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Giordano’s Relationship And Proton-Seconds

Ian Beardsley, 2022

Copyright © 2022
By Ian Beardsley
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Contents

1.0 Giordano’s Relationship……………………………………………1

2.0 Proton-Seconds……………………………………………………….8

3.0 The Unit of a Second……………………………………………….13

4.0 Giordano’s Relationship And Proton-Seconds…………….17

5.0 Transform Mathematics……………………………………………19

6.0 Solar System Radius…………………………………………………24

7.0 Abundances of Primordial Elements………………………….26

Appendix 1……………………………………………………………………29

Appendix 2…………………………………………………………………..30

Appendix 3…………………………………………………………………..32

Curious constants both equal to six in units we thought were arbitrary:

Giordano’s Relationship is (6kg2)(s/m). Proton-seconds is six proton-
seconds. They seem to be connected to one another, and relate the
microcosmos to the macrocosmos (atoms to solar system). We predict the
hydrocarbons which are the skeleton of life chemistry, the radius of a
proton, the radius of the solar system and the abundances of the primordial
elements in the Universe.
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1.0 Giordano’s Relationship We now formulate what I call Giordano’s Relationship:

Warren Giordano writes in his paper The Fine Structure Constant And The
Gravitational Constant: Keys To The Substance Of The Fabric Of Space, March 21,
2019:

In 1980, the author had compiled a series of notes analyzing Einstein’s geometric to kinematic
equations, along with an observation that multiplying Planck’s constant ‘h’ by ‘1 + α’, where ‘α’
is the Fine Structure Constant, and multiplying by 10 23 yielded Newton’s gravitational constant
numerically, but neglecting any units.

Let’s do that

(6.62607E-34Js)(1+1/137)(1E23)=6.6744E-11 Js

And it works, G is:

G=6.67408E-11 N(m2/kg2)

Since Avogadro’s number is NA = 6.02E 23atom s /m ole I suggest we formulate this as:

(1 + α) kg 2 ⋅ s
Equation 1 h NA H = 6.0003

G m
(1 + α) s
Where h ⋅ NA𝔼 = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅ and H=1 gram/atom

G m
Because for hydrogen 1 proton is molar mass 1 gram, for carbon 6 protons is 6 grams and so
on for 6E23 atoms per gram. Thus,…

atom s 1gra m
NA H = 6.02E 23 ⋅ = 6.02E 23

gra m atom
Since grams and atom cancel we can work in grams even though our equations are in
kilograms. Let us not write H, since formally it is grams per mole of hydrogen but write

gra m
ℍ=1

atom
We have:

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NAℍ = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅

G m
Or,…

Equation 2 h(1 + α)NAℍ = 6Gx

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Where

s
Equation 3 x = 1.00kg 2

m
Let us say we were to consider Any Element 𝔼 say carbon ℂ. Then in general

(1 + α) s
Equation 4 h ⋅ NA𝔼 = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅

G m
We have

6gra m s 6(6E 23proton s)

ℂ= and NA =

6proton s 6gra m s
Because there are six grams of protons in carbon which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and a
molar mass of 12. We have 12-6=6 grams of protons in the 12 grams of protons and neutrons.
Thus

NAℂ = 6E 23

And it follows that

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NAℂ = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅

G m
We see in general since the atomic number Z is the number of protons in an atom that in
general this holds for all elements 𝔼 because

Z ⋅ 6E 23proton s
NA =

Z ⋅ gra m s
And,

Z ⋅ gra m s
𝔼=

Z ⋅ proton s
Therefore we always have:

Equation 5 NA ⋅ 𝔼 = 6E 23

This works nicely because we formulated molar mass nicely; we said element one (hydrogen)
which is one proton and one electron has one gram for a mole of atoms. Historically this was
done because we chose carbon (element six) to have 12 grams per mole, and determined what
the mole was such that it would hold. The reason this works is that hydrogen is one proton and
has no neutrons, but carbon has twelve neutrons but since hydrogen doesn’t have any
neutrons, and the neutron has the same mass as the proton, and our theory makes use only of
protons (in this instance of its formulation) equation 3

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s
x = 1.00kg 2

m
comes out to have x equal to 1.00 (nearly) even. It is at this moment that we point out, because
it is important, that in equation 5

NA ⋅ 𝔼 = 6E 23

𝔼 is not molar mass, and that NA is a variable determined by 𝔼; A mole of protons multiplied
by the number of protons in 𝔼. The reason we point this out, though it may already be clear, is
we wish to find the physical theory behind it. That is we need to find the physical explanation
for equation 4:

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NA𝔼 = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅

G m
It is the integer 6 to 3 ten thousandths. Which classifies it as interesting because since it is in
kilograms, seconds, and meters, it may mean these units of measurement have some kind of a
meaning. We can in fact write it:

