Apollo program

The Apollo program, also known as Project Apollo, was the

third United States human spaceflight program carried out by the Apollo program
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which
succeeded in preparing and landing the first humans on the Moon
from 1968 to 1972. It was first conceived during Dwight D.
Eisenhower's administration as a three-person spacecraft to follow
the one-person Project Mercury, which put the first Americans in
space. Apollo was later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy's
national goal for the 1960s of "landing a man on the Moon and
returning him safely to the Earth" in an address to Congress on
May 25, 1961. It was the third US human spaceflight program to
fly, preceded by the two-person Project Gemini conceived in 1961 Country United States
to extend spaceflight capability in support of Apollo.
Organization NASA
Kennedy's goal was accomplished on the Apollo 11 mission when Purpose Crewed lunar
astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Apollo landing
Lunar Module (LM) on July 20, 1969, and walked on the lunar
Status Completed
surface, while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the
command and service module (CSM), and all three landed safely Program history
on Earth on July 24. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed Cost $25.4 billion
astronauts on the Moon, the last, Apollo 17, in December 1972. In (1973)[1]
these six spaceflights, twelve people walked on the Moon.
$158 billion (2020)[2]
Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first crewed flight in 1968. Duration 1961–1972
It encountered a major setback in 1967 when an Apollo 1 cabin
fire killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first First flight SA-1
successful landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine October 27, 1961
follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and
First crewed Apollo 7
astrophysical exploration. Budget cuts forced the cancellation of
three of these. Five of the remaining six missions achieved flight October 11, 1968
successful landings, but the Apollo 13 landing was prevented by Last flight Apollo 17
an oxygen tank explosion in transit to the Moon, which destroyed
the service module's capability to provide electrical power, December 19, 1972
crippling the CSM's propulsion and life support systems. The crew Successes 32
returned to Earth safely by using the lunar module as a "lifeboat"
Failures 2 (Apollo 1 and 13)
for these functions. Apollo used the Saturn family of rockets as
launch vehicles, which were also used for an Apollo Applications Partial 1 (Apollo 6)
Program, which consisted of Skylab, a space station that supported failures
three crewed missions in 1973–1974, and the Apollo–Soyuz Test
Launch Cape Kennedy
Project, a joint United States-Soviet Union low Earth orbit mission
site(s) Kennedy Space
in 1975.
Center
Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands White Sands
alone in sending crewed missions beyond low Earth orbit. Apollo
8 was the first crewed spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, Vehicle information
and Apollo 11 was the first crewed spacecraft to land humans on Crewed Apollo CSM · Apollo
one. vehicle(s) LM

Overall the Apollo program returned 842 pounds (382 kg) of lunar Launch Little Joe II · Saturn
rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of vehicle(s) I · Saturn IB · Saturn
the Moon's composition and geological history. The program laid V
the foundation for NASA's subsequent human spaceflight
capability, and funded construction of its Johnson Space Center and
Kennedy Space Center. Apollo also spurred advances in many
areas of technology incidental to rocketry and human spaceflight,
including avionics, telecommunications, and computers.

Contents
Background
Origin and spacecraft feasibility studies
Political pressure builds
Buzz Aldrin (pictured) walked on the
NASA expansion
Moon with Neil Armstrong, on Apollo
Manned Spacecraft Center
11, July 20–21, 1969.
Launch Operations Center
Organization
Choosing a mission mode
Spacecraft
Command and service module
Apollo Lunar Module
Launch vehicles
Little Joe II
Saturn I
Saturn IB
Saturn V
Astronauts Earthrise, the iconic 1968 image
Lunar mission profile from Apollo 8 taken by astronaut
Profile variations William Anders

Development history
Uncrewed flight tests
Preparation for crewed flight
Program delays
Apollo 1 fire
Uncrewed Saturn V and LM tests
Crewed development missions
Production lunar landings
Mission cutbacks
Extended missions
Canceled missions
Mission summary
Samples returned
Costs
Apollo Applications Program
Recent observations
Legacy
Science and engineering
Cultural impact
Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project
NASA spinoffs from Apollo
Cordless power tools
Fireproof material
Heart monitors
Solar panels
Digital imaging
Liquid methane
Depictions on film
Documentaries
Docudramas
Fictional
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
NASA reports
Multimedia

Background

Origin and spacecraft feasibility studies

The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, as a follow-up to
Project Mercury. While the Mercury capsule could support only one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital
mission, Apollo would carry three. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a space station,
circumlunar flights, and eventual crewed lunar landings.

The program was named after Apollo, the Greek god of light, music, and the Sun, by NASA manager Abe
Silverstein, who later said, "I was naming the spacecraft like I'd name my baby."[3] Silverstein chose the
name at home one evening, early in 1960, because he felt "Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was
appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program."[4]
In July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry
representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a
spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the command module (piloting and reentry cabin),
and a propulsion and equipment module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced,
and on October 25, three study contracts were awarded to General Dynamics/Convair, General Electric,
and the Glenn L. Martin Company. Meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design
studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs.[5]

Political pressure builds

In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American
superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Up to the election
of 1960, Kennedy had been speaking out against the "missile gap" that he and many other senators felt had
developed between the Soviet Union and the United States due to the inaction of President Eisenhower.[6]
Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of national prestige, pledging to
make the US not "first but, first and, first if, but first period".[7] Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not
immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president. He knew
little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment
required by a crewed Moon landing.[8] When Kennedy's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E.
Webb requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of
NASA's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue.[9]

On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing
American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting
of the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin's flight, many
congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up.[10]
Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's
response to the Soviets.[11]

On April 20, Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B.

Johnson, asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space
program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity
to catch up.[12][13] Johnson responded approximately one week
later, concluding that "we are neither making maximum effort nor
achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of
leadership."[14][15] His memo concluded that a crewed Moon
landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United
States would achieve it first.[14]
President Kennedy delivers his
On May 25, 1961, twenty days after the first US crewed proposal to put a man on the Moon
spaceflight Freedom 7, Kennedy proposed the crewed Moon before a joint session of Congress,
landing in a Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National May 25, 1961
Needs:

Now it is time to take longer strides—time for a great new American enterprise—time for this
nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may hold the
key to our future on Earth.
 ... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out,
of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in
this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range
exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.[16]
Full text 

NASA expansion
At the time of Kennedy's proposal, only one American had flown in space—less than a month earlier—and
NASA had not yet sent an astronaut into orbit. Even some NASA employees doubted whether Kennedy's
ambitious goal could be met.[17] By 1963, Kennedy even came close to agreeing to a joint US-USSR
Moon mission, to eliminate duplication of effort.[18]

With the clear goal of a crewed landing replacing the more nebulous goals of space stations and
circumlunar flights, NASA decided that, in order to make progress quickly, it would discard the feasibility
study designs of Convair, GE, and Martin, and proceed with Faget's command and service module design.
The mission module was determined to be useful only as an extra room, and therefore unnecessary.[19]
They used Faget's design as the specification for another competition for spacecraft procurement bids in
October 1961. On November 28, 1961, it was announced that North American Aviation had won the
contract, although its bid was not rated as good as Martin's. Webb, Dryden and Robert Seamans chose it in
preference due to North American's longer association with NASA and its predecessor.[20]

Landing humans on the Moon by the end of 1969 required the most sudden burst of technological
creativity, and the largest commitment of resources ($25 billion; $158 billion in 2020 US dollars)[2] ever
made by any nation in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo program employed 400,000 people and required
the support of over 20,000 industrial firms and universities.[21]

On July 1, 1960, NASA established the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama.
MSFC designed the heavy lift-class Saturn launch vehicles, which would be required for Apollo.[22]

Manned Spacecraft Center

It became clear that managing the Apollo program would exceed the capabilities of Robert R. Gilruth's
Space Task Group, which had been directing the nation's crewed space program from NASA's Langley
Research Center. So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization into a new NASA center, the
Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC). A site was chosen in Houston, Texas, on land donated by Rice
University, and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on September 19, 1961.[23] It was also
clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling missions from its Cape Canaveral Air Force
Station launch facilities in Florida, so a new Mission Control Center would be included in the MSC.[24]

In September 1962, by which time two Project Mercury astronauts had orbited the Earth, Gilruth had
moved his organization to rented space in Houston, and construction of the MSC facility was under way,
Kennedy visited Rice to reiterate his challenge in a famous speech:

But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our
goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest
mountain? Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic? ...
We
choose to go to the Moon. We choose to go to the
Moon in this decade and do the other things, not
because they are easy, but because they are hard;
 because that goal will serve to organize and measure
the best of our energies and skills; because that
challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we
are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to
win ...[25] Full text 

The MSC was completed in September 1963. It was renamed by

the US Congress in honor of Lyndon Johnson soon after his death
in 1973.[26]
President Kennedy speaks at Rice
University, September 12, 1962 (17
min, 47 s)
Launch Operations Center

