SPECIAL PUBLICATION OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

No.11, 2021, pp.40-45

Characterization of Hydrothermal Alteration at Chigargunta

and Bisanatham Gold Deposits, South Kolar Greenstone
Belt, Dharwar Craton, India

DEBASIS PAL1, SAKTHI SARAVANAN CHINNASAMY 2* and SWAPNENDU GOON3

1
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, National Institute of Technology Rourkela - 769 008, India
2
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Powai, Mumbai - 400 076, India
3
Matri Apartment H-5 Bl-B BC 336, Samarpally Krishnapur, Kolkata - 700 102, India
*E-mail: geosaks@gmail.com/chinnasamys@iitb.ac.in

Abstract: The South Kolar Greenstone Belt (SKGB) which is the southern extension of the main Kolar belt hosts several gold
deposits and prospects. Among them Chigargunta (CG) and Bisanatham (BN) deposits are most significant deposits. Excluding
the western lode of CG which is within the mafic volcanic rocks, majority of the auriferous lodes are hosted in the felsic
volcanics (Champion Gneiss) that forms the main eastern mineralization system. In BN, mineralisation is hosted mainly within
mafic volcanic rocks that are in closer proximity with Bisanatham granite. Different litho-association has certainly impacted in
the development of distinct alteration zones which are mineralogically different in each of these prospects. Three distinct alteration
zones with specific mineral assemblages were reported in CG and, at least two zones were identified in BN. The present study
focuses on alteration mineralogy and its changes within the alteration zones to characterize the hydrothermal alterations of
two distinct gold hosting rocks, in terms of mineralogy and mineral chemistry, in SKGB.

Keywords: Gold Deposits, Hydrothermal Alteration, Mineral Chemistry, Chigargunta, Bisanatham, South Kolar Schist Belt,
Dharwar Craton

INTRODUCTION
There are several reported gold prospects and deposits in
the Dharwar Craton. They are the world-famous Kolar and Hutti
gold deposits apart from Ramagiri, Jonnagiri, Mangalur, and
Gadag etc. Although the Kolar Gold Mines discontinued the
operations in the year 2001 there is still proven gold deposits
and prospects in the southern extension of the Kolar belt which
is labeled as South Kolar Greenstone Belt (SKGB). Chigargunta
(CG) and Bisanatham (BN) are the two significant deposits
among others in SKGB (Fig. 1a). In the CG, most of the
auriferous lodes are concentrated in felsic volcanics (i.e.
Champion Gneiss) in the eastern part while few are hosted by
mafic volcanic rocks in the west (Fig. 1b). Metabasalt is the
major host rock for the auriferous veins in the BN. Detailed
accounts on structural control, alteration mineral assemblages,
ore petrography, fluid inclusions and stable isotopes of orogenic
gold deposits from Archaean greenstone belts of Dharwar
Craton are presented by several authors (Ziauddin and
Ramachandra, 1963; Santosh, 1986; Siddaiah and Rajamani,
1989; Mishra and Panigrahi, 1999; Pandalai et al. 2003; Mishra
and Pal, 2008; Saravanan et al., 2009; Chinnasamy and Mishra,
2013; Swain et al., 2015; Swain et al., 2018). Recently, Pal et
al. (2019) on the basis of fluid inclusion and stable isotope
(carbon and sulfur) data from the CG and BN, inferred that the
low saline metamorphic fluid derived from decarbonation of
marine carbonates was the most plausible source of ore forming
fluid in the SKGB. They have also reported three distinct
hydrothermal alteration zones in CG deposit and two in BN
deposit each with specific mineral assemblages. In this
communication, we present the hydrothermal alteration, mineral
assemblages as well as changes in mineral compositions of
two distinct hydrothermally altered host rocks from two
different gold deposits – CG and BN – in SKGB.
GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
Kolar Schist Belt, a Neoarchaean granite-greenstone belt
(Chardon et al., 2002) that extends 80 km N-S and 2-4 km
E-W has been historically well known for gold production.
Prolific gold mineralization within the schist belt is hosted