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NA𝔼 = 6.000kg 2 ⋅

G m
We know that

Ue
α2 =

mec 2
The fine structure constant squared is the ratio of the potential energy of an electron in the first
circular orbit to the energy given by the mass of an electron in the Bohr model times the speed
of light squared. To begin our search for the meaning of equation 4 we convert x, the factor of
s
1.00 kg 2 ⋅ to astronomical units, years, and solar masses, as these are connected to the
m
orbit of earth as it relates to the sun. We have:

kg 2 s (1.98847E 30)2 M⊙2 1.4959787E11m year

⋅ ⋅ ⋅

1 m kg 2 AU 3.154E 7s

M⊙2 ⋅ year
=1.8754341E64

AU
m3 AU 3 1.98847E 30kg 9.9477E14s 2
G = 6.67408E − 11 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅

kg ⋅ s 2 3.3479E 33m 3 M⊙ year 2

AU 3
G = 39.433

M⊙ ⋅ year 2
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AU 3
G ≈ 40

M⊙ ⋅ year 2
We can now write

(1 + α) AU
Eq 6. h ⋅ NA𝔼 = 8.2172E 32M⊙

G year

This unit of AU/year is very interesting. It is not 2π AU/year, which would be the Earth’s orbital
velocity, but is a velocity given by the earth orbital radius to its orbital period, which is quantum
mechanical in nature. It relates to earth as as a state, as we have with atoms, a number. We
multiply both sides by 4π 2 and we have earth velocity on the left and the units stay the same
on the right. But what we will do is return to the form in kg-m-s and leave it as an equation but
put in the Earth mean orbital velocity which is 29.79km/s (Zombeck, Martin V. 1982). We get:

(1 + α)
Eq. 7 h ⋅ NA𝔼 ⋅ ve = 422.787kg

G
This brings up an interesting question: while we have masses characteristic of the
microcosmos like protons, and masses characteristic of the macrocosmos, like the minimum
mass for a star to become a neutron star as opposed to a white dwarf after she novas (The
Chandrasekhar limit) which is 1.44 solar masses, we do not have a characteristic mass of the
intermediary world where we exist, a truck weighs several tons and tennis ball maybe around a
hundred grams. To find that mass let us take the geometric mean between the mass of a
proton and the mass of 1.44 solar masses. We could take the average, or the harmonic mean,
but the geometric mean is the squaring of the proportions, it is the side of a square with the
area equal to the area of the rectangle with these proportions as its sides. We have:

M⊙ = 1.98847E 30kg

We multiply this by 1.44 to get 2.8634E30kg. The mass of a proton is

mp = 1.67262E − 27kg. We have the intermediary mass is:

Eq. 8 mi = (2.8634E 30)(1.67262E − 27) = 69.205kg

All we really need to do now is divide 7 by 8 and we get an even number that is the six of our
six-fold symmetry.

1 (1 + α)
Eq. 9 h ⋅ NA𝔼 ⋅ ve = 6.1092 ≈ 6

mi G

The six of our six-fold symmetry. We have something very interesting here. We have

1 s
6kg 2 ve = 6
69.205kg m
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This is:

Equation 10. k ve = 6

Where k is a constant, given

1 s
Equation 11. k=
800 m
We can take the velocity of earth as being 30,000 m/s by rounding it. We have

30,000 1
= 37
800 2

37.5 = 6.123734357

We see every other planet is quantized as

an integer such that we produce the area
of its triangle is 6 (Fig. 1).

We also see our constant k is:

1 (1 + α)
Eq. 12. k = ⋅ h ⋅ NA𝔼
mi2 G

We see that in equation 7

(1 + α)
h ⋅ NA𝔼 ⋅ ve = 422.787kg
G

That, NA𝔼 is important because it suggests

the idea of
gr a m
valu e =
pr oton
This is different than molar mass it is a gram
per proton is hydrogen 6 grams per six
protons is carbon…an so on. It is as if a gram
per proton is a natural constant. We see
Giordano’s Relationship connects protons to
the planets. My formulation of proton-
seconds did the same thing. Let’s look at that.
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2.0 Proton-Seconds It is as if the ancient cultures, tribes, and civilizations of the world knew
something about the Nature of atoms and their organization into the periodic table of the
elements, their ensuing compounds and how they form the basic structures of life, the
primordial elements that first came into existence from a big explosion of light, and how they
were made into the life elements by stars. We start with space and time itself:

Inertia is what describes mass, it is to say mass is that which resists a force; the more of it, the
more it resists a force. Let us say this mass, a sphere, is a proton. And, force A is applied to it
(Fig. 1). Then there will be a counter force B that resists change in the proton’s motion
proportional to the normal force ℕ. We will say this sphere is a hypersphere: a four dimensional
bubble whose cross-section is a three dimensional sphere, the proton. We visualize this as a
circular cross-section of a three dimensional sphere.

We suggest its resistance to change

in position is a measure of energy
over time (Planck constant, h) the
Universal constant of gravitation,
which is a measure of force over
distance, the speed of light (c the
velocity at which we move through
time), and its radius (rp) and mass
(mp), and surface area (4π r 2). We
find (Appendix 3):

1 h 4π rp2
Equation 1. = 6pr oton − secon d s
α 2 mp Gc

Where alpha is the fine structure constant:

Ue
Equation 2. α2 =
mec 2
The fine structure constant squared is the ratio of the potential energy of an electron in the first
circular orbit to the energy given by the mass of an electron in the Bohr model times the speed of
light squared. Equation one can be in units of proton-seconds or just seconds because

h 4π rp2
Gc

has units of mass times time and while dividing through by the mass of a proton mp gives a
number of protons, the mp can be considered to cancel with that mass leaving pure number if
divided by one second. That number is six to about one place after the decimal.
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Six protons is carbon, the core element of biological life. We can write:

1 1 h 4π rp2
Equation 3. ⋅ 2 = 6protons
t1 α mp Gc

1 1 h 4π rp2
Equation 4. ⋅ 2 = 1proton
t6 α mp Gc

Where t1 = 1secon d, and t2 = 2secon ds. Thus at one second we have carbon and at six
seconds we have hydrogen. The element hydrogen is the first element in the periodic
table has 1 proton and is the element that combines with carbon to make hydrocarbons,
the skeletons of life chemistry (As in Fig. 2).

