Design, Structural Analysis and D-FMEA of

Automobile Manual Transmission Gear- Box

ABSTRACT – (Edit)
The global automotive industry demands world-class levels of product quality, productivity, and competitiveness as well as
continual improvement.
—In this paper our work was to study the static parameter of the gear-box of an ATV by determining and analysing the
dynamics of the vehicle when driving on an off-road racetrack. Though, there are many parameters which affect the
performance of the ATV, the scope of this paper work is limited to optimization, determination, design and analysis of
suspension systems and to integrate them into whole vehicle systems for best results. The goals were to identify and optimize
the parameters affecting the dynamic performance suspension.
To achieve this goal, many vehicle manufacturers companies use quality control tools to improve the quality of the product
with zero defects and highly satisfied to the customer. Nowadays, there are a lot of quality tools applied to solve the problem
quickly but it’s still the fact to find out good and efficient solving way. An efficacious procedure of failure analysis is the
Design Failure Mode and effect Analysis. FMEA procedure is used in this paper to find out different failure modes, its effects,
causes, occurrence and different prevention ways for various components in a gear box of manual transmission automobile
vehicle.
Risk priority Number (RPN) is basically used to figure out which component is at the risk of Failure and requires more
surveillance.

Keywords: Automobile, Gear box, Failure Modes and effects Analysis (FMEA), Risk Priority Number (RPN).

INTRODUCTION – (ADD)
Quality control and management is a crucial matter in the car industry. Considering the incessantly increasing requirements for
the quality of products and process, it is necessary to improve a quality-oriented management in all types of manufacturing
company. Usually, technological advance will lead to process improvement with time and could ultimately approach the states
of the Zero-defect. In the tremendous, competition, survival of the fittest is the law of competition in the market. The
manufacturers need to use what kind of products, entirely by the market to make a fair conclusion. Automated products have
high demand and market orientation due to its high quality and low price. In such climate conditions, automobile production
quality, efficiency, resilience has become hard in pursuit of the goal of the manufacturers and the increasingly fierce market
competition, forcing the manufacturers must continue to introduce new varieties while meeting the needs of users. In order to
quickly seize the market, car manufacturers must be more variety, fast-paced, high-quality mixed production, what products
the market needs, we can as fast as the best products to the market.
OBJECTIVE – (ADD)
In this paper we will also come across the following aspects:
a. Study the static parameters of the chassis.
b. Workout the parameters by analysis, design, and optimization of suspension system.
c. Study of existing suspension systems and parameters affecting its performance.
d. Determination of design parameters for suspension system.

LITERATURE RIVIEW –
(Basic Consideration for Design-FMEA)
2.1. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

FMEAs identify potential and confirm Critical and Significant characteristics to be addressed by design changes,
process changes, or inclusion in Process Control Plans. FMEAs evaluate the adequacy of proposed controls and the
need to mitigate risk by changes to the Design Verification Plan or the Manufacturing Control Plan. The intent of
the evaluation and the proposed actions is to prevent failures from reaching the customers, improving customer
satisfaction.

An FMEA can be described as a systemized group of activities intended to:

(a) recognize and evaluate the potential failure of a product/process and its Effects.
(b) identify actions which could eliminate or reduce the chance of the potential failure occurring
(c) document the process. It is complementary to the process of defining what a design or process must do to
satisfy the customers.

Benefits of Design FMEA and Uses:

The Design FMEA supports the design process in reducing the risk of failures (including unintended outcomes) by:
• Aiding in the objective evaluation of design, including functional requirements and design alternatives.
• Evaluating the initial design for manufacturing, assembly, service, and recycling requirements.
• Increasing the probability that potential Failure Modes and their effects on system and vehicle operation have
been considered in the design/development process.
• Providing additional information to aid in the planning of thorough and efficient design, development, and
validation
programs.
• Developing a ranked list of potential Failure Modes according to their effect on the "customer," thus establishing
a priority systems for design improvements, development and validation testing/analysis.
• Providing an open issue format for recommending and tracking risk reducing actions.
• Providing future reference, e.g., lessons learned, to aid in analysing field concerns, evaluating design changes and
developing advanced designs.
• Helping identify potential Critical Characteristics and potential Significant Characteristics.
• Helping validate the Design Verification Plan (DVP) and the System Design Specifications (SDSs).
• Focusing on potential Failure Modes of products caused by design deficiencies.
• Identifying potential designated characteristics, called Special Characteristics.
The FMEA is then used during deployment of the product or service for troubleshooting and corrective action. The
standard FMEA process evaluates failure modes for occurrence, severity, and detection. The multiplication of these
values leads to what is known as the risk priority number (RPN).
RPN = Occurrence× Severity× Detection
FMEA is a reliability tool, which requires identifying failure modes of a specific product or system, their
frequency, and potential causes. According to Arinez, Biller, Meerkov, & Zhang, the life cycle of a product is
analysed by an inter-functional work team. Daimler Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors have jointly developed an
international standard named SAE J1739-2006 documentation for FMEA. This document provides general
guidance in the application of different types of FMEA. First, the potential failure modes and potential causes are
identified along with its effects and then the current controls are determined. FMEA method is used to calculate
RPN for each failure mode and then proposed recommended actions to reduce the RPN. The basic steps are to
identify the root causes and potential problems that could occur, and then derive RPN which can direct
improvement effort to the areas of greatest concern. Actions are then undertaken to reduce the risk presented by the
failure mode. FMEA was developed at Grumman Aircraft Corporation in the 1950 and 1960s and it was first
applied to the naval aircraft flight control systems at Grumman. Since, then, it has been extensively used as a
powerful technique for system safety and reliability analysis of products and processes in a wide range of
industries. Xiuxu Zhao presented a new approach for enterprises which combined Statistical Process Control (SPC)
with FMEA knowledge library. FMEA Primarily quality planning tool. It is used to develop features and goals for
product and process, in identifying critical of product/process factor, designing customaries the potential problems,
establishing the control to prevent the errors and prioritizing the process submit to ensure reliability. FMEA most
commonly applied but not limited to design (DFMEA) and manufacturing process (PFMEA). Design failure mode
and effect analysis (DFMEA) identify the potential failure of design before they occur. DFMEA then goes to
establish potential effect of the failures, there causes, how often and when they might occur and their potential
seriousness. Process failure mode and effect analysis (PFMEA) is systemized group of activities intended to
recognized and evaluated the potential failure of a product/process and its effect identify action which could
eliminate or reduce the occurrence or improve the defect ability, document the process and track change to avoid
the potential failure cause. FMEA is carried out by a cross-functional team of experts from various departments].
Normally, a team is formed at the planning stage of a new product based on a concurrent engineering approach.
The team analyses each component and subsystem of the product for the failure modes. Then, the potential causes
and effects are determined. The risk of each failure is prioritized based on the risk priority number (RPN). RPN is a
decision factor based on three ratings: Severity (S), Occurrence (O) and Detection (D). These ratings are scaled
with numbers between 1 and 10. The analysis starts from the basic structure of the system and particularly from
those system elements for which accurate information about failure mode and its causes are available. By analysing
the functional relationships among these elements, it is possible to identify the possibility of propagation of each
type of failure to predict its effects on the production performance of the entire system. This is an inductive method
to analyse failure modes using down-top methodology. The FMEA is a formalized but subjective analysis for the
systematic identification of possible root causes and failure modes and the estimation of their relative risks. The
main goal is to identify and then limit or avoid risk within a design. Hence, the FMEA drives towards higher
reliability, higher quality and enhance safety. FMEA concentrates on identifying the severity and criticality of
failures. FMEA is a fully bottom-up approach. Risk Priority Number, which is the product of the severity,
occurrence, and detection ratings are calculated as RPN = S × O × D. The RPN must be calculated for each cause
of failure. RPN shows the relative likelihood of a failure mode, in that the higher number, the higher the failure
mode [17]. From RPN, a critical summary can be drawn up to highlight the areas where the action is most needed.
The RPN is re-calculated after the failure has been addressed. The revised RPN confirms the effectiveness of the
corrective actions undertaken.