It also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the Canaveral

launch facilities in Florida. The two newest launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn I and
IB rockets at the northernmost end: LC-34 and LC-37. But an even bigger facility would be needed for the
mammoth rocket required for the crewed lunar mission, so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a
Launch Operations Center (LOC) immediately north of Canaveral at Merritt Island. The design,
development and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt H. Debus, a member of Dr. Wernher
von Braun's original V-2 rocket engineering team. Debus was named the LOC's first Director.[27]
Construction began in November 1962. Following Kennedy's death, President Johnson issued an executive
order on November 29, 1963, to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of Kennedy.[28]

The LOC included Launch Complex 39, a Launch Control Center,

and a 130-million-cubic-foot (3,700,000  m3 ) Vertical Assembly
Building (VAB).[29] in which the space vehicle (launch vehicle and
spacecraft) would be assembled on a mobile launcher platform and
then moved by a crawler-transporter to one of several launch pads.
Although at least three pads were planned, only two, designated
A and B, were completed in October 1965. The LOC also included
an Operations and Checkout Building (OCB) to which Gemini and
Apollo spacecraft were initially received prior to being mated to
their launch vehicles. The Apollo spacecraft could be tested in two
George Mueller, Wernher von Braun,
vacuum chambers capable of simulating atmospheric pressure at
and Eberhard Rees watch the AS-
altitudes up to 250,000 feet (76  km), which is nearly a 101 launch from the firing room
vacuum.[30][31]

Organization

Administrator Webb realized that in order to keep Apollo costs under control, he had to develop greater
project management skills in his organization, so he recruited Dr. George E. Mueller for a high
management job. Mueller accepted, on the condition that he have a say in NASA reorganization necessary
to effectively administer Apollo. Webb then worked with Associate Administrator (later Deputy
Administrator) Seamans to reorganize the Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF).[32] On July 23, 1963,
Webb announced Mueller's appointment as Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, to
replace then Associate Administrator D. Brainerd Holmes on his retirement effective September 1. Under
Webb's reorganization, the directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center (Gilruth), Marshall Space Flight
Center (von Braun), and the Launch Operations Center (Debus) reported to Mueller.[33]
Based on his industry experience on Air Force missile projects, Mueller realized some skilled managers
could be found among high-ranking officers in the U.S. Air Force, so he got Webb's permission to recruit
General Samuel C. Phillips, who gained a reputation for his effective management of the Minuteman
program, as OMSF program controller. Phillips's superior officer Bernard A. Schriever agreed to loan
Phillips to NASA, along with a staff of officers under him, on the condition that Phillips be made Apollo
Program Director. Mueller agreed, and Phillips managed Apollo from January 1964, until it achieved the
first human landing in July 1969, after which he returned to Air Force duty.[34]

Choosing a mission mode

Once Kennedy had defined a goal, the Apollo mission planners
were faced with the challenge of designing a spacecraft that could
meet it while minimizing risk to human life, cost, and demands on
technology and astronaut skill. Four possible mission modes were
considered:

Direct Ascent: The spacecraft would be launched as a

unit and travel directly to the lunar surface, without first
going into lunar orbit. A 50,000-pound (23,000 kg) Earth
return ship would land all three astronauts atop a
John Houbolt explaining the LOR
113,000-pound (51,000 kg) descent propulsion stage,[35]
concept
which would be left on the Moon. This design would
have required development of the extremely powerful
Saturn C-8 or Nova launch vehicle to carry a 163,000-
pound (74,000 kg) payload to the Moon.[36]
Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR): Multiple rocket
launches (up to 15 in some plans) would carry parts of
the Direct Ascent spacecraft and propulsion units for
translunar injection (TLI). These would be assembled
into a single spacecraft in Earth orbit.
Lunar Surface Rendezvous: Two spacecraft would be
launched in succession. The first, an automated vehicle
carrying propellant for the return to Earth, would land on
the Moon, to be followed some time later by the crewed
vehicle. Propellant would have to be transferred from the
automated vehicle to the crewed vehicle.[37]
Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR): This turned out to be Early Apollo configuration for Direct
the winning configuration, which achieved the goal with Ascent and Earth Orbit Rendezvous,
Apollo 11 on July 24, 1969: a single Saturn V launched 1961
a 96,886-pound (43,947 kg) spacecraft that was
composed of a 63,608-pound (28,852 kg) Apollo
command and service module which remained in orbit around the Moon and a 33,278-
pound (15,095 kg) two-stage Apollo Lunar Module spacecraft which was flown by two
astronauts to the surface, flown back to dock with the command module and was then
discarded.[38] Landing the smaller spacecraft on the Moon, and returning an even smaller
part (10,042 pounds or 4,555 kilograms) to lunar orbit, minimized the total mass to be
launched from Earth, but this was the last method initially considered because of the
perceived risk of rendezvous and docking.

In early 1961, direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA. Many engineers feared that
rendezvous and docking, maneuvers that had not been attempted in Earth orbit, would be nearly impossible
in lunar orbit. LOR advocates including John Houbolt at Langley Research Center emphasized the
important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt
campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and practical option. Bypassing the NASA hierarchy,
he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans; while
acknowledging that he spoke "somewhat as a voice in the wilderness", Houbolt pleaded that LOR should
not be discounted in studies of the question.[39]

Seamans's establishment of an ad hoc committee headed by his special technical assistant Nicholas E.
Golovin in July 1961, to recommend a launch vehicle to be used in the Apollo program, represented a
turning point in NASA's mission mode decision.[40] This committee recognized that the chosen mode was
an important part of the launch vehicle choice, and recommended in favor of a hybrid EOR-LOR mode. Its
consideration of LOR—as well as Houbolt's ceaseless work—played an important role in publicizing the
workability of the approach. In late 1961 and early 1962, members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began
to come around to support LOR, including the newly hired deputy director of the Office of Manned Space
Flight, Joseph Shea, who became a champion of LOR.[41] The engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center
(MSFC), which had much to lose from the decision, took longer to become convinced of its merits, but
their conversion was announced by Wernher von Braun at a briefing on June 7, 1962.[42]

But even after NASA reached internal agreement, it was far from smooth sailing. Kennedy's science
advisor Jerome Wiesner, who had expressed his opposition to human spaceflight to Kennedy before the
President took office,[43] and had opposed the decision to land people on the Moon, hired Golovin, who
had left NASA, to chair his own "Space Vehicle Panel", ostensibly to monitor, but actually to second-guess
NASA's decisions on the Saturn V launch vehicle and LOR by forcing Shea, Seamans, and even Webb to
defend themselves, delaying its formal announcement to the press on July 11, 1962, and forcing Webb to
still hedge the decision as "tentative".[44]

Wiesner kept up the pressure, even making the disagreement public during a two-day September visit by
the President to Marshall Space Flight Center. Wiesner blurted out "No, that's no good" in front of the
press, during a presentation by von Braun. Webb jumped in and defended von Braun, until Kennedy ended
the squabble by stating that the matter was "still subject to final review". Webb held firm and issued a
request for proposal to candidate Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) contractors. Wiesner finally relented,
unwilling to settle the dispute once and for all in Kennedy's office, because of the President's involvement
with the October Cuban Missile Crisis, and fear of Kennedy's support for Webb. NASA announced the
selection of Grumman as the LEM contractor in November 1962.[45]

Space historian James Hansen concludes that:

Without NASA's adoption of this stubbornly held minority opinion in 1962, the United States
may still have reached the Moon, but almost certainly it would not have been accomplished by
the end of the 1960s, President Kennedy's target date.[46]

The LOR method had the advantage of allowing the lander spacecraft to be used as a "lifeboat" in the
event of a failure of the command ship. Some documents prove this theory was discussed before and after
the method was chosen. In 1964 an MSC study concluded, "The LM [as lifeboat] ... was finally dropped,
because no single reasonable CSM failure could be identified that would prohibit use of the SPS."[47]
Ironically, just such a failure happened on Apollo 13 when an oxygen tank explosion left the CSM without
electrical power. The lunar module provided propulsion, electrical power and life support to get the crew
home safely.[48]

Spacecraft
Faget's preliminary Apollo design employed a cone-shaped
command module, supported by one of several service modules
providing propulsion and electrical power, sized appropriately for
the space station, cislunar, and lunar landing missions. Once
Kennedy's Moon landing goal became official, detailed design
began of a command and service module (CSM) in which the crew
would spend the entire direct-ascent mission and lift off from the
lunar surface for the return trip, after being soft-landed by a larger
landing propulsion module. The final choice of lunar orbit
rendezvous changed the CSM's role to the translunar ferry used to An Apollo boilerplate command
transport the crew, along with a new spacecraft, the Lunar module is on exhibit in the Meteor
Excursion Module (LEM, later shortened to LM (Lunar Module) Crater Visitor Center in Winslow,
but still pronounced /ˈlɛm/) which would take two individuals to Arizona.
the lunar surface and return them to the CSM.[49]

Command and service module

Apollo 15 CSM in lunar orbit
The command module (CM) was the conical crew cabin, designed
to carry three astronauts from launch to lunar orbit and back to an
Earth ocean landing. It was the only component of the Apollo
spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes as the
program evolved from the early Apollo study designs. Its exterior
was covered with an ablative heat shield, and had its own reaction
control system (RCS) engines to control its attitude and steer its
atmospheric entry path. Parachutes were carried to slow its descent
to splashdown. The module was 11.42 feet (3.48 m) tall, 12.83 feet
(3.91  m) in diameter, and weighed approximately 12,250 pounds
(5,560 kg).[50]