Since hydrogen is element one it ionizes as H +

and since carbon is element six in group 14 and
wants four electrons to attain noble gas electron
configuration it gains four electrons and
combines with 4H + to make neutral methane:

4H + + C 4− = CH4

Or, combines with two carbons covalently and

two hydrogens ionically to make a neutral
hydrocarbon chain such that it again has noble
gas electron configuration.

Interestingly, t > 6 we have fractional protons and t<1 we have we have the rest of the
elements except for a few in-between, but hydrogen and carbon are the upper and lower
limits for integer time values to produce non-fractional protons. We can see this in the
output from the program in C in Appendix 2.
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Thus with six-fold symmetry describing the hydrocarbons and the periodic table of the
elements being periodic over 18 groups we write:

6 ⋅ 3 = 18
9 ⋅ 2 = 18

3+3+3=9
2+2+2=6

2⋅3=6

And this, is the arithmetic breakdown one uses when playing in a meter of six
throughout the world since ancient times from Spain’s Flamenco to Middle Eastern, to
Persian to African. We write:

18 2 Gc
Eq. 5 rp = α mp = 8.28857 × 10−16 m = 8.29f m
3 4πh

We have predicted the radius of the proton accurately as based on carbon at t=6 seconds
in that it is experimentally:

rp = 0.833 ± 0.014f m

Our data used so far is:

mP : 1.67262 × 10−27kg (Proton Mass)

h : 6.62607 × 10−34 J ⋅ s (Planck Constant)

rp : 0.833 × 10−15m (Proton Radius)

−11 m2
G : 6.67408 × 10 N 2 (Gravitational Constant)
kg

c : 299,792,459m /s (light speed)

α : 1/137 (Fine Structure Constant)

But what is this unit of a second that makes this duration so descriptive of the
connection of hydrogen to carbon that makes hydrocarbons the skeletons of life
chemistry? We have more precisely:
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1 1 h 4π rp2
Equation 6. ⋅ 2 = 1.004996352secon ds
6 α mp Gc

We can actually formulate this differently than we have. We had

1 1 h 4π rp2
= 6proton s

t1 α 2 mp Gc

1 1 h 4π rp2
= 1proton

t6 α 2 mp Gc

But if t1 is not necessarily 1 second, and t6 is not necessarily six seconds, but rather t1 and t2
are lower and upper limits in an integral, then we have:

1 h 4π rp2 1 t2

Gc ∫t1 t 2
Equation 7. dt = ℕ

α 2 mp

This Equation is the generalized equation we can use for solving problems.

Essentially we can rigorously formulate the notion of proton-seconds by considering

∫t ∬S
Equation 8. qdt = t 2 ρ(x, y, z)d x d y

Is protons-seconds squared where current density is J ⃗ = ρ v ⃗ and ρ = Q /m 3 (ρ can also be

Q /m 2). We say

∫V
Equation 9 Q= ρdV

Keeping in mind q is not charge (coulombs) but a number of charges times seconds, here a
number of protons. It is

1 h 4π rp2
Equation 10 ℕ= 2

α mp Gc

Dividing Equation 8 through by t:

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Equation 11

1 h 4π rp2dt
Gc ∫t t ∬S
=t ρ(x, y, z)d x d y

α 2 mp

Which is proton-seconds. Dividing through by t again:

1 h 4π rp2dt
Gc ∫t t 2
Equation 12 = proton s

α 2 mp

We see that if J ⃗ = ρ v ⃗ where ρ = Q /m 3 and v = m /s then J is I/m2 (current per square

meter) is analogous to amperes per per square meter which are coulombs per second through
a surface. Thus we are looking at a number of protons per second through a surface. Thus we
write:

1 h 4π rp2 tC
dt 1.0

Gc ∫tMg ∫
= 6 t −2 dt = − 6(1 − 2) = 6

α 2 mp t 2
0.5

Is carbon where 0.5 seconds is magnesium (Mg) from the values of time corresponding to
protons in the output from our program and 1.0 seconds is carbon (C). We see we have the
following theorem:

h 4π rp2
J ⃗ ⋅ d S
⃗
1 dt
Gc ∫t t 3 ∬S
Equation 13 =
α mp
2

So as an example,…

( 0.25 )
h 4π rp2 1.0
1 dt ⃗⋅ d S ⃗ = − 3 1 − 1 proton s
Gc ∫0.5 ∬S
= J = 9

α 2 mp t3 secon d

Is fluorine (F). Divide by xy with x=y=1 and we have current density. And multiply by 1 second
which is carbon and we have protons per square meter.