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 CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION AT CHIGARGUNTA AND BISANATHAM GOLD DEPOSITS 41

within bimodal volcanics in the form of quartz-carbonate veins,
and less in sulfidic amphibolites and banded quartzites
(Siddaiah and Rajamani, 1989). Kolar Gold Field (KGF),
located in the central part of the belt, has produced more than
800 tonnes of gold. KGF is demarcated by two NW-SE trending
faults – the Balaghat North Fault in the north and Gifford’s
Fault in the south. The southern extension of the schist belt
beyond the Gifford’s Fault is characterized by reduced thickness
of the basin, intrusion of Bisanatham Granite and subtle change
in the metamorphic grade of basalt into amphibolites. The
continuation of Champion lode to south of the Gifford’s Fault
is highly obscured. Considering these major changes, for the
ease of discussion in this study, the portion of the schist belt
between Gifford’s Fault and Bisanatham Fault, which is the
actual delimiter between Central and South Kolar Schist Belt,
has been clubbed with SKGB. The SKGB extends for 30km
along the strike length with a 3 km width at the center of the
belt which covers around 50 sq. km area. Many major and
minor gold mines and prospects are located in this part of the
belt where CG and BN are historically the two significant ones.
Virupakshipura-Lakkhanayakhanhalli (New-Bisanatham),
Yerakonda, Kudithanapalli, Sanganapalli, Peddapartikunta and
Malappakonda are the other notable prospects in the SKGB
(Fig. 1a).
In the CG deposit the central and eastern parts are occupied
by felsic volcanics (Champion Gneiss) whereas most of the
western part of the belt is covered by mafic rocks comprising
metabasalt and metagabbro. The major auriferous lodes are
found within the Champion Gneiss although few lodes occur
within the mafic volcanics (Fig. 1b). The major mineralization
is controlled by N-S trending and steeply dipping shear
foliation. The BN deposit comprises old BN and new BN mines
(Fig.1a). Gold mineralization in old BN is mainly associated
with quartz veins within schistose metabasalt. The old BN mine
has three lodes – the Main lode, Foot wall lode and the Hanging
wall lode. In the new BN mine, gold mineralization has been

Fig. 1. (a) Geological map of SKGB showing locations of Chigargunta and Bisanatham deposits with other smaller prospects. Inset shows the
location of SKGB in the Dharwar Craton (modified after Vishwanatha, 1978). (b) Geological map of Chigargunta deposit showing the distribution
of the auriferous lodes. Yellow circles denote sample locations. Modified after GSI (1982).

SPEC.PUBL.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, NO.11, 2021

42 DEBASIS PAL
divided into two sub-systems namely the Eastern load system
and the Central load system. The Eastern lode system occurs
at the contact of schistose metabasalt and Champion Gneiss.
The Central lode system occurs well within the mafic
greenstones (mainly granular amphibolite). The trend of
foliation in the Eastern lode system is N15°- N25°E, and dip
westerly at 70°-80°. The foliation planes act as major structural
control for the emplacement of auriferous veins.
PETROGRAPHY
At CG the felsic part of the unaltered host rock i.e. the
Champion Gneiss comprises of microcline, plagioclase,
perthite, quartz, ±biotite, ±muscovite with minor epidote,
ilmenite, sphene and zircon. The intercalated mafic part within
the Champion Gneiss is defined by preferential alignment of
amphibole along with biotite, muscovite, calcite, and quartz.
Tourmaline, chlorite, biotite, muscovite, epidote and quartz
along with pyrrhotite, pyrite and arsenopyrite are the major
hydrothermal alteration minerals characteristics of proximal
alteration zone. At some places chlorites occur as an alteration
product of biotite and amphibole. Tourmaline in general is
euhedral in nature, occurs in clusters and shows strong
zoning. Almost all of the feldspars are altered and converted
to sericite.
At BN the quasi-altered host metabasalt, mainly comprises
of amphibole, chlorite, biotite and quartz with subordinate
amount of epidote, sphene and rutile. Schistosity is defined by
amphiboles and streaks of biotite. Biotite, muscovite, epidote,
tourmaline are the major hydrothermal assemblages occurring
along with quartz–carbonate veins in the mineralized zone.
Pyrrhotite, pyrite, arsenopyrite and chalcopyrite are the major
sulfides in the decreasing order of abundance in the mineralized
zone. Tourmaline mainly occurs along the schistosity in the
alteration zones. These tourmalines are zoned and smaller in
size when compared to CG tourmaline.
MINERAL CHEMISTRY
Amphibole
Amphiboles in general occur in both the deposits and occur
along the foliation. Amphiboles from the CG are ferro-
tschermakite in composition that is altered to form actinolite
in their rim. However, at BN there are two types of amphiboles:
(i) high Fe (type-1) that are similar to CG amphiboles and (ii)
high Mg (type-2) that are magnesio-hornblende in composition.
Type-1 amphiboles are similar in compositions and show
similar alteration trend with CG amphiboles whereas type-2
shows alteration trend towards actinolite field from Mg-
hornblende (Fig. 2a).
Chlorite
Three types of hydrothermal chlorites were identified from
the CG as reported by Pal et al. (2019), they are; (i) type-1:
chlorite as alteration product of biotite, at times associated with
epidote; (ii) type-2: chlorite as alteration product of hornblende
in association with epidote; (iii) type-3: chlorite as alteration
product of hornblende without epidote. Type-2 and 3 chlorites
from the CG are Fe-rich and show almost similar Fetotal value
with an average value of 2.31 atom per formula unit (apfu)
except type-1 chlorite which is having quite high Mg content.
Compositionally two types of chlorites were identified from
BN deposit. They are: Fe-rich (type-1) and Mg-rich (type-2)
chlorites. Fe-rich type-1 chlorite is similar to CG chlorites and
are chamositic in composition, whereas type-2 chlorite is rich
in Mg (avg. 3.08 apfu) and is compositionally different from
the CG chlorites. Thus, most of the CG chlorites fall within the
chamosite field except type-1 that falls within clinochlore field.
However, BN chlorite belongs to both chamosite (type-1) and
clinochlore (type-2) group (Fig. 2b). Both the types of chlorites
(Fe-rich and Mg-rich) are observed from the two different areas.
In general CG chlorites towards Mg-rich ones while BN has
two compositionally different types of chlorites.
Biotite
CG and BN contain biotite with distinct chemical
composition as described by Pal et al. (2019). However, in this
study an extensive analysis of biotite shows further variable
chemical compositions form both the deposits. It can be
classified into two types based on the observed chemical
composition form both the deposits. In general, biotite (Bt)-1
is Fe-rich whereas Bt-2 is Mg-rich. A slight difference in Fe/
(Fe+Mg) values were observed in Bt-1 between CG (avg. 0.49)
and BN (avg. 0.61) deposits. However, Bt-2 has almost similar
composition in both the deposits (CG: avg. 0.33; BN: avg.
0.38). The concentration of Fe in Bt-1 is relatively higher in
BN when compared to CG biotite and can be classified as ferro-
biotite (Fig. 2c) and Annite (Fig. 2d). Both the types of biotite
from CG fall within the magnesio-biotite field (Fig. 2c) and
classified as phlogophite biotite (Fig. 2d).
Tourmaline
Tourmaline from both the deposits belongs to alkali group
(Fig. 2e). Chemically most of the tourmalines from the CG
deposit are dravite-oxydravite in composition except few
samples, whereas BN tourmalines are both schrol-oxyschrol
and dravite-oxydravite in nature (Fig. 2e). Tourmalines from
the both areas show strong zoning and variation in terms of
FeO, MgO, CaO, NaO and TiO2 content from core to rim.
Deprotonation substitution were noticed from both locations
in SKGB which is characterized by the total Fe+Mg <3 apfu.
SPEC.PUBL.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, NO.11, 2021
 CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION AT CHIGARGUNTA AND BISANATHAM GOLD DEPOSITS 43

Fig. 2. Mineral classification diagram showing various minerals occurring in the alteration zones. (a) Amphibole classification (after Leake et al.
1997); (b) Chlorite classification (after Bayliss, 1975); (c and d) Biotite classification [(c) after Foster, (1960); (d) after Wlodek et al., (2015)]
(e) Tourmaline classification based on the major alkali minerals in the X site vacancy; and (f) Mg/(Mg+Fe) content vs X-site vacancy/(X-site
vacancy+Na) (after Hawthorne and Henry, 1999).