2.2. Implementation Methods for FMEA

Implementation starts with the FMEA planning and crosses function team and creation for FMEA development and
the evaluation of the results. After preparation of the team and planning next step is to delay the manufacturing
process and identification of each step process and documentation in the FMEA sheet. Standard FMEA sheet is
developed by the IATF (International Automotive Task Force) which is given below (Figure 1): Usually, it breaks
the scope into separate subsystems, items, parts, assemblies or process steps and identify the function of each.
Process identification characteristics come from the process diagram. A product characteristic is a feature such as
dimension, size, form, location, orientation, location, texture, coating, hardness, strength, appearance, reflectivity .

2.3. Potential Failure Mode

For each function, identify all the ways failure could happen. These are potential failure modes. If necessary, go
back and rewrite the function with more detail to be sure the failure modes show a loss of that function. Potential
failure modes have defined the manner in which the process could potentially fail to meet the process requirement.
It’s a description of a non-conference at the specific operation [18]. It can be associated with a potential failure
mode in the subsequent (downstream) operation or effect associated with a rotation failure in a process operation.
However, preparation of FMEA, the assumption may be made that the incoming part/materials are correct.

2.4. Potential Effect of Failure

The potential effect of failure is defined as the effect of the failure mode on the customer. The customer in this
content could be next operation, subsequent operation or location, the dealer, the vehicle owner. Each must be
considered when assessing the potential effect of failure.
2.5. Severity

Severity is an assessment of the seriousness of the effect and refers directly to the potential failure mode being
studied. The customer in process FMEA is both internal and where appropriate, the external customer. The severity
ranking is also an estimate of how difficult it will be for the subsequent operation to be carried out to its
specification its performance, cost and time. The ranking and suggested criteria are based on IATF manual of
FMEA version 3. A common industry standard scale uses 1 to represent no effect and 10 to indicate very much
severe with failure affecting system operation and safety without warning.
.
2.6. Cause of Failure Mode
Identify the cause of each failure mode. A failure cause is defined as a design weakness that may result in a failure.
The potential causes for each failure mode should be listed in technical terms and not in terms of symptoms.
Examples of potential causes included improper torque applied, improper operating conditions, too much solvent,
improper alignment, excessive voltage.
2.7. Occurrence

The occurrence is the assessment of the probability that the specific cause of the failure mode will occur. A
numerical weight should be assigned to each because that indicates how likely that cause is probability of the
occurrence. For that failure history is helpful increasing the truth of probability .

2.8. Detection
The detection steps distinguish between two steps of detection. On one hand to identify the current control process.
The current control process is a mechanism that prevents the cause of the failure mode from occurring or which
defect the failure before it reaches the customer. The engineer should now identify testing analysis, monitoring and
other techniques that can or have been used on the same or similar products/process to detect the failure. The other
things are to assess the probability that the proposed process controls will detect a potential cause of failure or a
process weakness. Assume the failure has occurred and then assess the ability of the control to prevent the
shipment of the part with that defect, low occurrence does not mean low detection. The control should detect the
low occurrence. The risk priority number is a mathematical product of the numerical severity, probability, and
detection rating. RPN = (severity*occurrence* detection).
The RPN is used to prioritize items that require addition quality planning activities. If the RPN number high that
means the occurrence of the failure is high.

2.9. Actions
Determine recommended action to address potential failures that have a high RPN. These actions could include specific of
different components or materials, rating, limiting environmental stresses or operating range, redesign of the item to avoid the
failure mode, monitoring mechanisms and inclusion of backup system (Figure 2). At the input collection and analysis by the
SPC trends of the defect’s frequency. After analysing the defects priority use the FMEA tools to identify the root cause of the
defects and get the FMEA repository. Finally takes the process control of the defects. From the figure (Figure 3) we can
understand the quality management module in the paint shop. From Figure 4 shows the Quality gate in the different working
station and offline checking of the care and section audit area in the paint shop. During the production, if there is any deviation
of the process parameters or equipment instant can figure out the root cause from the quality gate and continue checking
till is back to the normal batch production. Each working station has the

Methodology Used –
Starting with Step 1:
• Identify all Functions within scope.
• Identify how each Function can fail (Failure Modes).
• Identify a group of associated Effects for each Failure Mode.
• Identify a Severity rating for each Effect group that prioritizes the Failure Mode(s).
• If possible, Recommend Actions to eliminate Failure Mode(s) without addressing "Causes".
Note: This is a very rare event.
You will find that most often it is necessary to complete Steps 2 and 3, because rarely can a Failure Mode be completely
eliminated.