⃗ y, z) = (0,0,J ) = − J k
⃗
J (x,

d S ⃗ = d x d y k
⃗

J ⃗ ⋅ d S ⃗ = (0,0,J ) ⋅ (0,0,d x d y) = − Jd x d y

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3.0 The Unit of a Second We need to consider the translational kinetic energy of the Earth
(See Appendix 1). 1AU=1.496E11m and 2π (1.496E11m) = 9.3996E11m eters /year. 1
year=3.1558E7s and,v = 2.9785E 4m eters /secon d. m=5.972E24kg. Here we would use:

1
E= mv 2
2
We find the same for the moon. The moon is 3.85E8m on average from the Earth center.
2π (3.85E 8m) = 2.419E 9m. Its orbital period T, is T = 27.32d a ys = 2.36E6s. We have
v = 1.025E 3m /s ≈ 1000m /s. We have the translational kinetic energies of the Earth and
moon are:

Earth: E = 2.649E 33Joules

Moon: E = 3.67E 28Joules

I found we don’t have to add on the rotational kinetic energies to the translational kinetic
energies because they are too small to have an effect within the accuracies we are working. What
we do now is create a sort of Planck’s constant h for the moon by taking its kinetic energy over
the time for a complete orbit around the earth:

h = (3.67E 28J )(2.36E6s) = 8.6612E 34J ⋅ s

And we divide this by the Earth’s kinetic energy to get:

8.6612E 34J ⋅ s
= 32.696secon d s
2.649E 33J
This is the interesting thing here, we don’t need to include the rotational kinetic energies and
and one second is obtained by dividing our result by π 3. That is:
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32.696secon d s
= 1.05s ≈ 1secon d
π3
1
π 3 = 31.006 and = 0.03225
π3
This makes sense. Because we need to bring in the lunar orbital period of 27.32 days, which
defines the month for which there are twelve in a year as compared to the Earth’s rotation which
is once per day. We have

27.32d a ys
= 27.32
1d a y

This is close to π 3. But the calendar month is 30 days, except for February, which is 28 days, and
29 every four years for leap year, and January, March, May, July, and August are 31 days. π 3 is
almost exactly the 31 day month that occurs 5 months a year. The leap year is every four years
because the Earth year is not exactly 365 days but is 365.25 days.

Let us now call upon equation 3 in section 1.0:

1 h 4π rp2
= 6pr oton s
t1α 2 mp Gc

And write it

1 h 4π rp2
= (6pr oton s)(1secon d )
α mp
2 Gc

We have:

(K . E . Moon)(Lu n ar Orbital Per iod )

1secon d ≈ LunarMonth
EarthDay
(K . E . Ear th)

And we finally write:

1 h 4π rp2 (K . E . Moon)(Lu n ar Orbital Per iod )

≈ (6pr oton s)
α 2 mp Gc LunarMonth
(K . E . Ear th)
EarthDay

Where 6 protons is carbon the basis of life. We might write it:

1 h 4π rp2 (K . E . Moon)(Lu n ar Orbital Per iod )

≈ℂ
α 2 mp Gc LunarMonth
(K . E . Ear th)
EarthDay

In order for this last equation to work perfectly the earth day has to be shorter. And indeed a
long time ago it was. But how long ago? Our Equation becomes:
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1 h 4π rp2 (K . E . Moon)(Ear th Da y)
≈ (6pr oton s) = 1.2secon d s
α 2 mp Gc (K . E . Ear th)

(24hours)/(1.2)=20 hours/day

Over the past several billion years the length of the year has not deviated much from 365.25 days
because of Kepler’s period for the orbit of a planet but, because the earth loses energy to the
moon, its days becomes longer over time by 0.0067 hours per million years which, we can see
from examining sedimentation band growth, which follows the lunar month. To get our 20
hours per day we have to go back about 600 million years:

24-20=0.0067t

t=597 million years

What was going on then? It turns out it was a very important time, when the Earth went through
a drastic change which lead to an explosion of life, and we started to see more complex life.

Let’s talk about what is going on here:

The reason π is there. I am showing the unit of a second comes from the orbital mechanics of
the Earth-Moon-Sun System, the orbital period of the moon to the rotation period of the earth
is an approximation to pi cubed, The lunar month is determined by the orbital period of the
moon. The lunar month can be 32 days. This divided by the one day rotation of the earth is 32
is approximately pi cubed. In the equation when the lunar orbital period equals the lunar
month, they cancel and leave the kinetic energy of the moon divided by the kinetic energy of
the earth times the earth day. For it to work perfectly it means that equals one second, but it is
1.2 seconds so the earth day needs to be shorter, which it was by the right amount about 600
million years ago. That is how I got that time in earth history, which seems to be when the
earth went through a drastic change leading to complex life, according to the geologic record.
Which works well for the equation because this is a beginning time for complex life, and it
seems to be the beginning time for the synced calendar in terms of the equation. We don’t need
to put pi there because we have what we need to explain one second in terms of the Earth-
Moon-Sun Orbital mechanics. Google writes for the time 600 million years ago:

“A global ice age over 600 million years ago dramatically altered the face of the planet,
leaving a barren, flooded landscape and clear oceans, according to a study that may have
important implications for the evolution of complex life."

“The ancient sea of 600 million years ago was not soupy, the researchers said. Instead, it had
a consistency and nutrient level similar to today's oceans. This would have had major
implications for the story of animal evolution.”

We can take this further.