A cylindrical service module (SM) supported the command module, with a service propulsion engine and
an RCS with propellants, and a fuel cell power generation system with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen
reactants. A high-gain S-band antenna was used for long-distance communications on the lunar flights. On
the extended lunar missions, an orbital scientific instrument package was carried. The service module was
discarded just before reentry. The module was 24.6 feet (7.5 m) long and 12.83 feet (3.91 m) in diameter.
The initial lunar flight version weighed approximately 51,300 pounds (23,300 kg) fully fueled, while a later
version designed to carry a lunar orbit scientific instrument package weighed just over 54,000 pounds
(24,000 kg).[50]

North American Aviation won the contract to build the CSM, and also the second stage of the Saturn V
launch vehicle for NASA. Because the CSM design was started early before the selection of lunar orbit
rendezvous, the service propulsion engine was sized to lift the CSM off the Moon, and thus was oversized
to about twice the thrust required for translunar flight.[51] Also, there was no provision for docking with the
lunar module. A 1964 program definition study concluded that the initial design should be continued as
Block I which would be used for early testing, while Block II, the actual lunar spacecraft, would
incorporate the docking equipment and take advantage of the lessons learned in Block I development.[49]

Apollo Lunar Module

The Apollo Lunar Module (LM) was designed to descend from
lunar orbit to land two astronauts on the Moon and take them back
to orbit to rendezvous with the command module. Not designed to
fly through the Earth's atmosphere or return to Earth, its fuselage
was designed totally without aerodynamic considerations and was
of an extremely lightweight construction. It consisted of separate
descent and ascent stages, each with its own engine. The descent
stage contained storage for the descent propellant, surface stay
consumables, and surface exploration equipment. The ascent stage
contained the crew cabin, ascent propellant, and a reaction control
system. The initial LM model weighed approximately 33,300
pounds (15,100  kg), and allowed surface stays up to around 34
hours. An extended lunar module weighed over 36,200 pounds Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle on the
(16,400 kg), and allowed surface stays of more than three days.[50] Moon, photographed by Neil
The contract for design and construction of the lunar module was Armstrong
awarded to Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, and the
project was overseen by Thomas J. Kelly.[52]

Launch vehicles
Before the Apollo program began, Wernher von Braun
and his team of rocket engineers had started work on
plans for very large launch vehicles, the Saturn series,
and the even larger Nova series. In the midst of these
plans, von Braun was transferred from the Army to
NASA and was made Director of the Marshall Space
Flight Center. The initial direct ascent plan to send the
three-person Apollo command and service module
directly to the lunar surface, on top of a large descent
rocket stage, would require a Nova-class launcher,
with a lunar payload capability of over 180,000
pounds (82,000  kg).[53] The June 11, 1962, decision Four Apollo rocket assemblies, drawn to scale:
to use lunar orbit rendezvous enabled the Saturn V to Little Joe II, Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Saturn V
replace the Nova, and the MSFC proceeded to
develop the Saturn rocket family for Apollo.[54]

Since Apollo, like Mercury, used more than one launch vehicle for space missions, NASA used spacecraft-
launch vehicle combination series numbers: AS-10x for Saturn I, AS-20x for Saturn IB, and AS-50x for
Saturn V (compare Mercury-Redstone 3, Mercury-Atlas 6) to designate and plan all missions, rather than
numbering them sequentially as in Project Gemini. This was changed by the time human flights began.[55]

Little Joe II

Since Apollo, like Mercury, would require a launch escape system (LES) in case of a launch failure, a
relatively small rocket was required for qualification flight testing of this system. A rocket bigger than the
Little Joe used by Mercury would be required, so the Little Joe II was built by General Dynamics/Convair.
After an August 1963 qualification test flight,[56] four LES test flights (A-001 through 004) were made at
the White Sands Missile Range between May 1964 and January 1966.[57]
Saturn I

Saturn I, the first US heavy lift launch vehicle, was initially planned to launch
partially equipped CSMs in low Earth orbit tests. The S-I first stage burned
RP-1 with liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer in eight clustered Rocketdyne H-1
engines, to produce 1,500,000 pounds-force (6,670  kN) of thrust. The S-IV
second stage used six liquid hydrogen-fueled Pratt & Whitney RL-10 engines
with 90,000 pounds-force (400  kN) of thrust. The S-V third stage flew
inactively on Saturn I four times.[58]

The first four Saturn I test flights were launched from LC-34, with only the
first stage live, carrying dummy upper stages filled with water. The first flight A Saturn IB rocket
with a live S-IV was launched from LC-37. This was followed by five launches Apollo 7, 1968
launches of boilerplate CSMs (designated AS-101 through AS-105) into orbit
in 1964 and 1965. The last three of these further supported the Apollo
program by also carrying Pegasus satellites, which verified the safety of the translunar environment by
measuring the frequency and severity of micrometeorite impacts.[59]

In September 1962, NASA planned to launch four crewed CSM flights on the Saturn I from late 1965
through 1966, concurrent with Project Gemini. The 22,500-pound (10,200 kg) payload capacity[60] would
have severely limited the systems which could be included, so the decision was made in October 1963 to
use the uprated Saturn IB for all crewed Earth orbital flights.[61]

Saturn IB

The Saturn IB was an upgraded version of the Saturn I. The S-IB first stage increased the thrust to
1,600,000 pounds-force (7,120 kN) by uprating the H-1 engine. The second stage replaced the S-IV with
the S-IVB-200, powered by a single J-2 engine burning liquid hydrogen fuel with LOX, to produce
200,000 pounds-force (890 kN) of thrust.[62] A restartable version of the S-IVB was used as the third stage
of the Saturn V. The Saturn IB could send over 40,000 pounds (18,100 kg) into low Earth orbit, sufficient
for a partially fueled CSM or the LM.[63] Saturn IB launch vehicles and flights were designated with an
AS-200 series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "2" indicating the second member of the
Saturn rocket family.[64]

Saturn V

Saturn V launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-500 series
number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "5" indicating Saturn V.[64]
The three-stage Saturn V was designed to send a fully fueled CSM and LM to
the Moon. It was 33 feet (10.1 m) in diameter and stood 363 feet (110.6 m) tall
with its 96,800-pound (43,900  kg) lunar payload. Its capability grew to
103,600 pounds (47,000 kg) for the later advanced lunar landings. The S-IC
first stage burned RP-1/LOX for a rated thrust of 7,500,000 pounds-force
(33,400  kN), which was upgraded to 7,610,000 pounds-force (33,900  kN).
The second and third stages burned liquid hydrogen; the third stage was a
modified version of the S-IVB, with thrust increased to 230,000 pounds-force
A Saturn V rocket
(1,020  kN) and capability to restart the engine for translunar injection after
launches Apollo 11, 1969
reaching a parking orbit.[65]
Astronauts
NASA's director of flight crew operations during the Apollo
program was Donald K. "Deke" Slayton, one of the original
Mercury Seven astronauts who was medically grounded in
September 1962 due to a heart murmur. Slayton was responsible
for making all Gemini and Apollo crew assignments.[66]

Thirty-two astronauts were assigned to fly missions in the Apollo

Apollo 1 crew: Ed White, command
pilot Gus Grissom, and Roger
Chaffee
program. Twenty-four of these left Earth's orbit and flew around
the Moon between December 1968 and December 1972 (three of
them twice). Half of the 24 walked on the Moon's surface, though
none of them returned to it after landing once. One of the
moonwalkers was a trained geologist. Of the 32, Gus Grissom, Ed
White, and Roger Chaffee were killed during a ground test in
preparation for the Apollo 1 mission.[55]

The Apollo astronauts were chosen from the Project Mercury and
Gemini veterans, plus from two later astronaut groups. All missions
were commanded by Gemini or Mercury veterans. Crews on all
development flights (except the Earth orbit CSM development
flights) through the first two landings on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12,
included at least two (sometimes three) Gemini veterans. Dr.
Harrison Schmitt, a geologist, was the first NASA scientist
astronaut to fly in space, and landed on the Moon on the last
mission, Apollo 17. Schmitt participated in the lunar geology
training of all of the Apollo landing crews.[67]
Apollo 11 crew, from left:
NASA awarded all 32 of these astronauts its highest honor, the Commander Neil Armstrong,
Distinguished Service Medal, given for "distinguished service, Command Module Pilot Michael
Collins, and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz
ability, or courage", and personal "contribution representing
Aldrin
substantial progress to the NASA mission". The medals were
awarded posthumously to Grissom, White, and Chaffee in 1969,
then to the crews of all missions from Apollo 8 onward. The crew
that flew the first Earth orbital test mission Apollo 7, Walter M. Schirra, Donn Eisele, and Walter
Cunningham, were awarded the lesser NASA Exceptional Service Medal, because of discipline problems
with the flight director's orders during their flight. In October 2008, the NASA Administrator decided to
award them the Distinguished Service Medals. For Schirra and Eisele, this was posthumously.[68]

Lunar mission profile

The first lunar landing mission was planned to proceed as follows:[69]

Launch The three Saturn  V
stages burn for about 11
minutes to achieve a 100-
nautical-mile (190 km) circular
parking orbit. The third stage
burns a small portion of its fuel
to achieve orbit.
Transposition and docking
The Spacecraft Lunar Module
Adapter (SLA) panels
separate to free the CSM and
expose the LM. The command
module pilot (CMP) moves the
CSM out a safe distance, and
turns 180°.
Translunar injection After
one to two orbits to verify
readiness of spacecraft
systems, the S-IVB third stage
reignites for about six minutes
to send the spacecraft to the
Moon.
Extraction The CMP docks
the CSM with the LM, and
pulls the complete spacecraft
away from the S-IVB. The
lunar voyage takes between
two and three days. Midcourse
corrections are made as
necessary using the SM
engine.