Basic Consideration for Gear Box:

GEARBOX: A gearbox, also known as a gear case or gear head, is a gear or a hydraulic system responsible for
transmitting mechanical power from a prime mover (an engine or electric motor) into some form of useful output. A gearbox
is a set of gears for transmitting power from one rotating shaft to another. They are used in a wide range of industrial,
automotive and home machinery application.
Gear heads are available in different sizes, capacities and speed ratios. Their main function is to convert the input provided
by an electric motor into an output of lower RPM and higher torque.

Functions of a Gearbox

 A gearbox is precisely bored to control gear and shaft alignment.

 It is used as a housing/container for gear oil.
 It is a metal casing for protecting gears and lubricant from water, dust and other contaminants.

Gearbox Specifications
There are a number of performance specifications which must be considered while choosing a gearbox for different industrial
applications. Some of the important specifications are :

 Gear ratio: The ratio may be specified as x:1, where x is an integer.

 Output torque
 Maximum input power
 Maximum input speed
 Gearing arrangement
 Reducer output
 Shaft Alignment

The Gearbox (Transmission)

Types of gearing: 
Various types of gearing are used on a motor vehicle. The gearboxes employ one or more of the following:

1-     Spur, teeth parallel to axis, used on sliding mesh.

2-     Helical, teeth inclined to axis to form helix.

3-     Double helical, two sets of opposing helical teeth.

4-     Epicyclic or planetary, spur or helical gears rotating about centers which are not stationary.

Gear ratio (single gear train):

   The gear ratio, or velocity ratio, between a pair of gear wheels is in inverse ratio to the number of
teeth on each. Thus:

                             NB/NA = DA/DB= nA/nB

NB = NA (nA/nB)
                                                
Where:

NA= rev per min of gear A, nA = number of teeth on A

NB = rev per min of gear B, nB = number of teeth on B

DA = Diameter of gear A

DB = Diameter of gear B 

      

Power, Speed and Torque:

The power transmitted by a shaft is directly proportional to the speed of revolution and the torque acting on it

 
          Power [kW] = 2  N T / (60 x 1000) [N.m/s]

Then

          TA NA = TB NB

For a given power, therefore, the torque is inversely proportional to the speed of revolution and if the re min is reduced the
torque will be increased in the same ratio (assuming 100% gear efficiency).

TB/TA = nB/nA

Where:

          TA = torque transmitted by A

          TB = torque transmitted by B

Velocity or gear ratio (ig) = number of teeth on driven gear/number of teeth on driver gear.

           TB = TA (nB/nA) = TA/ ig

Compound gear train:

If the number of teeth on each wheel is known, the relationship between the speed of wheels A and D can be determined as
follows

For wheels A and B: NB/NA = nA/nB, i.e., NB= NA (nA/nB)

Wheel B and C are fixed on the same shaft, so NC=NB

For wheels C and D: ND/NC = nC/nD, i.e., ND = NC (nC/nD)

Substituting NC = NB = NA (nA/nB) from above, we get

                    ND = NA (nA/nB) (nC/nD)

Or ND/NA =
 By inspection of the layout of the figure, it will be observed that wheels A and C are driver gears while B and D are driven
gears. Hence, from the above equation

 Velocity or gear ratio (ig) = product of teeth on driven gears/ product of teeth on driver gears

                   ND = NA (nA/nB) (nC/nD) = NA (nA nC / nB nD) = NA/ig

Types of Drives and gearboxes:
 There are many types of the car drives, usually classified accordance with number of driving axles (4x2, 4x4,
4WD, AWD) and each type has a different gearing arrangement. Also, gearbox (transmission) has different types
(sliding-mesh, constant-mesh, synchro-mesh) some of them are old-fashion and had been replaced, and some are in
use in modern cars.

SLIDING-MESH GEARBOX:
The sliding gearbox was popular on cars up to about 1930, but it is rarely used. The basic layout of a 4-speed and
reverse gearbox is shown in the figure. The various spur-type gears are mounted on three shafts.

o     Primary shaft (clutch or first motion shaft)

o       Layshaft (countershaft)

o       Main shaft (third motion shaft).

1. main drive gear

2. counter shaft
3. main shaft
4. I gear
5. II gear
6. III gear
7. top speed engaging dogs

 Primary
shaft
This shaft
transmits the drive
from the clutch to
the gearbox. At
the end, the shaft
is supported by a spigot bearing positioned close to the splines on to which the clutch driven plate is connected.
The main load on this shaft is taken by a bearing; normally a sealed radial ball type, positioned close to an input
gear called a constant mesh pinion. The gear is so named because it is always in mesh with a larger gear, a c
constant mesh wheel, that I part of the layshaft gear cluster. Note that a small driving gear is called a pinion and a
large gear a wheel.
 

Lay shaft
This shaft, which is normally fixed to the gearbox casing, supports the various-sized driving pinions of the layshaft
gear cluster.

Main shaft

This splined output shaft carries spur gearwheels that slide along the shaft to engage with the appropriate lay shaft
gears. At the ‘front’ end, the main shaft is supported by a spigot bearing situated in the centre of the constant mesh
pinion. A heavy duty radial ball bearing is fitted at the other end to take the force of the gears as the attempt to
move apart.

 Gear positions:
 Neutral

All main shaft gearwheels are positioned so that they do not touch the layshaft gears. A drive is taken to the
layshaft, but the mainshaft will not be turned in neutral position.