1 h 4π rp2 (K . E . Moon)
≈6 (Ear th Da y) = 1.2secon d s
α 2 mp Gc (K . E . Ear th)

We needed it to be one second so the earth day had to be shorter. We went back in time to the
point where the earth day gave 1 second because 1 second is carbon giving the radius of a proton.
 16 of 34

I would suggest this time to be the starting point of a cosmic calendar. It turned out to be 597
million years ago an age which is perfect for such an idea because this was the Cambrian age of
the famed Cambrian explosion where the earth underwent some kind of drastic change leading
to an explosion of complex life. With carbon the core element of biological chemistry and our
equation equal to one second that gives the radius of the proton it couldn’t work better.

But, we ask what other age was pivotal to human development. It would be the end of the
Cretaceous Period when the dinosaurs went extinct 65 million years ago due to an asteroid
hitting the earth in Yucatan. I say this because we know the extinction of the dinosaurs gave
small mammals the opportunity to evolve into humans. To find out how long the earth day was
65 million years ago we write:

24-x=0.0067t

And find

x=23.5645 hours

For the length of an earth day. That is it was less by1-0.5645=0.4355 of an hour. This is close to
(1/2)cos30∘ = 0.4330 = 3 /4. We have already established that the zero of our calendar was
when when the earth day was 20 hours during the Cambrian explosion. 21 hours for an epoch
would give:

24-21=0.0067t with t=447.76 million years is approximately 450 million years

24-22=0.0067t with t=298.5 million year is approximately 300 million years

24-23=0.0067t with t=149.25 million years is approximately 150 million years.

24-23=1 and cosθ = 1 is θ = 0∘. We have

2 1
cos(0∘) − cos(30∘) = cos(30∘)
3 2
We say 20 hours+3 hours is 0 hours+3 hours since 20 hours is the zero. We have

2
3cos(0∘) + cos(30∘)=dinosaur extinction
3
3
=3h ours + h ours
3
The 0.5645 hours beyond 23 hours is cosθ = 0.5645 ≈ 1/ 3 , θ = 54.7356∘. Where 1/ 3 is
the radius of an equilateral triangle to its side. Thus we see a correlation between the end of the
dinosaurs and the beginning of mammalian life in our calendar zeroed with the Cambrian
Explosion. I am beginning to think there is some kind of a Natural Cosmic Calendar. If we guess
at what the pattern is here we might guess after the dinosaurs went extinct and mammals could
evolve towards humans, then the next term in our equation might be 2 /3. In which case we
have:
3 2
20h ours + 3h ours + h ours + h ours
3 3
=20+3+0.57735+0.4714=24.04875 hours
 17 of 34

Is exactly the length of the Earth day in present times to one place after the decimal.

Can we go back in our cosmic calendar to periods before the Cambrian explosion. 65 million
years ago of course is not a precise date for the very day on which an asteroid hit earth bringing
about the extinction of dinosaurs, but given the vast expanse of time we are working with
percentage-wise that estimate is very good for our purposes. Our calendar starts at the
Cambrian explosion. What major event existed before that? It would seem about 2 billion years
ago plants and plankton came into extraordinary abundance, and these photosynthesizers
converted the primordial CO2 in the atmosphere, making it into oxygen, which they continue to
do to this day. As a result, about two billion years ago the Earth atmosphere was converted to
one having a high percentage of oxygen gas (O2). Thus a new kind of organism came into
existence, one that gets its energy from food by burning it in oxygen.

Today many organisms use copper (Cu2++) for its metabolism because it is much more soluble
than iron in its reduced state. Iron is quickly oxidized to its ferric state and in this state is
extremely insoluble. Thus, before the oxygen rich atmosphere, organisms could use iron.

The interesting thing is we don’t have to look just at the paleontological record to ascertain the
history of life life on Earth, we can find the metabolic pathways common to all life today and we
have found in common all life has certain things. We have found one of those things is an iron-
based metabolism. Thus we have a way of finding when the common ancestor to all life existed.
We call her LUCA. Since she had an Iron based metabolism she existed at least before the
explosion of photosynthesizers, which means she is at least 2 billion years old. But we have a
fossil record that goes back 3.5 billion years for the first life, and everyday that keeps getting
pushed back, even to 4 billion years, or more. The Earth and Sun formed about 5 billion years
ago.

So we may not have the data to take our calendar back to a date for LUCA. But perhaps we can
call 2 billion years accurate for the explosion of photosynthesizers and the arrival of an oxygen-
rich atmosphere.

4.0 Giordano’s Relationship And Proton-Seconds We have that a crucial value is:
gr a m
Vc =
pr oton
From section 1.0. And we have from section 2.0 equation 13 is:

h 4π rp2
J ⃗⋅ d S ⃗
1 dt
G c ∫t t 3 ∬S
=
α 2 mp

One gram of protons is:

m ol ⋅ pr oton s 1g
6.02E 23 ⋅ = 6.02E 23pr oton s
g m ol
If we are to integrate over hydrocarbon, that is from t=1 is carbon to t=6 is hydrogen, we
have:
 18 of 34