Lunar orbit insertion The
spacecraft passes about 60
nautical miles (110 km) behind
the Moon, and the SM engine
is fired to slow the spacecraft
and put it into a 60-by-170-
nautical-mile (110 by 310 km)
orbit, which is soon
circularized at 60 nautical
miles by a second burn.
Powered descent At perilune,
the descent engine fires again
to start the descent. The CDR
takes control after pitchover for
a vertical landing.
After a rest period, the
commander (CDR) and lunar
module pilot (LMP) move to
the LM, power up its systems,
and deploy the landing gear.
The CSM and LM separate;
the CMP visually inspects the
LM, then the LM crew move a
safe distance away and fire
the descent engine for
Descent orbit insertion,
which takes it to a perilune of
about 50,000 feet (15 km).
The CDR and LMP perform
one or more EVAs exploring
the lunar surface and
collecting samples, alternating
with rest periods.


The ascent stage lifts off, The LM rendezvouses and

using the descent stage as a docks with the CSM.
launching pad.

The CDR and LMP transfer Trans-Earth injection The

back to the CM with their SM engine fires to send the
material samples, then the LM CSM back to Earth.
ascent stage is jettisoned, to
eventually fall out of orbit and
crash on the surface.


The SM is jettisoned just Atmospheric drag slows the

before reentry, and the CM
turns 180° to face its blunt end
forward for reentry.
CM. Aerodynamic heating
surrounds it with an envelope
of ionized air which causes a
communications blackout for
several minutes.

Parachutes are deployed,

slowing the CM for a
splashdown in the Pacific
Ocean. The astronauts are
recovered and brought to an
aircraft carrier.
Lunar flight profile (distances not to scale).

Profile variations
The first three lunar missions (Apollo 8, Apollo 10, and
Apollo 11) used a free return trajectory, keeping a flight
path coplanar with the lunar orbit, which would allow a
return to Earth in case the SM engine failed to make
lunar orbit insertion. Landing site lighting conditions on
later missions dictated a lunar orbital plane change,
which required a course change maneuver soon after
TLI, and eliminated the free-return option.[70]
After Apollo 12 placed the second of several
seismometers on the Moon,[71] the jettisoned LM ascent Neil Armstrong pilots the Apollo
stages on Apollo 12 and later missions were deliberately Lunar Module Eagle and lands
crashed on the Moon at known locations to induce himself and navigator Buzz Aldrin on
vibrations in the Moon's structure. The only exceptions to the Moon, July 20, 1969
this were the Apollo 13 LM which burned up in the
Earth's atmosphere, and Apollo 16, where a loss of
attitude control after jettison prevented making a targeted impact.[72]
As another active seismic experiment, the S-IVBs on Apollo 13 and subsequent missions
were deliberately crashed on the Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit.[73]
Starting with Apollo 13, descent orbit insertion was to be performed using the service
module engine instead of the LM engine, in order to allow a greater fuel reserve for landing.
This was actually done for the first time on Apollo 14, since the Apollo 13 mission was
aborted before landing.[74]

Development history

Uncrewed flight tests

Two Block I CSMs were launched from LC-34 on suborbital
flights in 1966 with the Saturn IB. The first, AS-201 launched
on February 26, reached an altitude of 265.7 nautical miles
(492.1  km) and splashed down 4,577 nautical miles
(8,477 km) downrange in the Atlantic Ocean.[75] The second,
AS-202 on August 25, reached 617.1 nautical miles
(1,142.9 km) altitude and was recovered 13,900 nautical miles
(25,700  km) downrange in the Pacific Ocean. These flights
validated the service module engine and the command module
heat shield.[76]

A third Saturn IB test, AS-203 launched from pad 37, went

into orbit to support design of the S-IVB upper stage restart
capability needed for the Saturn V. It carried a nose cone
Apollo uncrewed development mission
instead of the Apollo spacecraft, and its payload was the
launches. Click on a launch image to read
unburned liquid hydrogen fuel, the behavior of which
the main article about each mission
engineers measured with temperature and pressure sensors,
and a TV camera. This flight occurred on July 5, before AS-
202, which was delayed because of problems getting the Apollo spacecraft ready for flight.[77]

Preparation for crewed flight

Two crewed orbital Block I CSM missions were planned: AS-204 and AS-205. The Block I crew positions
were titled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. The Senior Pilot would assume navigation duties, while
the Pilot would function as a systems engineer.[78] The astronauts would wear a modified version of the
Gemini spacesuit.[79]

After an uncrewed LM test flight AS-206, a crew would fly the first Block II CSM and LM in a dual
mission known as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft would be launched on a separate Saturn
IB).[80] The Block II crew positions were titled Commander, Command Module Pilot, and Lunar Module
Pilot. The astronauts would begin wearing a new Apollo A6L spacesuit, designed to accommodate lunar
extravehicular activity (EVA). The traditional visor helmet was replaced with a clear "fishbowl" type for
greater visibility, and the lunar surface EVA suit would include a water-cooled undergarment.[81]

Deke Slayton, the grounded Mercury astronaut who became director of flight crew operations for the
Gemini and Apollo programs, selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as Command
Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice
aboard the KC135 weightlessness training aircraft, and had to undergo surgery on January 27. Slayton
replaced him with Chaffee.[82] NASA announced the final crew selection for AS-204 on March 21, 1966,
with the backup crew consisting of Gemini veterans James McDivitt and David Scott, with rookie Russell
L. "Rusty" Schweickart. Mercury/Gemini veteran Wally Schirra, Eisele, and rookie Walter Cunningham
were announced on September 29 as the prime crew for AS-205.[82]

In December 1966, the AS-205 mission was canceled, since the validation of the CSM would be
accomplished on the 14-day first flight, and AS-205 would have been devoted to space experiments and
contribute no new engineering knowledge about the spacecraft. Its Saturn IB was allocated to the dual
mission, now redesignated AS-205/208 or AS-258, planned for August 1967. McDivitt, Scott and
Schweickart were promoted to the prime AS-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were
reassigned as the Apollo 1 backup crew.[83]
Program delays

The spacecraft for the AS-202 and AS-204 missions were delivered by North American Aviation to the
Kennedy Space Center with long lists of equipment problems which had to be corrected before flight; these
delays caused the launch of AS-202 to slip behind AS-203, and eliminated hopes the first crewed mission
might be ready to launch as soon as November 1966, concurrently with the last Gemini mission.
Eventually, the planned AS-204 flight date was pushed to February 21, 1967.[84]

North American Aviation was prime contractor not only for the Apollo CSM, but for the Saturn  V S-II
second stage as well, and delays in this stage pushed the first uncrewed Saturn V flight AS-501 from late
1966 to November 1967. (The initial assembly of AS-501 had to use a dummy spacer spool in place of the
stage.)[85]

The problems with North American were severe enough in late 1965 to cause Manned Space Flight
Administrator George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel Phillips to head a "tiger team" to
investigate North American's problems and identify corrections. Phillips documented his findings in a
December 19 letter to NAA president Lee Atwood, with a strongly worded letter by Mueller, and also gave
a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans.[86] Meanwhile,
Grumman was also encountering problems with the Lunar Module, eliminating hopes it would be ready for
crewed flight in 1967, not long after the first crewed CSM flights.[87]

Apollo 1 fire

Grissom, White, and Chaffee decided to name their flight Apollo 1

as a motivational focus on the first crewed flight. They trained and
conducted tests of their spacecraft at North American, and in the
altitude chamber at the Kennedy Space Center. A "plugs-out" test
was planned for January, which would simulate a launch
countdown on LC-34 with the spacecraft transferring from pad-
supplied to internal power. If successful, this would be followed by
a more rigorous countdown simulation test closer to the February
Charred Apollo 1 cabin interior
21 launch, with both spacecraft and launch vehicle fueled.[88]

The plugs-out test began on the morning of January 27, 1967, and
immediately was plagued with problems. First, the crew noticed a strange odor in their spacesuits which
delayed the sealing of the hatch. Then, communications problems frustrated the astronauts and forced a
hold in the simulated countdown. During this hold, an electrical fire began in the cabin and spread quickly
in the high pressure, 100% oxygen atmosphere. Pressure rose high enough from the fire that the cabin inner
wall burst, allowing the fire to erupt onto the pad area and frustrating attempts to rescue the crew. The
astronauts were asphyxiated before the hatch could be opened.[89]