 First Gear
The firs-speed gearwheel A on the mainshaft is lid backwards to engage with pinion B on the layshaft; all other
gears are positioned in neutral. In this gear, the reduction in speed that occurs as the drive passes through the
constant-mesh gears, E and F, is reduced further by the firs-speed gears, A and B.
   The gear ratio (also called the movement ratio or velocity ratio) is given by
                   Ratio = (Driven/driver) x (driven/driver)

 Second gear

The second-speed gearwheel C is slid forward to engage with the layshaft gear D; all the other gear are set in the
non-driving position.
 

                   Ig2 = (F/E) x (C/D)

Third gear
In this gear position, gearwheel G is slid in to mesh with gear H.
 

Ig3 = (F/E) x (H/G)

Top gear
In this layout, fourth gear is a direct drive; namely a gear that gives a ratio 1:1. It is obtained by sliding gear G to
engage its dog teeth with the corresponding teeth formed on the end of the constant mesh pinion E. Engagement of
the dog clutch locks the primary to the main shaft and this gives a ‘straight-through’ drive.
Reverse gear
Sliding a reverse gear between any two gears on the layshaft and main shaft is the method used to change the
direction of rotation of the output shaft.
   The simplest arrangement uses a single reverse gear, which is mounted on a short shaft. This shaft is positioned
so that the reverse can slide and mesh with the two first-speed gears as shown in the figure. The gear ratio is

                   igr = (Driven/Driver) x (Driven/Driver) x (Driven/Driver)

                       = (F/E) x (J/B) x (A/J)

                       = (F/E) x (A/B)
   This is the same ratio as for first gear, and irrespectively of the size of gear J, it will be seen that the ratio always
remains the same. For this reason it is called an idler – it changes the direction, but does not alter the ratio.

   With the idler arrangement, some drivers persistently slip the clutch to maintain a low reversing speed. Excessive
clutch wear resulting from this practice is minimized when the reverse ratio is set lower than first gear. This
achieved by using a reverse gear arrangement as shown in the figure. Instead of single idler, the compound reverse
gear has two gear pinions joined together. The reverse shaft is positioned so that the reverse pinions are able to
mesh simultaneously with the appropriate layshaft and mainshaft gears.

Gear Changing
When one gear is moved to engage with another gear noise will result if the peripheral (outside) speeds are not the
same to avoid this, the driver of the vehicle having a sliding-mesh gearbox performs an operation called double
declutching.

Interlock mechanism
Prevents two gears engaging simultaneously; if this occurs the gearbox will lock up and shaft rotation will be
impossible. Although the interlock device takes a number of different forms, the arrangement shown in the figure is
one of the most common.

Power take-off arrangement

In addition to the mechanism use for driving a vehicle along a road, a power supply is often required for operating
external items of auxiliary equipment.
   A light truck having a tipping mechanism is one example, but the most varied application of power take-off units
is associated with specialized off-road vehicles. 
   The figure shows a typical power take-off arrangement that is driven from the gearbox layshaft.
Disadvantages of the sliding mesh
Although the mechanical efficiency of the sliding mesh gearbox was high, it suffered from two great
disadvantages:
1- Gear noise due to the type of gear.
2- The difficulty of obtaining a smooth, quit and quick change of gear without the great skill and judgment.
 

 CONSTANT-MESH GEARBOX:

1. I speed gear
2. II speed gear
3. main shaft
4. III speed gear
5. top and III speed
engaging dogs
6. top gear
7. primary shaft or
main drive gear
8. counter shaft/cluster
gear

 
The main feature is the use of the stronger helical of double helical gears which lead to quieter operation. In this
design, the main shaft pinions revolves freely on bushes or needle-roller bearings and are all in constant
engagement with the corresponding layshaft wheels.  The gear operation is obtained by locking the respective gear
to the main shaft by means of a dog clutch.
   With this arrangement the quieter-running helical gears can be employed, and during gear changing the noise and
wear are reduced by the simultaneous engagement of all the dogs instead of only a pair of gear teeth as on the
sliding-mesh gearbox.
With single helical pinions (double helical is economically impractical), the driving loads on the teeth cause an
axial thrust which must be resisted by thrust washers, or shoulders, on the mainshaft.

SYNCHRO-MESH 

1. I speed gear
2. II speed gear
3. main shaft
4. outer engaging unit
5. inner engaging unit
6. top gear engaging teeth
7. main drive gear
8. top gear synchronizing cones
9. counter shaft

The figure shows unite main details of. Fundamentally the box is laid out in same manner as a constant-mesh, with
the exception that a cone clutch is fitted between the dog and gear members. The initial movement of the selector a
sleeve carries the hub towards the gear and allows the cones adjusts the speed of the gearwheel to suit the hub and
mainshaft. Extra pressure on the lever will allow the sleeve to override the spring-loaded balls, and positively
engage with the dogs on the gear.
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES OF GEARS:
1. Milling process:

 Disc type cutter

 End mill cutter
2. Gear planning process:

 The Sunderland processes

3. Gear shapers:

 Rack – type cutter generating process

 Pinion type cutter generating process
4. Gear hobbing

 Axial hobbing
 Radial hobbing
 Tangential hobbing
5. Bevel gear generating

 Straight Bevel – gear generator

 Spiral bevel –gear Generator

METHODS OF FORMING GEARS:

 Roll forming
In roll forming, the gears blank is mounted on a shaft & is pressed against hardened steel of rolling dies. The rolls
are fed inward gradually during several revolutions which produce the gear teeth. The forming rolls are very
accurately made & roll formed gear teeth usually home both by not and cold. In not roll forming, the not rolled gear
is usually cold –rolled which compiles the gear with a smooth mirror finish. In cold roll forming, higher pressures
are needed as compared to not rolling many of the gears produced by this process need no further finishing. It
becomes stronger against tension & fatigue. Spur & helical gears are made by this process.

 Stamping
Large quantities of gears are made by the method known as stamping ‘blanking’ or ‘fine blanking’. The gears are
made in a punch press from sheet up to 12.7mm think such gears find application in: toys, clocks 4 timers,watches,
water & Electric maters & some business Equipment. After stamping, the gears are shaved; they give best finish &
accuracy. The materials which can be stamped are: low, medium & high carbon steels stainless steel. This method
is suitable for large volume production.