1 h 4π rp2
=6
α 2 mp Gc

(6 )
6
dt 1
∫1 t
6 3
=−6 −1 =5

J ⃗⋅ d S ⃗ = 5
pr oton s
∬S secon d

Multiply that by one second from our equation in section 3.0, which is

1 h 4π rp2 (K . E . Moon)(Ear th Da y)
≈ (6pr oton s) ≈ 1secon d
α 2 mp Gc (K . E . Ear th)

We have

J ⃗⋅ d S ⃗
(K . E . Moon)(Ear th Da y)
∬S
6 = 30pr oton s
(K . E . Ear th)

This number of 30 protons can be taken as the number 30 because

1 h 4π rp2
= 6proton − secon ds
α 2 mp Gc

Can be taken as six seconds because, as we pointed out earlier, it is a mass divided by a
mass mp that can be considered to cancel with one another leaving seconds. Thus,…

J ⃗⋅ d S ⃗
(K . E . Moon)(Ear th Da y) Ear th Re volut ion s
∬S
6 = 30
(K . E . Ear th) Lu n ar Orbit
 19 of 34

5.0 Transform Mathematics: The transformation T : ℝ2 → ℝ2 that rotates

counter-clockwise where T ( x ⃗ ) = A x ⃗ is given by the standard matrix

Equation 1.

( sin(θ ) cosθ )
cos(θ ) −sin(θ )
A=

We suggest there is an aspect of Nature founded on six-fold symmetry, the example of

which we are interested in here is The Periodic Table of the Elements, because it has 18
groups which we can define by carbon, C. This because we have the following scenario:

Equations 2.

3+3+3=9
2+2+2=6
3 ⋅ 6 = 18
2 ⋅ 9 = 18
2⋅3=6

And, we pull out the 2 and the 3 and write (Fig. 3)

π π 5+1 π
2cos = 2 , 2cos = , 2cos = 3
4 5 2 6
Fig. 3 Dividing
5+1 a a b line in golden
Where =Φ= , = such that a = b + c mean
2 b b c
b 1
ϕ= = which is
a Φ
a2 a
given by − −1=0
b2 b
In general

Equations 3.
π
f (n) = 2cos , n = 4,5,6
n
π π
= 45∘, π /5 = 36∘, = 30∘
4 6
 20 of 34

And these can be mapped by the matrix A onto a linear vector

space (Fig. 4)

( 2sin(θ ) 2cosθ )
2cos(θ ) −2sin(θ )
A= =

( 2sin(30∘) 2cos(30∘) )
2cos(30∘) −2sin(30∘)
A= Fig. 4

The point (1,0) can be

rotated through an

3 (0)
3 −1 1
A e 1⃗ = = 3+1 angle θ.
1

3 (1)
3 −1 0
A e 1⃗ = = 3−1
1

( 2sin(36∘) 2cos(36∘) )
2cos(36∘) −2sin(36∘)
A= =

1
Φ − 2
(5 − 5)
1
2
(5 − 5) Φ

1
A e 1⃗ = Φ + (5 − 5)
2

1
A e 2⃗ = Φ + (5 + 5)
2

( 2sin(45∘) 2cos(45∘) )
2cos(45∘) −2sin(45∘)
A= =

2 − 2
2 2

A e 1⃗ = 2 2

A e 2⃗ = 0
 21 of 34

π
Our 2cos is based on the square (Fig. 5)
4
π
= 45∘ is the line x2 = x1. The reflection through x2 = x1 is given by:
4
Equation 4.

(1 0)
0 1
A=

π
And our 2cos is the equilateral triangle:
6

Fig. 5

To transform the square into the equilateral triangle we expand the square of base e 1⃗
with the matrix

To transform the square into the equilateral triangle we expand the square of base e 1⃗
with the matrix

( 0 1) ( 0 ) 2
3/2 0 1 3
A= =

And we see e 1⃗ becomes 3/2 and we have added half the square to itself. (Fig. 6)
 22 of 34

Fig. 6

Or, better we can use the contraction

( 0 1) ( 0 ) 2
1/2 0 1 1
A= =

We draw in the diagonal of the the half-square and reassemble to the the two half-
triangles into an equilateral triangle. To get Φ we take the half square and draw in the
circle of radius 1/2. (Fig. 7) We have

1 1 4 5
+ 12 = + =
2 2 4 4 2

5 1 5+1
+ = =Φ
2 2 2

Fig. 7
 23 of 34

Thus we see the periodic table is 18 groups (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

Carbon is in group 14. We have 18-14=4 valence electrons. Hydrogen is neither a metal
or a non-metal but ionizes like a metal by losing one electron becoming H + and carbon
being C 4− means it needs 4 positive ions to be neutral meaning it combines with 4
hydrogens to each C, or with two hydrogens to a C and a C in long chains
(hydrocarbons) which form the Skeltons of organic compounds in life chemistry (Fig.
9) .