Tourmalines from the CG area have relatively high Na
content (avg. 0.63) and low X-site vacancy (avg: 0.19 apfu),
whereas BN tourmalines are poor in Na (avg. 0.39 apfu) and
has more X-site vacancy (avg. 0.30 apfu). CG tourmalines
generally contain low Fe/(Fe+Mg) (avg. 0.31) in contrast to
BN counterparts (avg. 0.56). Occurrence of tourmaline in
association with biotite, muscovite and chlorite (±epidote)
indicate that presence of more Fe 2+ than Fe 3+ which is
inferred from the Mossbauer spectroscopic data (Dyar et al.
1999). Higher Fe2+content in tourmaline was observed from
both CG (avg. 0.72 apfu) as well as BN (avg. 1.25 apfu)
deposits.
Muscovite
Muscovite composition does not vary much between CG
and BN except K2O concentration. However, intra-deposit
compositional variation is observed from both the deposits.
FeOtotal varies from 0.40 to 4.99 (avg. 2.55 wt.%) in CG while
in BN it ranges from 1.47 to 6.35 (avg. 2.35 wt.%). At CG,
MgO content lies between 0.07 and 1.82 (avg. 0.73 wt.%)
whereas at BN it varies from 0.17 to 1.49 (avg. 0.72 wt.%).
K2O at CG muscovite varies from 7.97 to 10.55 wt.% but at
BN it ranges from 9.34 to 11.12 wt.%. BN muscovite is
relatively rich in K2O content as compared to CG (CG: avg.
9.64 wt.%; BN: avg. 10.80 wt.%).
Calcite
The carbonates in the alteration zones of CG and BN are
represented by calcite. Though at CG the concentration of
calcite is very less in the auriferous veins, at BN significant
amount of calcite is present in the quartz-carbonate veins.
Calcites at CG are quite variable in composition of FeO,
MnO and MgO. FeO content varies from 0.42 to 2.36 (avg.
1.2 wt.%) while MnO and MgO ranges from 0.22 to 3.0 (avg:
1.1 wt.%) and 0.08 to 1.35 (avg: 0.55 wt.%) respectively.
BN calcite shows similar compositions of MnO (1.13 wt.%),
MgO (0.42 wt.%) and FeO (1.26 wt.%) with CG counterparts.
Epidote
Epidote from both CG and BN falls into either zoisite or
clinozoisite group. Epidotes from the BN are SiO2 and Al2O3
rich compared to CG ones. The average values for SiO2 and
Al2O3 at CG are 38.26 and 28.40 wt.% and for BN are 40.28
and 32.36 wt.% respectively. Similar content of CaO was
observed in both the locations. The average value of CaO
from the CG is 23.4 wt.% while BN is 24.42 wt.%. In contrast to

SPEC.PUBL.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, NO.11, 2021

44 DEBASIS PAL
BN, CG epidote is high in Fetotal with an average value of
6.21 wt.%.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The present study records mineralogical and composi-
tional changes of the two distinct hydrothermally altered host
rocks from two different deposits in SKGB. Amphiboles from
the CG and BN are ferro-tschermakite and magnesio-
hornblende in composition respectively. These amphiboles are
altered to actinoilte at the rim of the grains during the
hydrothermal alteration process. Three types of chlorites with
varying Mg and Fe contents were observed in these deposits.
A wide range of substitution between Si and AlIV in the
tetrahedral site and Fe, Mg and AlVI in the octahedral site is
observed in these chlorites in both CG and BN. Similar to
chlorite, two types of biotite Fe-rich and Mg-rich, were
observed in the alteration zones in both the deposits. Each
biotite type is compositionally similar for both CG and BN
deposits however, differs between the deposits. Tourmalines
in SKGB are also of two types. CG tourmaline is mostly of
dravite-oxydravite in composition and BN tourmaline
compositions varying from schrol-oxyschrol and dravite-
oxydravite. The low saline, reduced ore forming fluid was
responsible for transportation of the ore is evident from the
tourmaline chemistry at SKGB, which is characterized by low
Na, high Fe2+, moderate to high X-site vacancy and low-
moderate Fe number of tourmalines from both the CG and BN
deposits. This variation is similar to composition of Hutti and
Uti tourmalines as previously reported (Hazarika et al. 2015).
An extensive work on fluid inclusion and stable isotopic studies
from the CG and BN also support low saline, reduced
metamorphogenic fluid (Pal et al. 2019) for gold mineralization.
The mineral assemblage i.e. tourmaline, biotite, chlorite,
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