 Powder metallurgy
High quality gears can be made by powder metallurgy method. The metal powder is pressed in dies to convert into
tooth shape, after which the product is sintered. After sintering, the gear may be coined to in crease density &
surface finish. This method is usually used for small gears. Gears made by powder metallurgy method find
application in toys, instruments, small motor drivers etc.

 Extrusion
Small sized gear can also be made by extrusion process. There is saving in material & machining time. This method
can produce any shape of tooth & is suitable for high volume production gears produced by extrusion find
application in watches, clocks, type writers etc.

GEAR GENERATING PROCESS

 Gear Hobbing
Hobbing is the process of generating gear teeth by means of a rotating cutter called a hob. It is a continues indexing
process in which both the cutting tool & work piece rotate in a constant relationship while the hob is being fed into
work. For in route gears, the hob has essentially straight sides at a given pressure angle. The hob and the gear blank
are connected by means of proper change gears. The ratio of hob & blank speed is such that during one revolution of
the hob, the blank turns through as many teeth. The teeth of hob cut into the work piece in Successive order & each
in a slightly different position. Each hob tooth cuts its own profile depending on the shape of cutter, but the
accumulation on the shape of cutter, but the accumulation of these straight cuts produces a curved form of the gear
teeth, thus the name generating process. One rotation of the work completes the cutting up to certain Depth.

 Arial hobbing
This type of feeding method is mainly used for cutting spur or helical gears. In this type, firstly the gear blank is
brought towards the hob to get the desired tooth depth. The table side is them clamped after that, the hob moves
along the face of the blank to complete the job. Axial hobbing which is used to cut spur & helical gears can be
obtained by ‘climb noting’ or ‘convential hobbing’.

 Radial hobbing
This method of hobbing is mainly used for cutting worm wheels. In this method the hob & gear blank are set with
their ones normal to Each other. The gear blank continues to rotate at a set speed about its vertical axes and the
rotating hob is given a feed in a radial direction. As soon as the required depth of tooth is cut, feed motion is
stopped.
  Tangential hobbing
This is another common method used for cutting worm wheel. In this method, the worm wheel blank is rotated in a
vertical plane about a horizontal axis. The hob is also held its axis or the blank. Before starting the cut, the hob is set
at full depth of die tooth and then it is rotated. The rotating hob is then fed forward axially. The front portion of the
hob is tapered up to a certain length & gives the fed in tangential to the blank face & hence the name ‘Tangential
feeding’.

GEAR SHAPING PROCESS

In gear shapers, the cutters reciprocate rapidly. The teeth are cut by the reciprocating motion of the cutter. The
cutter can either be ‘rack – type cutter’ or a rotary pinion type cutter’.

 Rack – type cutter generating process

The rack cutter generating process is also called gear shaping process. In this method, the generating cutter has the
form of a basic rack for a gear to be generated The cutting action is similar to a shaping machine. The cutter
reciprocates rapidly & removes metal only during the cutting stroke. The blank is rotated slowly but uniformly
about its axis and between each cutting stroke of the cutter, the cutter advances along its length at a speed Equal to
the rolling speed of the matching pitch lines. When the cutter & the blank have rolled a distance Equal to one pitch
of the blank, the motion of the blank is arrested, the cutter is with drawn from the blank to give relief to the cutting
Edges & the cutter is returned to its starting position. The blank is next indexed & the next cut is started following
the same procedure.

 Pinion type cutter generating process

The pinion cutter generating process is fundamentally the same as the rack cutter generating process, and instead of
using a rack cutter, it uses a pinion to generate the tooth profile. The cutting cycle is commenced after the cutter is
fed radically into the gear blank Equal to the depth of tooth required. The cutter is then given reciprocating cutting
motion parallel to its axis similar to the rack cutter and the cutter & the blank are made to rotate slowly about their
axis at speeds which are Equal at the matching pitch surfaces. This rolling movement blow the teeth on the blank
are cut. The pinion cutter in a gear shaping m/c may be reciprocated either in the vertical or in the horizontal axis.

Advantages: -

 The gears produced by the method are of very high accuracy.

 Both internal & external gears can be cut by this process.
 Non – convential types of gears can also be cut by this method
Disadvantages: -

 The production rate with gear shaper is lower than Hobbing

 There is no cutting on the return stroke in a gear shaper
  Worm & worm wheels can’t be generated on a gear shaper

GEAR CUTTING BY MILLING

 Disc type cutter

For cutting a gear on a milling m/c, the gear blank is mounted on am arbor which is supported b/w a dead centre &
a lieu centre in the in dering head. The cutter is mounted on the arbor of the cutter must be aligned exactly
vertically with the centre line of the indexing head spindle. The table of m/c is moved upward until the cutter just
touches the periphery of gear blank. The vertical feed dial is set to zero. The table is then moved horizontally until
the cutter clears the gear b lank. The table is then moved upwards by an amount Equal to the full depth of the gear
tooth The vertical movement may be less if the gear is to be cut in two or more passes After this, the longitudinal
feed of the table is engaged. The gear blank moves under the rotating cutter & a tooth space is cut. After this, the
movement of the table is reversed so that the cutter again clears the gear blank. The gear blank is then indexed to
the next position for cutting the second tooth space. This procedure is repeated until all the teeth have been milled.
There is a flat circular disc type cutter and the plane of rotation of the cutter is radial with respect to the blank.

 End Milling cutter

In this method the cutter rotates about am axis which is set racially with respect to the blank & at the same time the
cutter is traversed parallel to the axes of the blank The cutting edge tie on a surface of revolution, So that any axial
cross- section of the cutter corresponds to the shape required for the space b/w two adjacent teeth on the finished
wheel. The milling m/c used in this method is vertical milling m/c The End mill cutter is mounted straight on the
milling m/c spindle through a chuck.

1) The disc type of cutter is used to cut big spur gear of cutter is Employed for the manufacture of pinion of large
pitch.