Fig. 9

We have written a program that determines the protons for time (See Appendix 2) :

24.1199 protons 0.250000 seconds 0.119904 decpart

12.0600 protons 0.500000 seconds 0.059952 decpart

8.0400 protons 0.750000 seconds 0.039968 decpart

6.0300 protons 1.000000 seconds 0.029976 decpart

4.0200 protons 1.500000 seconds 0.019984 decpart

3.0150 protons 2.000000 seconds 0.014988 decpart

2.1927 protons 2.750000 seconds 0.192718 decpart

2.0100 protons 3.000000 seconds 0.009992 decpart

1.2060 protons 5.000000 seconds 0.205995 decpart

1.1486 protons 5.250000 seconds 0.148567 decpart

1.0964 protons 5.500000 seconds 0.096359 decpart

1.0487 protons 5.750000 seconds 0.048691 decpart

1.0050 protons 6.000000 seconds 0.004996 decpart

0.2487 protons 24.250000 seconds 0.248659 decpart

0.2461 protons 24.500000 seconds 0.246121 decpart

0.2436 protons 24.750000 seconds 0.243635 decpart

 24 of 34

And we have angles associated with the elements from their geometry, we have a the equation
of a wave:

Equation 5. A = A0cosωt

That equation 6 is 1 second allows us to multiply time with special angles to get special ratios.
If we say A0 = 1 is the amplitude and t=1 second is carbon, then trying ω = 30,60,45
degrees from our triangles and squares:

A(60) = cos(60 ⋅ 1) = 0.5

A(30) = cos(30 ⋅ 1) = 3 /2

A(45) = cos(45 ⋅ 1) = 2 /2

And for hydrogen with a value of 6 seconds, is:

A(60) = cos(60 ⋅ 6) = 1

A(30) = cos(30 ⋅ 6) = − 1

A(45) = cos(45 ⋅ 6) = 0

This is interesting to me because hydrogen being the basis of the periodic table is what it
should be, oscillating between -1 and 1 with the triangle and is 0 for the square. Carbon being
the 6 factor crux of the periodic table and core element of life chemistry is the dynamic ratios
involving the square root of three, square root of two, and one half.

6.0 Solar System Radius

In so far as

1 h 4π rp2 K Eof Moon

≈6⋅ ⋅ Ear th Day ≈ 1secon d
α 2 mp Gc K Eof Ear th

relates carbon=1second to the Earth-Moon-Sun orbital mechanics and to the radius of a

proton through six-fold symmetry:

1 h 4π rp2
=6
α 2 mp Gc

can we bring in our relationships

π
f (n) = 2cos , n = 2,3,4,5.6.,...
n

f (2) = 2, f (6) = 3
 25 of 34

to expand the Earth-Moon-Sun orbital mechanics to the size of the Solar System? We
consider:

Equations 1.

( 2 )
1 1 1
∫
6 dt = 6 − = 0.78
2 t2 3

2
1 π −4
∫ 6( )
cos −1(x /2)d x = 3π − 6 = = 0.21
3 2 2 = 0.21

We move down from carbon in the periodic table to silicon (Si) and down from there to
germanium (Ge). Their densities are Si=2.33 g/cm3 and Ge=5.323 g/cm3. We have
0.21Si+0.78Ge=4.64124 g/cm3. Consider this the starting point for the density of a thin
disc decreasing linearly from the Sun to Pluto (49.5 AU=7.4E14cm).

Equation 2.

∫0 0 ( R)
2π R
r πρ0 R 2
∫0
M= ρ 1− rdrdθ =
3

π (4.64124)(7.4E14)2
= = 2.661E 30g
3
The sum of the masses of the planets is 2.668E30 grams. The accuracy is:

2.66
100 = 99.736
2.668
We have the radius of the solar system is given by:

Equation 3.

3Mp
Rs =
π (0.78Ge + 0.21Si )

Interestingly, the relative abundances of Nitrogen and oxygen are 0.78 and 0.21 in the
Earth air. In fact, the molar mass of air as a mixture is:

air = 0.78N2 + 0.21O2 = 29.0g/m ol

Interestingly as well, by molar mass

 26 of 34

air
≈Φ
H2O

Carbon equals one second is the radius of a proton:

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp = 8.288587 × 10−16 m = 8.29f m
3 4πh

The experimental radius of a proton is:

rp = 0.833 ± 0.014f mIn our integral:

2
1
6(
3π − 6) = 0.21
∫
cos −1(x /2)d x =
3

where did cos −1(x /2) come from? We had Equations

π
f (n) = 2cos , n = 4,5,6
n
We write x = 2cosθ and get θ = cos −1(x /2) and
π
cos −1( 2 /2) = 45∘ =
4
π
cos −1( 3 /2) = 30∘ =
6
7.0 Abundances of Primordial Elements If we can explain the Earth-Moon-Sun
orbital mechanics, the radius of the solar system, and the radius of the proton, can we
predict the relative abundances of the primordial elements created at the beginning of
the Universe - hydrogen and helium - from which all of the elements were made by stars
in nucleosynthesis?

We consider a gaussian wave packet at t=0:

x2−
ψ (x,0) = Ae
2d 2
We say that d which in quantum mechanics would be the delocalization length when
squared is
 27 of 34

( C )
2
Si − C 16
=

9
We write the wave packet as a Fourier transform:

x2 dp
2d 2 ∫ 2π ℏ
i px
−
ψ (x,0) = Ae = ϕp e h

We use the identity that gives the integral of a quadratic:

∞
π β2
∫−∞
2 x+βx
e −α dx = e 4α

α
p2 d2 p2

∫
− hi ( px− 2m t)
ψ (x, t) = dp ⋅ e 2ℏ2 ⋅e

Calculate the Gaussian integral of dp:

d2 it ix
α= 2+ and. β =

2ℏ 2mℏ ℏ
Equation 1.