NASA immediately convened an accident review board, overseen by both houses of Congress. While the
determination of responsibility for the accident was complex, the review board concluded that "deficiencies
existed in command module design, workmanship and quality control".[89] At the insistence of NASA
Administrator Webb, North American removed Harrison Storms as command module program
manager.[90] Webb also reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) Manager Joseph Francis
Shea, replacing him with George Low.[91]

To remedy the causes of the fire, changes were made in the Block II spacecraft and operational procedures,
the most important of which were use of a nitrogen/oxygen mixture instead of pure oxygen before and
during launch, and removal of flammable cabin and space suit materials.[92] The Block II design already
called for replacement of the Block I plug-type hatch cover with a quick-release, outward opening door.[92]
NASA discontinued the crewed Block I program, using the Block I
spacecraft only for uncrewed Saturn  V flights. Crew members
would also exclusively wear modified, fire-resistant A7L Block II
space suits, and would be designated by the Block II titles,
regardless of whether a LM was present on the flight or not.[81]

Uncrewed Saturn V and LM tests

On April 24, 1967, Mueller published an official Apollo mission

numbering scheme, using sequential numbers for all flights, crewed
or uncrewed. The sequence would start with Apollo 4 to cover the
first three uncrewed flights while retiring the Apollo 1 designation
to honor the crew, per their widows' wishes.[55][93]

In September 1967, Mueller approved a sequence of mission types Block II spacesuit in January 1968,
which had to be successfully accomplished in order to achieve the before (left) and after changes
crewed lunar landing. Each step had to be successfully recommended after the Apollo 1 fire
accomplished before the next ones could be performed, and it was
unknown how many tries of each mission would be necessary;
therefore letters were used instead of numbers. The A missions were uncrewed Saturn V validation; B was
uncrewed LM validation using the Saturn IB; C was crewed CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn
IB; D was the first crewed CSM/LM flight (this replaced AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); E
would be a higher Earth orbit CSM/LM flight; F would be the first lunar mission, testing the LM in lunar
orbit but without landing (a "dress rehearsal"); and G would be the first crewed landing. The list of types
covered follow-on lunar exploration to include H lunar landings, I for lunar orbital survey missions, and J
for extended-stay lunar landings.[94]

The delay in the CSM caused by the fire enabled NASA to catch up on human-rating the LM and
Saturn V. Apollo 4 (AS-501) was the first uncrewed flight of the Saturn V, carrying a Block  I CSM on
November 9, 1967. The capability of the command module's heat shield to survive a trans-lunar reentry
was demonstrated by using the service module engine to ram it into the atmosphere at higher than the usual
Earth-orbital reentry speed.

Apollo 5 (AS-204) was the first uncrewed test flight of the LM in Earth orbit, launched from pad 37 on
January 22, 1968, by the Saturn IB that would have been used for Apollo 1. The LM engines were
successfully test-fired and restarted, despite a computer programming error which cut short the first descent
stage firing. The ascent engine was fired in abort mode, known as a "fire-in-the-hole" test, where it was lit
simultaneously with jettison of the descent stage. Although Grumman wanted a second uncrewed test,
George Low decided the next LM flight would be crewed.[95]

This was followed on April 4, 1968, by Apollo 6 (AS-502) which carried a CSM and a LM Test Article as
ballast. The intent of this mission was to achieve trans-lunar injection, followed closely by a simulated
direct-return abort, using the service module engine to achieve another high-speed reentry. The Saturn V
experienced pogo oscillation, a problem caused by non-steady engine combustion, which damaged fuel
lines in the second and third stages. Two S-II engines shut down prematurely, but the remaining engines
were able to compensate. The damage to the third stage engine was more severe, preventing it from
restarting for trans-lunar injection. Mission controllers were able to use the service module engine to
essentially repeat the flight profile of Apollo 4. Based on the good performance of Apollo  6 and
identification of satisfactory fixes to the Apollo 6 problems, NASA declared the Saturn V ready to fly crew,
canceling a third uncrewed test.[96]
Crewed development missions

Apollo 7, launched from LC-34 on October 11, 1968, was the

C mission, crewed by Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham. It was
an 11-day Earth-orbital flight which tested the CSM
systems.[97]

Apollo 8 was planned to be the D mission in December 1968,

crewed by McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart, launched on a
Saturn V instead of two Saturn IBs.[98] In the summer it had Apollo crewed development mission
become clear that the LM would not be ready in time. Rather patches. Click on a patch to read the main
than waste the Saturn V on another simple Earth-orbiting article about that mission
mission, ASPO Manager George Low suggested the bold step
of sending Apollo  8 to orbit the Moon instead, deferring the
D mission to the next mission in March 1969, and eliminating the E mission. This would keep the program
on track. The Soviet Union had sent two tortoises, mealworms, wine flies, and other lifeforms around the
Moon on September 15, 1968, aboard Zond 5, and it was believed they might soon repeat the feat with
human cosmonauts.[99][100] The decision was not announced publicly until successful completion of
Apollo 7. Gemini veterans Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, and rookie William Anders captured the world's
attention by making ten lunar orbits in 20 hours, transmitting television pictures of the lunar surface on
Christmas Eve, and returning safely to Earth.[101]

The following March, LM flight, rendezvous and docking were

successfully demonstrated in Earth orbit on Apollo 9, and
Schweickart tested the full lunar EVA suit with its portable life
support system (PLSS) outside the LM.[102] The F mission was
successfully carried out on Apollo 10 in May 1969 by Gemini
veterans Thomas P. Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan.
Stafford and Cernan took the LM to within 50,000 feet (15 km) of
the lunar surface.[103]

Neil Armstrong descends the LM's

The G mission was achieved on Apollo 11 in July 1969 by an all-
ladder in preparation for the first
Gemini veteran crew consisting of Neil Armstrong, Michael
steps on the lunar surface, as Collins and Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong and Aldrin performed the first
televised live on July 20, 1969 landing at the Sea of Tranquility at 20:17:40 UTC on July 20,
1969. They spent a total of 21 hours, 36 minutes on the surface,
and spent 2 hours, 31 minutes outside the spacecraft,[104] walking
on the surface, taking photographs, collecting material samples, and deploying automated scientific
instruments, while continuously sending black-and-white television back to Earth. The astronauts returned
safely on July 24.[105]

That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.

— Neil Armstrong, just after stepping onto the Moon's surface[106]

Production lunar landings

In November 1969, Charles “Pete” Conrad became the third person to step onto the Moon, which he did
while speaking more informally than had Armstrong:
 Whoopee! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.

— Pete Conrad[107]

Conrad and rookie Alan L. Bean made a precision landing of

Apollo 12 within walking distance of the Surveyor 3
uncrewed lunar probe, which had landed in April 1967 on the
Ocean of Storms. The command module pilot was Gemini
veteran Richard F. Gordon Jr. Conrad and Bean carried the
first lunar surface color television camera, but it was damaged
when accidentally pointed into the Sun. They made two EVAs
totaling 7 hours and 45 minutes.[104] On one, they walked to
the Surveyor, photographed it, and removed some parts which
they returned to Earth.[108] Apollo production crewed lunar landing
mission patches. Click on a patch to read
The contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs was enough for lunar the main article about that mission
landing missions through Apollo 20. Shortly after Apollo 11,
NASA publicized a preliminary list of eight more planned
landing sites after Apollo 12, with plans to increase the mass of the CSM and LM for the last five missions,
along with the payload capacity of the Saturn V. These final missions would combine the I and J types in
the 1967 list, allowing the CMP to operate a package of lunar orbital sensors and cameras while his
companions were on the surface, and allowing them to stay on the Moon for over three days. These
missions would also carry the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) increasing the exploration area and allowing
televised liftoff of the LM. Also, the Block II spacesuit was revised for the extended missions to allow
greater flexibility and visibility for driving the LRV.[109]

The success of the first two landings allowed the remaining

missions to be crewed with a single veteran as commander, with
two rookies. Apollo 13 launched Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred
Haise in April 1970, headed for the Fra Mauro formation. But two
days out, a liquid oxygen tank exploded, disabling the service
module and forcing the crew to use the LM as a "lifeboat" to return
to Earth. Another NASA review board was convened to determine
the cause, which turned out to be a combination of damage of the
tank in the factory, and a subcontractor not making a tank
component according to updated design specifications.[48] Apollo
was grounded again, for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen
tank was redesigned and an extra one was added.[110]
Apollo landings on the Moon, 1969–
1972
Mission cutbacks

About the time of the first landing in 1969, it was decided to use an existing Saturn V to launch the Skylab
orbital laboratory pre-built on the ground, replacing the original plan to construct it in orbit from several
Saturn IB launches; this eliminated Apollo 20. NASA's yearly budget also began to shrink in light of the
successful landing, and NASA also had to make funds available for the development of the upcoming
Space Shuttle. By 1971, the decision was made to also cancel missions 18 and 19.[111] The two unused
Saturn Vs became museum exhibits at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida,
George C. Marshall Space Center in Huntsville, Alabama, Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans,
Louisiana, and Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.[112]
The cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the original planned landing sites in order to achieve the
most effective geological sample and data collection from the remaining four missions. Apollo 15 had been
planned to be the last of the H series missions, but since there would be only two subsequent missions left,
it was changed to the first of three J missions.[113]