2) This method is very slow since only one tooth is cut at a time. To overcome these drawbacks, “multiple tools
shaping cutter head” is used to cut all the tooth spaces of the gear at the same time.

Advantage: -

 Gear milling is a simple, Economical & flexible method of gear making.

 Spur, helical, bevel gears and racks can be produced by this method

The major disadvantage of this method is that a separate cutter must be used not

only for every piton but for every no. of teeth.

Gear finishing process: -

The following processes are generally used for finishing of gears

  Gear shaving
Gear sharing is the most common method for gear finishing. In this method, a very hard gear is used to ramous fine
chips from the gear – tooth profile. The sharing cutter can be: Rotary type or Rack type in rotary shoring, the cutter
& the gear are run in mesh. As they rotate, the gear is traversed longitudinally across the shaving cutter or vie
versa. The rotary sharing cutter has a member of peripheral gashes or grooves to from a series of cutting Edges.
The cutter & Gear are set up in a gear shoring m/c with crossed axes in the form of spiral gearing. The usual angles
are 10* to 15*. In rock sharing, the cutter is in the form of a rack. During the operation, the gear is rolled in mesh
with the cutter. The cutter is reciprocated & at the End of Each stroke is fed into the year.

 Gear grindings
Grindings is the most accurate method of gear finishing. By grinding, teeth can be finished either by generation or
forming. In forming, the work is made to roll in contact with a fiat faced rotating grinding wheel, corresponding to
the face of the imaginary rack meshing with the gear. One side of the tooth is ground at a time After the grinding
wheel is given the shape by space b/w two adjacent teeth. Both flanks are finished together.

The second method tends to be rather quicker, but both give equally accurate results and which of the methods is to
be used depends upon the availability of the type of grinding m/c.

Disadvantage: -

 Considerable time is consumed in the process

 Low production capacity
 Grinding wheels are Expensive.
 Gear lopping
It is another extensively used process of gear finishing & it is accomplished by having the gear in contact with one
or more cast iron lap gear of true shape the work is mounted b/w centre & is slowly driven by rear lap. It is in term
driven the front

lap & at the same time both laps are rapidly reciprocated across the gear face. Each lap has individual adjustment &
pressure control. A fine abrasive is used with kerosene or light oil to assist the cutting action. The largest time of
gear lapping is about 15 minutes. Prolonged lapping damages the profile.

 Shot blasting
It provides a finishing process resembling that produced by lapping although it has other functions, such as
removing slight burrs, reducing stress concentration in tooth fillets & sometimes providing slight tip & root relief
to teeth

 Phosphate coating
It is a chemical process which attacks the treated ferrous surface and leaves a deposit on it about 0.01 mm. in
thickness. It prevents from scuffing, particularly in hypoid gears, by permitting the Engaging tooth Surface under
the prevailing boundary lubrication conditions.
  Gear planning
This is one of the oldest methods of gear production but is still extensively used. It employs rack type cutters for
generation of spur & helical gears. Involutes rack has straight Edges & sharp corners can be (Easily) manufactured
easily & accurately There are two types of gear planning machines, one based on ‘The Sunderland process & the
other on ‘The Maag process’ Both the methods are identical in principle but differ in m/c configuration & detail.

 Principal of gear planning

The cutter during its cutting stroke is in contact with several teeth at the same time but with different part of each
tooth, it planes comparatively a narrow strip on each tooth at each stroke and a different part of each tooth is
submitted to the action of the cutter at the next stroke.

Designing of gears:

Design of gears: All gears are subjected to fatigue. Material selected is 30 Ni 4 Cr 1 with Sut=1500Mpa,
Sy=1300Mpa and hardness 440 BHN. Vehicle load is steady while multi cylinder engine has torque fluctuations.
The service factor of 1.25 is selected. First gear ratio G1 is to be 4:1.
‘Pair GH’--- This pair is spur and ‘H’ is input gear or pinion with speed of (1/√G1) times the engine shaft speed
and input torque of √G1 times engine mean torque. Let Engine torque be 85Nm @ speed of 5000rpm.
Estimation with Lewis equation:
Fatigue strength of material = 500Mpa
Minimum number of teeth = 18
Factor of safety = 2
Input torque √G1 x 85 = 170Nm
Input Speed (1/√G1) = 2500
Assuming module=4
Diameter of pinion = 18 x 4=0.072m
Pitch line velocity = V = (πdn/60) = π x 0.072 x 2500/60 = 9.42 m/sec.
Velocity Ratio = Kv = (5.6/(5.6+√V))
=0.646
Wt = Torque / (dp/2)
=170/0.036 = 4.72kN
Effective tangential force = (4.72 x 1.25)/0.646 = 9.2 kN
Lewis form factor for 20˚ full depth 18 teeth is 0.308
Now,
F= (Wt x Ks)/(Cv x m x Y x σ)
=4.72 x 1000 x 1.25 /(.646 x .004 x .308 x 250 x 106)
=0.03m with σ=250MPa
F=30mm which is near to 7 times module , hence is accepted.

“Pair AB” --- This pair is helical and ‘A’ is input gear
Assuming module = 3
Input Torque = Engine torque
Assuming helix angle ψ = 25˚
Input speed = Engine speed = 5000rpm

To calculate number of teeth on gear ‘A’

Center distance between shafts is that of spur pair = TH + √ GT A x module / 2
= 18+(2 x 18) x 4 / 2 = 108mm
For helical pair center distance is = TA + √G1TH x module / 2 cosψ
108= TA + √4TA x 3 / 2cos25˚
TA = 22
TB = 44
Exact center Distance = 108 = 22+ √88 x 3 / 2cosψ
ψ= 23.55˚
Virtual No. of Teeth = 22 / cos3ψ = 28.55 = 29
Lewis form factor = 0.35
Dp =module x No. of teeth / cosψ = 72 mm
Pitch line velocity = πdn / 60 = (π x 0.072 x 5000) / 60 = 18.85 m/sec.
The velocity factor Kv= 5.6 / (5.6 x √18.85) = 0.563
Effective tangential force Wt = Te x Ks / (Kv x D/2)
= 85 x 1.25 / (.563 x 0.072/2 ) = 5.24 kN
Factor of safety = 2
Design stress = fatigue strength / F.S. = 500/2 = 250 MPa
Now Wt = m x F x σ x Y
5.24 x 103 = 0.0003 x F x 250 x 106 x 0.35
F = 19.66 say 20mm ---- accepted