[ d 1 + t 2 /τ 2 ]
2 x2 1
ψ = exp − 2 ⋅

m d2
τ=

2 C2 x2 1
ψ = exp − ⋅

[ m(Si − C)2 ]
(Si − C )2 ℏC 2
2
1+ t2

2 9 2 1
ψ = exp − x ⋅
16 ℏ281
1 + 2 t2
m 256
 28 of 34

For Hydrogen (t=6 seconds):

2 9 1
ψ = (1)exp − (1proton)2 ⋅ =74%
16 1+
(0.075)81
(6secon ds)2
(1)256

For Helium (t=3 seconds):

2 9 1
ψ = (2)exp − (2proton)2 ⋅
16 1+
(0.075)81
(3secon ds)2
(4)256
=26%

This is in close agreement with what we observe. The Universe is 74% hydrogen and
24% helium, The remaining 2% is comprised by the rest of the elements.
 29 of 34

Appendix 1

To find the translational kinetic energy of the moon:

Distance from earth: 3.85E8m
2π (3.85E 8m) = 2.419E 9m
Orbital period:
T=27.32 days=2.36E6seconds
v=1.025E3m/s~1000m/s
Mass: 7.34767E22kg

1
Use E = mv 2
2
E=3.67E28 Joules

To find the translational kinetic energy of the earth:

Distance from Sun: 1AU=1.496E11m

2π (1.496E11m) = 9.399E11m
Orbital period: 1 year=3.1558E7 seconds
v=2.9785E4m/s
E=2.649E33 Joules

Earth day=(24)(60)(60)=86,400 seconds

 30 of 34

Appendix 2

1 h 4π rp2
α mp
2 Gc

Is proton-seconds. Divide by time we have a number of protons because it is a mass divided by

the mass of a proton. But these masses can be considered to cancel and leave pure number. We
make a program that looks for close to whole number solutions so we can create a table of values
for problem solving.

By what value would you like to increment?: 0.25

How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?): 100
24.1199 protons 0.250000 seconds 0.119904 decpart
12.0600 protons 0.500000 seconds 0.059952 decpart
8.0400 protons 0.750000 seconds 0.039968 decpart
6.0300 protons 1.000000 seconds 0.029976 decpart
4.0200 protons 1.500000 seconds 0.019984 decpart
3.0150 protons 2.000000 seconds 0.014988 decpart
2.1927 protons 2.750000 seconds 0.192718 decpart
2.0100 protons 3.000000 seconds 0.009992 decpart
1.2060 protons 5.000000 seconds 0.205995 decpart
1.1486 protons 5.250000 seconds 0.148567 decpart
1.0964 protons 5.500000 seconds 0.096359 decpart
1.0487 protons 5.750000 seconds 0.048691 decpart
1.0050 protons 6.000000 seconds 0.004996 decpart
0.2487 protons 24.250000 seconds 0.248659 decpart
0.2461 protons 24.500000 seconds 0.246121 decpart
0.2436 protons 24.750000 seconds 0.243635 decpart

A very interesting thing here is looking at the values generated by the program, the smallest
integer value 1 second produces 6 protons (carbon) and the largest integer value 6 seconds
produces one proton (hydrogen). Beyond six seconds you have fractional protons, and the rest of
the elements heavier than carbon are formed by fractional seconds. These are the hydrocarbons
the backbones of biological chemistry. Here is the code for the program:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(int argc, const char * argv[]) {

int n;
float value=0, increment,t=0, p=1.67262E-27, h=6.62607E-34,G=6.67408E-11,
c=299792459,protons[100],r=0.833E-15;

do
{
printf("By what value would you like to increment?: ");
scanf("%f", &increment);
printf("How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?):
");
scanf("%i", &n);
}
while (n>=101);
 31 of 34

for (int i=0; i<n;i++)

{
protons[i]=((137*137)/(t*p))*sqrt(h*4*(3.14159)*(r*r)/(G*c));

int intpart=(int)protons[i];
float decpart=protons[i]-intpart;
t=t+increment;
if (decpart<0.25)
{ printf("%.4f protons %f seconds %f decpart \n", protons[i], t-increment, decpart);
}}}}
 32 of 34

Appendix 3

We need offer an interpretation of time, as well. (Illustration next page)

In The Time Machine, a science fiction story by HG Wells, the time traveller describes
time as physical distance, the direction through which the universe is falling at the speed
of light, c. Thus, not only when we move through space do we travel through a distance
at a velocity v, but we travel through a distance t at a velocity c. If we draw the picture
and account for that distance and velocity as well, we arrive at time dilation as given by
relativity theory. He writes:

I think that at the time none of us quite believed in the Time Machine. The fact is, the
Time Traveller was one of those men who are too clever to be believed: you never felt
that you saw all around him; you always suspected some subtle reserve, some
ingenuity in ambush, behind his lucid frankness.

x2 + t2 = d 2

x = vt02

v 2t02 c 2t02
+ =1
c 2t 2 c 2t 2

( c2 )
v2
t02 + 1 = t2

t
t0 =
v2
1+
c2

Since we don’t experience our motion through time as we fall through it with the
universe, we change the sign in v 2 /c 2. And have the relativistic equation for time
dilation:

t
t0 =
v2
1−
c2
 33 of 34



 34 of 34

The Author