Apollo 13's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to Apollo 14, commanded in February 1971 by Mercury
veteran Alan Shepard, with Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell.[114] This time the mission was successful.
Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours and 31 minutes on the surface,[115] and completed two EVAs totalling
9 hours 24 minutes, which was a record for the longest EVA by a lunar crew at the time.[114]

In August 1971, just after conclusion of the Apollo 15 mission, President Richard Nixon proposed
canceling the two remaining lunar landing missions, Apollo 16 and 17. Office of Management and Budget
Deputy Director Caspar Weinberger was opposed to this, and persuaded Nixon to keep the remaining
missions.[116]

Extended missions

Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, with David Scott,

Alfred Worden and James Irwin. Scott and Irwin landed on July 30
near Hadley Rille, and spent just under two days, 19 hours on the
surface. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected about 77
kilograms (170 lb) of lunar material.[117]

Apollo 16 landed in the

Descartes Highlands on
April 20, 1972. The crew
Lunar Roving Vehicle used on
was commanded by John
Apollos 15–17
Young, with Ken Mattingly
and Charles Duke. Young
and Duke spent just under three days on the surface, with a total of
over 20 hours EVA.[118]

Apollo 17 was the last of the Apollo program, landing in the

Taurus–Littrow region in December 1972. Eugene Cernan
commanded Ronald E. Evans and NASA's first scientist-astronaut,
geologist Dr. Harrison H. Schmitt.[119] Schmitt was originally
scheduled for Apollo 18,[120] but the lunar geological community
lobbied for his inclusion on the final lunar landing.[121] Cernan and
Schmitt stayed on the surface for just over three days and spent just Plaque left on the Moon by Apollo 17
over 23 hours of total EVA.[119]

Canceled missions

Several missions were planned for but were canceled before details were finalized.

Mission summary
 Launch
Designation Date CSM LM Crew Summary
vehicle
First flight of
Saturn IB and
Block I CSM;
suborbital to
AS-201 Feb 26, 1966 AS-201 CSM-009 None None
Atlantic Ocean;
qualified heat
shield to orbital
reentry speed.
No spacecraft;
observations of
liquid hydrogen
fuel behavior in
AS-203 Jul 5, 1966 AS-203 None None None
orbit, to support
design of S-
IVB restart
capability.
Suborbital flight
AS-202 Aug 25, 1966 AS-202 CSM-011 None None of CSM to
Pacific Ocean.
Not flown. All
crew members
Gus Grissom died in a fire
AS-204
Feb 21, 1967 AS-204 CSM-012 None Ed White during a launch
(Apollo 1)
Roger B. Chaffee pad test on
January 27,
1967.
First test flight
of Saturn V,
placed a CSM
in a high Earth
orbit;
Apollo 4 Nov 9, 1967 AS-501 CSM-017 LTA-10R None demonstrated
S-IVB restart;
qualified CM
heat shield to
lunar reentry
speed.
Earth orbital
flight test of
LM, launched
on Saturn IB;
demonstrated
Apollo 5 Jan 22–23, 1968 AS-204 None LM-1 None
ascent and
descent
propulsion;
human-rated
the LM.
Apollo 6 Apr 4, 1968 AS-502 CM-020 LTA-2R None Uncrewed,
SM-014 second flight of
Saturn V,
attempted
demonstration
of trans-lunar
injection, and
direct-return
abort using SM
engine; three
engine failures,
including failure
 of S-IVB
restart. Flight
controllers
used SM
engine to
repeat Apollo
4's flight profile.
Human-rated
the Saturn V.
First crewed
Earth orbital
demonstration
of Block II
Wally Schirra CSM, launched
Apollo 7 Oct 11–22, 1968 AS-205 CSM-101 None Walt Cunningham on Saturn IB.
Donn Eisele First live
television
broadcast from
a crewed
mission.
First crewed
flight of Saturn
Frank Borman V; First crewed
Apollo 8 Dec 21–27, 1968 AS-503 CSM-103 LTA-B James Lovell flight to Moon;
William Anders CSM made 10
lunar orbits in
20 hours.
Second crewed
flight of Saturn
V; First crewed
flight of CSM
and LM in
James McDivitt
CSM-104 LM-3 Earth orbit;
Apollo 9 Mar 3–13, 1969 AS-504 David Scott
Gumdrop Spider demonstrated
Russell Schweickart
portable life
support system
to be used on
the lunar
surface.
Dress rehearsal
for first lunar
CSM-106 Thomas Stafford landing; flew
LM-4
Apollo 10 May 18–26, 1969 AS-505 Charlie John Young LM down to
Snoopy
Brown Eugene Cernan 50,000 feet
(15 km) from
lunar surface.
First crewed
landing, in
Tranquility
Base, Sea of
Neil Armstrong Tranquility.
CSM-107 LM-5
Apollo 11 Jul 16–24, 1969 AS-506 Michael Collins Surface EVA
Columbia Eagle
Buzz Aldrin time: 2:31 hr.
Samples
returned: 47.51
pounds
(21.55 kg).
Apollo 12 Nov 14–24, 1969 AS-507 CSM-108 LM-6 C. "Pete" Conrad Second
Yankee Intrepid Richard Gordon landing, in
Clipper Alan Bean Ocean of
Storms near
Surveyor 3.
 Surface EVA
time: 7:45 hr.
Samples
returned: 75.62
pounds
(34.30 kg).
Third landing
attempt aborted
in transit to the
Moon, due to
SM failure.
James Lovell
CSM-109 LM-7 Crew used LM
Apollo 13 Apr 11–17, 1970 AS-508 Jack Swigert
Odyssey Aquarius as "lifeboat" to
Fred Haise
return to Earth.
Mission
labelled as a
"successful
failure".[122]
Third landing,
in Fra Mauro
formation,
located
northeast of the
CSM-110 Alan Shepard Ocean of
Jan 31 – Feb 9, LM-8
Apollo 14 AS-509 Kitty Stuart Roosa Storms.
1971 Antares
Hawk Edgar Mitchell Surface EVA
time: 9:21 hr.
Samples
returned: 94.35
pounds
(42.80 kg).
First Extended
LM and rover,
landed in
Hadley-
Apennine,
located near
David Scott
Jul 26 – Aug 7, CSM-112 LM-10 the Sea of
Apollo 15 AS-510 Alfred Worden
1971 Endeavour Falcon Showers/Rains.
James Irwin
Surface EVA
time: 18:33 hr.
Samples
returned:
169.10 pounds
(76.70 kg).
Landed in Plain
of Descartes.
Rover on
Moon. Surface
John Young
CSM-113 LM-11 EVA time:
Apollo 16 Apr 16–27, 1972 AS-511 T. Kenneth Mattingly
Casper Orion 20:14 hr.
Charles Duke
Samples
returned:
207.89 pounds
(94.30 kg).
Apollo 17 Dec 7–19, 1972 AS-512 CSM-114 LM-12 Eugene Cernan Only Saturn V
America Challenger Ronald Evans night launch.
Harrison Schmitt Landed in
Taurus–Littrow.
Rover on
Moon. First
geologist on
the Moon.
 Apollo's last
crewed Moon
landing.
Surface EVA
time: 22:02 hr.
Samples
returned:
243.40 pounds
(110.40 kg).

Source: Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference (Orloff 2004)[123]

Samples returned
The Apollo program returned over 382  kg (842  lb) of
lunar rocks and soil to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory
in Houston.[124][123][125] Today, 75% of the samples
are stored at the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility built
in 1979.[126]

The rocks collected from the Moon are extremely old

compared to rocks found on Earth, as measured by
radiometric dating techniques. They range in age from
The most famous of the Ferroan Anorthosite
about 3.2  billion years for the basaltic samples derived
Moon rocks recovered, the Moon rock, returned
from the lunar maria, to about 4.6  billion years for
Genesis Rock, returned from Apollo 16.
samples derived from the highlands crust.[127] As such,
from Apollo 15.
they represent samples from a very early period in the
development of the Solar System, that are largely absent
on Earth. One important rock found during the Apollo
Program is dubbed the Genesis Rock, retrieved by astronauts David Scott and James Irwin during the
Apollo 15 mission.[128] This anorthosite rock is composed almost exclusively of the calcium-rich feldspar
mineral anorthite, and is believed to be representative of the highland crust.[129] A geochemical component
called KREEP was discovered by Apollo 12, which has no known terrestrial counterpart.[130] KREEP and
the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the outer portion of the Moon was once completely
molten (see lunar magma ocean).[131]

Almost all the rocks show evidence of impact process effects. Many samples appear to be pitted with
micrometeoroid impact craters, which is never seen on Earth rocks, due to the thick atmosphere. Many
show signs of being subjected to high-pressure shock waves that are generated during impact events. Some
of the returned samples are of impact melt (materials melted near an impact crater.) All samples returned
from the Moon are highly brecciated as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events.[132]

Analysis of the composition of the lunar samples supports the giant impact hypothesis, that the Moon was
created through impact of a large astronomical body with the Earth.[133]

Costs
Apollo cost $25.4 billion (or approximately $158 billion in 2020 dollars when adjusted for inflation via the
GDP deflator index).[1]
Of this amount, $20.2 billion ($126 billion adjusted) was spent on the design, development, and production
of the Saturn family of launch vehicles, the Apollo spacecraft, spacesuits, scientific experiments, and
mission operations. The cost of constructing and operating Apollo-related ground facilities, such as the
NASA human spaceflight centers and the global tracking and data acquisition network, added an additional
$5.2 billion ($32.3 billion adjusted).

The amount grows to $28  billion ($174  billion adjusted) if the costs for related projects such as Project
Gemini and the robotic Ranger, Surveyor, and Lunar Orbiter programs are included.[134]

NASA's official cost breakdown, as reported to Congress in the Spring of 1973, is as follows:

Project Apollo Cost (original $)

Apollo spacecraft 8.5 billion
Saturn launch vehicles 9.1 billion
Launch vehicle engine development 0.9 billion
Operations 1.7 billion
Total R&D 20.2 billion
Tracking and data acquisition 0.9 billion
Ground facilities 1.8 billion
Operation of installations 2.5 billion
Total 25.4 billion

Accurate estimates of human spaceflight costs were difficult in the early 1960s, as the capability was new
and management experience was lacking. Preliminary cost analysis by NASA estimated $7  billion –
$12 billion for a crewed lunar landing effort. NASA Administrator James Webb increased this estimate to
$20 billion before reporting it to Vice President Johnson in April 1961.[135]

Project Apollo was a massive undertaking, representing the largest research and development project in
peacetime. At its peak, it employed over 400,000 employees and contractors around the country and
accounted for more than half of NASA's total spending in the 1960s.[136] After the first Moon landing,
public and political interest waned, including that of President Nixon, who wanted to rein in federal
spending.[137] NASA's budget could not sustain Apollo missions which cost, on average, $445  million
($2.31 billion adjusted)[138] each while simultaneously developing the Space Shuttle. The final fiscal year
of Apollo funding was 1973.

Apollo Applications Program

Looking beyond the crewed lunar landings, NASA investigated several post-lunar applications for Apollo
hardware. The Apollo Extension Series (Apollo X) proposed up to 30 flights to Earth orbit, using the space
in the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) to house a small orbital laboratory (workshop). Astronauts
would continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station. This study was followed by design of a larger
orbital workshop to be built in orbit from an empty S-IVB Saturn upper stage and grew into the Apollo
Applications Program (AAP). The workshop was to be supplemented by the Apollo Telescope Mount,
which could be attached to the ascent stage of the lunar module via a rack.[139] The most ambitious plan
called for using an empty S-IVB as an interplanetary spacecraft for a Venus fly-by mission.[140]
The S-IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board. Dubbed
Skylab, it was assembled on the ground rather than in space, and launched in 1973 using the two lower
stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope Mount. Skylab's last crew departed the
station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself re-entered the atmosphere in 1979.[141][142]

The Apollo–Soyuz program also used Apollo hardware for the first joint nation spaceflight, paving the way
for future cooperation with other nations in the Space Shuttle and International Space Station
programs.[142][143]

Recent observations
In 2008, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's SELENE probe
observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15 Lunar
Module blast crater while orbiting above the lunar surface.[144]

Beginning in 2009, NASA's robotic Lunar Reconnaissance

Orbiter, while orbiting 50 kilometers (31  mi) above the Moon,
photographed the remnants of the Apollo program left on the lunar
surface, and each site where crewed Apollo flights landed.[145][146]
All of the U.S. flags left on the Moon during the Apollo missions
were found to still be standing, with the exception of the one left
during the Apollo 11 mission, which was blown over during that
mission's lift-off from the lunar surface; the degree to which these
Tranquility Base, imaged in March
flags retain their original colors remains unknown.[147] The flags
2012 by the Lunar Reconnaissance
cannot be seen through a telescope from Earth.[148]
Orbiter
In a November 16, 2009, editorial, The New York Times opined:

[T]here's something terribly wistful about these photographs of the Apollo landing sites. The
detail is such that if Neil Armstrong were walking there now, we could make him out, make
out his footsteps even, like the astronaut footpath clearly visible in the photos of the Apollo 14
site. Perhaps the wistfulness is caused by the sense of simple grandeur in those Apollo
missions. Perhaps, too, it's a reminder of the risk we all felt after the Eagle had landed—the
possibility that it might be unable to lift off again and the astronauts would be stranded on the
Moon. But it may also be that a photograph like this one is as close as we're able to come to
looking directly back into the human past ...
There the [Apollo 11] lunar module sits, parked
just where it landed 40 years ago, as if it still really were 40 years ago and all the time since
merely imaginary.[149]

Legacy

Science and engineering

The Apollo program has been called the greatest technological achievement in human history.[150] Apollo
stimulated many areas of technology, leading to over 1,800 spinoff products as of 2015.[151] The flight
computer design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the Polaris and Minuteman
missile systems, the driving force behind early research into integrated circuits (ICs). By 1963, Apollo was
using 60 percent of the United States' production of ICs. The crucial difference between the requirements
of Apollo and the missile programs was Apollo's much greater need for reliability. While the Navy and Air
Force could work around reliability problems by deploying more missiles, the political and financial cost of
failure of an Apollo mission was unacceptably high.[152]

Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini.[153] The Apollo
project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances in semiconductor electronic technology,
including metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) in the Interplanetary Monitoring
Platform (IMP)[154][155] and silicon integrated circuit chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC).[156]

Cultural impact

The crew of Apollo 8 sent the first live televised pictures of the
Earth and the Moon back to Earth, and read from the creation story
in the Book of Genesis, on Christmas Eve 1968.[157] An estimated
one-quarter of the population of the world saw—either live or
delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of
the Moon,[158] and an estimated one-fifth of the population of the
world watched the live transmission of the Apollo 11
moonwalk.[159]

The Apollo program also affected environmental activism in the

1970s due to photos taken by the astronauts. The most well known
include Earthrise, taken by William Anders on Apollo 8, and The The Blue Marble photograph taken
Blue Marble, taken by the Apollo 17 astronauts. The Blue Marble on December 7, 1972, during Apollo
was released during a surge in environmentalism, and became a 17. "We went to explore the Moon,
symbol of the environmental movement as a depiction of Earth's and in fact discovered the Earth." —
frailty, vulnerability, and isolation amid the vast expanse of Eugene Cernan
space.[160]

According to The Economist, Apollo succeeded in accomplishing President Kennedy's goal of taking on
the Soviet Union in the Space Race by accomplishing a singular and significant achievement, to
demonstrate the superiority of the free-market system. The publication noted the irony that in order to
achieve the goal, the program required the organization of tremendous public resources within a vast,
centralized government bureaucracy.[161]

Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project

Prior to Apollo 11's 40th anniversary in 2009, NASA searched for the original videotapes of the mission's
live televised moonwalk. After an exhaustive three-year search, it was concluded that the tapes had
probably been erased and reused. A new digitally remastered version of the best available broadcast
television footage was released instead.[162]

NASA spinoffs from Apollo

NASA spinoffs are dual-purpose technologies created by NASA that have come to help day-to-day life on
Earth. Many of these discoveries were made to deal with problems in space. Spinoffs have come out of
every NASA mission as well as other discoveries outside of space missions. The following are NASA
spinoffs that have come from discoveries from and for the Apollo mission.
Cordless power tools

NASA started using cordless tools to build the International Space Station in orbit. Today these innovations
have led to cordless battery-powered tools used on Earth. Cordless tools have been able to help surgeons in
operating rooms greatly because they allow for a greater range of freedom.[163]

Fireproof material

Following the 1967 Apollo fire, NASA learned that they needed fireproof material to protect astronauts
inside the spaceship. NASA developed fireproof material for use on parts of the capsule and on spacesuits.
This is important because there is a high percentage of oxygen under great pressure, presenting a fire
hazard. The fireproof fabric, called Durette, was created by Monsanto and is now used in firefighting
gear.[163]

Heart monitors

Technology discovered and employed in the Apollo missions led to technology that Medrad used to create
an AID implantable automatic pulse generator.[164] This technology is able to monitor heart attacks and can
help correct heart malfunctions using small electrical shocks. With heart disease being so common in the
United States, heart monitoring is a very important technological advance.[163]

Solar panels

Solar panels are able to absorb light to create electricity. This technology used discoveries from NASA's
Apollo Lunar Module program. Light collected from the panels is transformed into electricity through a
semiconductor. Solar panels are now employed in many common applications including outdoor lighting,
houses, street lights and portable chargers. In addition to being used on Earth, this technology is still being
used in space on the International Space Station.[163]

Digital imaging

NASA has been able to contribute to creating technology for CAT scans, radiography and MRIs.[164] This
technology came from discoveries using digital imaging for NASA's lunar research. CAT scans,
radiography and MRIs have made a huge impact in the world of medicine, allowing doctors to see in more
detail what is happening inside patients’ bodies.[163]

Liquid methane

Liquid methane is a fuel which the Apollo program created as a less expensive alternative to traditional oil.
It is still used today in rocket launches. Methane must be stored at extremely low temperature to remain
liquid, requiring a temperature of −260  °F (−162  °C). Liquid methane was created by Beech Aircraft
Corporation's Boulder Division, and since then the company has been able to convert some cars to run on
liquid methane.[163]

Depictions on film
Documentaries

Numerous documentary films cover the Apollo program and the Space Race, including:

Footprints on the Moon (1969)

Moonwalk One (1970)[165]
For All Mankind (1989)[166]
Moon Shot (1994 miniseries)
"Moon" from the BBC miniseries The Planets (1999)
Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D (2005)
The Wonder of It All (2007)
In the Shadow of the Moon (2007)[167]
When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions (2008 miniseries)
Moon Machines (2008 miniseries)
James May on the Moon (2009)
NASA's Story (2009 miniseries)
Apollo 11 (2019)[168][169]
Chasing the Moon (2019 miniseries)

Docudramas

The Apollo program, or certain missions, have been dramatized in Apollo 13 (1995), Apollo 11 (1996),
From the Earth to the Moon (1998), The Dish (2000), Space Race (2005), Moonshot (2009), and First
Man (2018).

Fictional

The Apollo program has been the focus of several works of fiction, including:

Apollo 18, a 2011 horror movie which was released to negative reviews.
For All Mankind, a 2019 TV series depicting an alternate reality in which the Soviet Union
was the first country to successfully land a man on the Moon. The rest of the series follows
an alternate history of the late 1960s and early 1970s with NASA continuing Apollo missions
to the Moon.

See also
Apollo 11 in popular culture
Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package
Exploration of the Moon
List of artificial objects on the Moon
List of crewed spacecraft
Moon landing conspiracy theories
Soviet crewed lunar programs
Stolen and missing Moon rocks
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orldcat.org/oclc/733307011).
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Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-61101-1. LCCN 89006333 (https://lccn.loc.gov/89006333).
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(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0275-0279). LCCN 99474392 (https://lccn.loc.gov/99474392).
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00). Retrieved August 1, 2013.
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Wilford, John Noble (1969). We Reach the Moon: The New York Times Story of Man's
Greatest Adventure. New York: Bantam Paperbacks. OCLC 29123 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/29123).

Further reading
Apollo Program Summary Report (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/APSR-JSC-09423.pdf)
(PDF). (46.3 MB) NASA Report JSC-09423, April 1975
Collins, Michael (2001) [Originally published 1974; New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux].
Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys (https://archive.org/details/carryingfire00mich).
Foreword by Charles Lindbergh. New York: Cooper Square Press. ISBN 978-0-8154-1028-
7. LCCN 2001017080 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2001017080). Astronaut Mike Collins
autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11.
Cooper, Henry S.F., Jr. (1995) [Originally published 1972; New York: Dial Press]. Thirteen:
The Apollo Flight That Failed (https://archive.org/details/thirteenapollofl00coop). Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5097-5. LCCN 94039726 (https://lccn.loc.go
v/94039726). OCLC 31375285 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/31375285). Although this
book focuses on Apollo 13, it provides a wealth of background information on Apollo
technology and procedures.
French, Francis; Burgess, Colin (2007). In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey
to Tranquility, 1965–1969. Foreword by Walter Cunningham. Lincoln: University of Nebraska
Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1128-5. LCCN 2006103047 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2006103047).
OCLC 182559769 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/182559769). History of the Apollo program
from Apollos 1–11, including many interviews with the Apollo astronauts.
Gleick, James, "Moon Fever" [review of Oliver Morton, The Moon: A History of the Future;
Apollo's Muse: The Moon in the Age of Photography, an exhibition at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York City, July 3 – September 22, 2019; Douglas Brinkley, American
Moonshot: John F. Kennedy and the Great Space Race; Brandon R. Brown, The Apollo
Chronicles: Engineering America's First Moon Missions; Roger D. Launius, Reaching for the
Moon: A Short History of the Space Race; Apollo 11, a documentary film directed by Todd
Douglas Miller; and Michael Collins, Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys (50th
Anniversary Edition)], The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 13 (15 August 2019),
pp. 54–58.
Kranz, Gene (2000). Failure is Not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and
Beyond (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743200790). New York: Simon & Schuster.
ISBN 0-7432-0079-9. LCCN 00027720 (https://lccn.loc.gov/00027720). OCLC 43590801 (htt
ps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43590801). Factual, from the standpoint of a flight controller
during the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs.
Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey (2000) [Previously published 1994 as Lost Moon]. Apollo 13.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-05665-3. LCCN 99089647 (https://lccn.loc.
gov/99089647). OCLC 43118301 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43118301). Details the
flight of Apollo 13.
Pellegrino, Charles R.; Stoff, Joshua (1999). Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind
the Race to the Moon. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-80261-9. OCLC 41579174 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41579174). Tells Grumman's story of building the lunar modules.
Musgrave, Paul; Nexon, Daniel (2018). "Defending Hierarchy from the Moon to the Indian
Ocean: Symbolic Capital and Political Dominance in Early Modern China and the Cold War"
(https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020818318000139). International Organization. 72 (3): 591–
626. doi:10.1017/S0020818318000139 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020818318000139).
Scott, David; Leonov, Alexei; Toomey, Christine (2004). Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of
the Cold War Space Race (https://archive.org/details/twosidesofmoon00scot). Foreword by
Neil Armstrong; introduction by Tom Hanks (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Thomas Dunne Books.
ISBN 0-312-30865-5. LCCN 2004059381 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2004059381).
OCLC 56587777 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56587777).
Seamans, Robert C., Jr. (2005). Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions. Monographs in
Aerospace History. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16-074954-9. LCCN 2005003682 (htt
ps://lccn.loc.gov/2005003682). OCLC 64271009 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/64271009).
NASA SP-4537. History of the crewed space program from 1 September 1960, to 5 January
1968.
Slayton, Donald K.; Cassutt, Michael (1995). Deke!: An Autobiography. New York: St.
Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-85918-X. Account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of
his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of Apollo crews.
The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/
19690022643_1969022643.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 1. (131.2 MB) From origin to November 7, 1962
The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/
19740004394_1974004394.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 2. (13.4 MB) November 8, 1962 – September 30,
1964
The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/
19760014180_1976014180.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 3. (57.7 MB) October 1, 1964 – January 20,
1966
The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/
19800011953_1980011953.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 4. (24.2 MB) January 21, 1966 – July 13, 1974
 Wilhelms, Don E. (1993). To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration (http
s://archive.org/details/torockymoongeolo0000wilh). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
ISBN 0-8165-1065-2. LCCN 92033228 (https://lccn.loc.gov/92033228). OCLC 26720457 (htt
ps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26720457). The history of lunar exploration from a geologist's
point of view.

External links
Apollo program history (https://web.archive.org/web/19991013042039/http://spaceflight.nas
a.gov/history/apollo/index.html) at NASA's Human Space Flight (HSF) website
The Apollo Program (https://history.nasa.gov/apollo.html) at the NASA History Program
Office
"Apollo Spinoffs" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120404160907/http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/
apollo.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/apollo.htm) on April 4,
2012.
The Apollo Program (http://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/) at the
National Air and Space Museum
Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature (https://web.archive.org/web/20040804051632/h
ttp://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/apollo11/index1.html) at NASA (in Flash)
Lunar Mission Timeline (http://www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/apollo_landings.html) at the Lunar
and Planetary Institute
Apollo Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections
(http://libarchstor.uah.edu:8081/repositories/2/resources/69)

NASA reports
Apollo Program Summary Report (https://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm) (PDF), NASA,
JSC-09423, April 1975
NASA History Series Publications (https://history.nasa.gov/series95.html)
Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams (https://history.nasa.gov/diagrams/apollo.h
tml) at the NASA History Program Office
The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html) edited by Eric M.
Jones and Ken Glover
The Apollo Flight Journal (https://history.nasa.gov/afj/) by W. David Woods, et al.

Multimedia
NASA Apollo Program images and videos (https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/ind
ex.html)
Apollo Image Archive (http://apollo.sese.asu.edu/) at Arizona State University
Audio recording and transcript of President John F. Kennedy, NASA administrator James
Webb, et al., discussing the Apollo agenda (https://web.archive.org/web/20160601211812/ht
tp://millercenter.org/presidentialrecordings/jfk-mtg-63) (White House Cabinet Room,
November 21, 1962)
The Project Apollo Archive (http://www.apolloarchive.com/) by Kipp Teague is a large
repository of Apollo images, videos, and audio recordings
The Project Apollo Archive on Flickr (https://www.flickr.com/photos/projectapolloarchive/)
Apollo Image Atlas (http://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/apollo/)—almost 25,000 lunar images,
Lunar and Planetary Institute
 The short film Time of Apollo (1975) (https://archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava03129vnb1) is
available for free download at the Internet Archive.
The Journeys of Apollo – NASA Documentary (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GNJpoP
642wc) on YouTube

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