“Pair CD” for G3

G3 = 1.58 = TB x TC / (TA x TD) but TB/TA =2
TC/TD = 1.58/2 = 0.79
The pair is to be helical and with same helix angle and module as that of pair AB and as such total number of teeth
are same.
TC + TD = 22+44 = 66
TD = 36.87 = 37
TC = 66 – 37 = 29
The gear D is input gear :
d = TD x m / cosψ
= 37 x 3 / cos23.55˚
= 121mm
Pitch line velocity = πdn / 60 = π x 121 x 2500 /60 = 15.84 m/sec
Kv = 5.6 / (5.6 x √15.84) = 0.584
Virtual No. of teeth = T / cos3ψ = 37 / cos323.55 = 48
Lewis form factor = 0.395
Effective tangential force = Wt = Te x Ks√G1 / (Kv x d/2 )
Wt = 6.01 x 103
But Wt = m x F x σ x Y
6.01 x 103 = 0.0003 x F x 250 x 103 x 0.395
F = 20.20mm say 21mm

“Pair EF” for ratio G2

G2 = 2.52 = TB x TE /(TA x TF ) but TB/TA = 2
T E/ TF = 2.52 / 2 = 1.26
But TE + TF = 66
TF = 29 and TE = 37
Gear F is input gear
DF = TF x m / cosψ
= 29 x 3 / cos23.55
= 0.0949 m
Pitch line velocity = πdn/60= π x 0.0949 x 2500 / 60 =12.42 m/sec
Kv = 5.6 / (5.6 + √12.42) = 0.61
Virtual no. of teeth = TF/cos3ψ = 29 / cos323.55 = 38
Lewis form factor = 0.377
Effective tangential force Wt = TE x √G1 x Ks / (Kv x DF/2)
=7.34 kN
Wt = m x F x σ x Y
7.34 x 103 = 0.003 x F x 250 x 106 x 0.377
F = 0.02595 m=26mm
Checking the design of spur gear pair ‘GH’ as per AGMA standards:
For spur gears
K= 50 / (50 + √200V)
If the gears have high precision shaved and ground teeth, and if an appreciable load is developed then,
K = 78 / (78+√200V)
If the gears have high precision shaved and ground teeth and there is no appreciable dynamic load, then K v = 1
Geometry Factor – AGMA replaces the Lewis form factor by the geometry factor J and insists upon its use when
fatigue failure is to be considered in the design. Otherwise , modified Lewis form factor may be used.
Fatigue strength and modifying factor – It is always recommended to carry out a fatigue test of the material if the
economy permits. In the absence of test values for fatigue strength one can estimate the fatigue strength of the
material as:
S’e = 0.50 Sut for materials having Sut < 1400 MPa
S’e = 700 MPa for materials having Sut > 1400 MPa
It is also observed that a material behaves in a different manner under test conditions than when operating as a
component of a machine. This difference is accommodated by introducing following fatigue strength modifying
factors.
(i) Surface factor,

(ii) Size factor,

(iii) Reliability factor,

(iv) Temperature factor,

 (v) Modifying factor for stress-concentration

(vi) Miscellaneous-effect factor.

These factors are used to correct fatigue strength of the material, which generally gives a reduced strength for
design.
Load correction factors – The nature of driving and driven machinery also affect the tooth load due to torque
fluctuations. This is accounted for by an overload correction factor and it increases the actual load on teeth.
Further,wider face width, nature of mounting the gears and shaft clearances in the bearing permit deflection of
the shaft, and load distribution along the whole width is not uniform. This is also accounted for by multiplying the
tooth load by a ‘Load Distribution Factor’.
(1).Dynamic Load Factor

Select Kv = 78 / 78 +√200V
= 78 / 78 + √(200 x 9.42)
Kv = 0.642
(2).Fatigue strength of tooth material ‘Se’ is
S’e = 700 MPa
Values for following stress modifying factors are assumed as,
Surface factor K a = 0.70
Size factor K b = 0.894
Reliability factor K c = 0.868
Temperature factor Kd = 1
Stress conc.modifying factor Ke = 1
Miscellaneous factor =1
Fatigue strength of the tooth of gear ‘Se’ is,
Se = 0.70 x 0.894 x 0.868 x 1 x 1 x 700
Se = 505 MPa

Load Modifying Factor – Multi cylinder diesel engines with a uniformly driven load give the value of overload
correction factor as 1.25 (i.e. Ko). For a face width of 30mm and accurate mounted gears, the load distribution
factor is 1.3 (Km).
Bending stress = (Te x √G1 x Km x Ko ) / (d/2) x Kv x F x m x J
For pinion teeth 22 and gear teeth 44, J = 0.365, from AGMA tables,
σ = (85 x √4 x 1.25 x 1.3) / (0.72 x 0.642 x 0.03 x 0.003 x 0.365)
= 363.8 MPa
Factor of safety = Se / σ = 505 / 363.8 = 1.38
 The design is quite satisfactory as factor of safety is above one and can be accepted.
Check for surface fatigue strength of the material: Experimental evaluation of surface fatigue strength has been
carried out by few scientists. However, this procedure is not economical and quick. From these experimental
results, the suggested equation for finding out surface fatigue strength of steels is:
Sc = 2.76 HB – 70 Mpa, where
Sc = Surface fatigue strength
HB = Brinell hardness of the material and this strength upto only 10 8 cycles of repeated contact stress. If
the two materials have different hardness the lesser value is generally, though not always, used.
AGMA recommends that the contact fatigue strength be modified in a manner quite similar to that used for
bending endurance limit. The equation is,
SH = (CL x CH) / (CT x CR)

