/sec
fluid at rate Rc bits/sec
fluid at rate
to send to client Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)
Introduction 1-52
Throughput (more)
v Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?
Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction 1-53
Throughput: Internet scenario
v per-connection end-
end throughput: Rs
min(Rc,Rs,R/10) Rs Rs
v in practice: Rc or Rs
is often bottleneck R
Rc Rc
Rc
Introduction 1-55
Protocol “layers”
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”:
§ hosts Question:
§ routers is there any hope of
§ links of various organizing structure of
media network?
§ applications
§ protocols …. or at least our
§ hardware, discussion of networks?
software
Introduction 1-56
Organization of air travel
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)
v a series of steps
Introduction 1-57
Layering of airline functionality
airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing
Introduction 1-58
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
v explicit
structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
§ layered reference model for discussion
v modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
§ change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
§ e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of
system
v layering considered harmful?
Introduction 1-59
Internet protocol stack
v application:supporting network
applications
§ FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
v transport: process-process data
transfer transport
§ TCP, UDP
network
v network:routing of datagrams from
source to destination
link
§ IP, routing protocols
v link:
data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
§ Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
v physical: bits “on the wire”
Introduction 1-60
ISO/OSI reference model
v presentation: allow applications
to interpret meaning of data, application
e.g., encryption, compression,
machine-specific conventions presentation
v session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
v Internet stack “missing” these
layers! link
§ these services, if needed, must be physical
implemented in application
§ needed?
Introduction 1-61
message M
source
application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical
switch
destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
Introduction 1-62
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
§ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
§ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history
Introduction 1-63
Network security
v field of network security:
§ how bad guys can attack computer networks
§ how we can defend networks against attacks
§ how to design architectures that are immune to
attacks
v Internetnot originally designed with (much)
security in mind
§ original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users
attached to a transparent network” J
§ Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
§ security considerations in all layers!
Introduction 1-64
Bad guys: put malware into hosts via Internet
v malware can get in host from:
§ virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing
object (e.g., e-mail attachment)
§ worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving
object that gets itself executed
v spyware malware can record keystrokes, web
sites visited, upload info to collection site
v infected
host can be enrolled in botnet, used for
spam. DDoS attacks
Introduction 1-65
Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources
(server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic
by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic
1. select target
2. break into hosts around
the network (see botnet)
3. send packets to target from
compromised hosts
target
Introduction 1-66
Bad guys can sniff packets
packet “sniffing”:
§ broadcast media (shared ethernet, wireless)
§ promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets
(e.g., including passwords!) passing by
A C
Introduction 1-69
Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
v 1961: Kleinrock - v 1972:
queueing theory shows § ARPAnet public demo
effectiveness of packet- § NCP (Network Control
switching Protocol) first host-host
v 1964: Baran - packet- protocol
switching in military nets § first e-mail program
v 1967: ARPAnet § ARPAnet has 15 nodes
conceived by Advanced
Research Projects
Agency
v 1969: first ARPAnet
node operational
Introduction 1-70
Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
v 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
network in Hawaii Cerf and Kahn’s
v 1974: Cerf and Kahn - internetworking principles:
architecture for interconnecting § minimalism, autonomy - no
networks internal changes required to
v 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC interconnect networks
§ best effort service model
v late70’s: proprietary
§ stateless routers
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
XNA § decentralized control
v late 70’s: switching fixed length define today’s Internet
packets (ATM precursor) architecture
v 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
Introduction 1-71
Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
Introduction 1-72
Internet history
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
v early 1990’s: ARPAnet late 1990’s – 2000’s:
decommissioned v more killer apps: instant
v 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet v network security to
(decommissioned, 1995) forefront
v early 1990s: Web v est. 50 million host, 100
§ hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson million+ users
1960’s] v backbone links running at
§ HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee Gbps
§ 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
§ late 1990’s:
commercialization of the Web
Introduction 1-73
Internet history
2005-present
v ~750 million hosts
§ Smartphones and tablets
v Aggressive deployment of broadband access
v Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
v Emergence of online social networks:
§ Facebook: soon one billion users
v Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their own
networks
§ Bypass Internet, providing “instantaneous” access to
search, emai, etc.
v E-commerce, universities, enterprises running their
services in “cloud” (eg, Amazon EC2)
Introduction 1-74
Introduction: summary
covered a “ton” of material! you now have:
v Internet overview v context, overview, “feel”
v what’s a protocol? of networking
v network edge, core, access v more depth, detail to
network follow!
§ packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
§ Internet structure
v performance: loss, delay,
throughput
v layering, service models
v security
v history
Introduction 1-75