Where, SH = Corrected fatigue strength

CL = Life factor
CH = Hardness ratio factor
CT = Temperature factor
CR = Reliability factor
Wear Factor – Load Stress Factor: Contact stresses are concatenated in a localized area near the contact and then
distributed over the whole cross-section of the element. Therefore, the contact stress values are much higher than
average stress values. To account for this fact, a wear factor or load stress factor is introduced from Hertzian
contact stress. This factor is dependent on two parameters. One is the elasticity of the material, as elastic co-
efficient Cp,
Cp = √1 / π( ((1-υ2p) / E p) + (( 1- υ2G ) / EG)))
And second is geometry of the curvature of the mating surfaces known as geometry factor.
I = sinφ x cosφ x mg / (2(mg+1))
Where φ = Pressure angle
mg = Gear ratio

All these factors are combined together to give contact stress,

σ = - Cp (Wt / Cv x F x dp x I )1/2
Surface fatigue strength of the 30 Ni 4 Cr 1 steel
Sc = 2.76 x 440 -70 =1145 Mpa
Life factor C L = 1V
Reliability factor CR = 1
 Hardness factor CH = 1
Temp. factor CT = 1
Corrected strength SH = SC = 1145 Mpa
CP calculated for Steel = 191
I = sin20 x cos20 x 2 / (2(2+1)) = 0.01
CV = KV = 0.642
σ H = 260 Mpa
Factor of safety = SH / σH = 4.4
Which is much more than desired.

Designing of shafts:

Design of Shafts: Such gearboxes normally have three shafts – Input shaft (I), Output shaft (O) and Lay Shaft or
Countershaft (L).
Shaft carrying gears (or pulley) to transmit power are always subjected to reversed bending due to the power
transmitting force through mating teeth at a pressure angle in case of gears. Shafts are subjected to bending
moment. This being a multispeed gearbox a neutral position I to be provided, so the layout should accommodate all
the gears when they are not in engagement. In an automobile gearbox, forward and backward motion of one lever
from neutral engages two pairs, while another motion along with the forward and backward stroke enables
engagement of the remaining two pairs.
Rough estimation pf the distance between supports X,Y can be taken as 2.5 times the sum of the face widths of all
pairs of gears.
=(20+21+26+30) x 2.5 = 242.5mm say 243mm
Output shaft (O) and Lay shaft (L) will be subjected to maximum bending moment, when pair ‘EF’ is in
engagement as it is farthest from supports and has more tangential force than due to pair ‘CD’.
Input shaft is a cantilever and loaded at center of the pair ‘AB’.
 Reaction through pair AB = force along pressure angle
=Te x Sv = Te x Sv / (dp x cosφ /2)
=3.14kN
Reaction through pair EF = Te x Sv x √G1 / (dp x cosφ /2 )
=4.77kN
B.M. on input shaft = 3.14 x 103 x 0.020 = 62.8 Nm
Reactions at A & B, RB = 3.14 x 103 x (150+20)/150 = 3.55kN
RA = 3.55-3.14 = 0.41kN
Axial force = Wt x tanψ
= TeSvtanψ/(dA/2)
= 1.29kN

Reaction at X1 and Y1 of output shaft,

RX1 = RY1 = F/2 = 4.77/2 = 2.385 kN
Axial force = TeSv√G tanψ / (dA/2))
=1.95kN
Reaction at X, Y of countershaft,
Rx = F x 105 /243 = 2kN
Ry = 4.77 – 2 = 2.77kN
B.M. on main shaft (O)
B.M. = 2.385 x .105 x 103 = 250Nm
B.M. on lay shaft (L)
B.M. = 2.68 x 103 x .105 = 273Nm
Torque on input shaft = 85 x 1.25 = 100Nm
Torque on lay shaft = 200Nm
Torque on main shaft = 400Nm
Maximum torque on main shaft will be in 1st gear that is 400Nm, but the values of bending moment will be
minimum.
The Soderberg criteria can be applied :
d = [32 x F.S./π {(T/Sy)2 + (M/Se)2}1/2]1/3
d = diameter of shaft
F.S. = factor of safety
Sy = yield strength
Se = fully corrected endurance strength
Selecting plain carbon steel with 0.45% carbon with Sut = 600Mpa, Sy = 450Mpa and fully corrected endurance
strength be 135Mpa. Factor of safety=1.8
For the input shaft,
d = [32 x 1.8 / π {(100/(450 x 106)2 + (62.8/(135 x 106))2 }1/2]1/3
d = 0.0211m
Gear A is mounted on shaft, which needs an axial locking on one side by shoulder and other side by circlip. This
increases diameter
Standard value for bearing diameter = 25mm
Let counter bore diameter = 20mm
Serration depth = 2.5mm
Bearing diameter = 25mm
For the main shaft,
d= [ 32 x 1.8 /π {(400/ (450 x 106))2 + (250/135 x 106)2 }1/2] 1/3
=0.033m
Add 6mm serrations for sliding gears. For Bearing shoulder and for other effects add another 4mm
d = 33 + 6 + 4 = 43mm
For bearing selection adopt the standard size of 45mm
For the layshaft
It is to be a hollow cluster gear to be supported in a needle on a non-rotating axle supported between X and Y. The
actual B.M. will be slightly less than for an integral shaft.
do3 – di3 = [32 x 1.8/π{(T/Sy)2 + (M/Se)2}1/2]1/3
For a gear material 30 Ni 4 Cr 1 , Sy = 1300Mpa and Se = 390Mpa
Let di = 0.025m
do = 30.5 mm
The cluster gear which is treated as a hollow shaft has a length such that the angular twist will efeect the load
distribution on the gear teeth, hence its torsional stiffness is required to be considered.

Assuming Trial values of do and di = 50mm and 25mm respectively

J = π (do3 – di3) / 16
J = 21.47 x10-6 m3
K = (T/Q) = (GJ/L) x (π/180)
G = modulus of rigidity for steel = 80Gpa
L = length of shaft = 0.200m
K = 149.88 kNm/degree
which is an acceptable value. The hollow shaft on which the cluster gears are to be forged integral, shall have
inside diameter of 25mm and outside diameter of 50mm.

Design Failure Mode And Effect Analysis of Critical components and sub-
systems: