Bonds

- form between ribose & phosphate groups

- join together to make the sugar-phosphate base of the molecule

A section of DNA (corresponding to a protein / a gene ) --- has been transcribed.

The mRNA molecules ---- leave the DNA

----- passes out nucleus  through pores (holes) in nuclear membrane.

The DNA helix ----- “zips up” again
The triplet code of the DNA ----- a triplet code in the
mRNA

(complementary base –paring rule)

(2) TRANSLATION
Translation ----- converting the code in mRNA into a protein
----- takes place in ribosome
Code ----- sets of three bases in the mRNA (e.g. AUG, CCG, ACA)
Codons ----- triplets of bases
----- each codon codes --- a particular amino acid
e.g., CCU codes for the amino acid proline
AUG methionine
UCU serine
GGU glycine

(3) A bond ----- forms between methionine & 2nd amino acid

(4) 1st tRNA molecule ----- released

----- goes off to collect another amino acid

(5) more tRNA molecule----- arrive at mRNA

----- add their amino acid to growing chain, forming a polypeptide

11
 At the end of the chain,
a *stop codon* ----- tells the “translation machinery” that the protein is complete
----- released
amino acids ----- 20 different amino acid, so at least 20 different codons
(and 20 different anticodons)

----- but more than this some amino acid --- use more than one triplet code
e.g., mRNA codons GGU

GGC
all codes for amino acid glycine
GGA
GGG
* Protein synthesis ---- a process that uses up a lot of the chemical energy produced in a cell.
* The order of bases in the template strand of DNA
forms
the genetic code
converted
the sequence bases in the mRNA
used to determine
the position of amino acid in a protein
(in the cytoplasm)

the mRNA molecule ----- attaches to a ribosome

The tRNA molecule ----- begin their part in the process
Each tRNA
- an anticodon of three bases (at one end of the molecule)
- complementary to a particular codon of the mRNA
- a specific amino acid --- attach ( at the other end of the tRNA)
- for each type of the amino acid --- a particular tRNA molecule
- carries its amino acid to the ribosome
- its specific anticodon links up the three bases of the corresponding mRNA codon

*The interaction between mRNA & tRNA --- the basis of translation.*

12
13
Translation takes place as follows.

(1) 1st tRNA binds --- mRNA

“Starts codon” --- always has the base sequence AUG (the amino acid methionine)

(2) Another tRNA brings along --- a 2nd amino acid

Anticodon at 2nd tRNA binds --- next codon on mRNA

(3) A bond forms --- between the methionine and 2nd amino acid

(4) The 1st tRNA molecule released & goes off --- to collect amino acid

(5) More tRNA molecule arrive --- at the mRNA &

add --- their amino acids to the growing chain forming

a *polypeptide*
At the end of the chain,
- a “stop codon” tells --- the “translation machinery” that the protein – complete &
it is released.
- 20 different amino acids --- at least 20 different codons (& 20 different anticodons)
More than this --- coz some amino acids use more than one triplet code
For example,
mRNA codons GGU
GGC all code  amino acid “glycine”
GGA
GGG

CCU
CCC all code  amino acid “proline”
CCA
CCG

CUU
CUC all code  amino acid “leucine”
CUA
CUG

14
Summary of Protein Synthesis

- The order of bases in the template strand of DNA -- forms --- the genetic code
- The code converted into the sequence of bases in the mRNA
- In the cytoplasm,
the sequence of mRNA bases used to determine the position of amino acid in a protein

GENE MUTATION “WHEN DNA MAKES MISTAKES”

A mutation ------ a random change in the DNA of a cell

Sometimes ------ DNA replicate

mistake --- made
wrong nucleotide --- used

Result ----- a gene mutation, change the sequence of the bases in a gene
can lead to the gene coding for the wrong amino acid in a protein

15
 Several ways (gene mutation) (1) Duplication
(2) Delection
(3) Substitution
(4) Inversion

(1) Duplication
- nucleotide --- inserted twice instead of once
- the entire base sequence --- altered
- each triplet after mutation --- changed
- whole gene --- different & code for an entirely different protein

ATT TCC GTT ATC

ATT TTC CGT TAT C
extra T
(2) Delection
- nucleotide --- missed out
- entire base sequence --- altered
- each triplet after mutation --- changed
- whole gene --- different & code for an entirely different protein

ATT TCC GTT ATC

delection
ATT CCG TTA TC

(3) Substitution

- different nucleotide --- used

- the triplet of bases
(mutation occurs)
- protein structure
- protein function
- most amino acid
- new triplet
- Protein
--- changed code for a different amino acid
--- different
--- change or may not
--- more than one code
--- not code for a different amino acid
normal structure & function

ATT TCC GTT ATC

ATG TCC GTT ATC

Substitute base
16
(4) Inversion

- the sequence of bases in a triplet reversed

- only one triplet affected
(may or may not result in a different amino acid & altered protein structure)
ATT TCC GTT ATC
Inversion here
ATT CCT GTT ATC

Mutations
- occurs in body cells heart , intestine , skin
- only affect the particular cell
- very harmful, cell --- with diet
mutation --- be lost
- not significant affect, cell --- not die
- cell ----- divides
a group of cells (mutant gene) ----- formed
- the person --- dies
mutation --- lost (not passed to their children)
- in sex cells (gametes), cell ----- divides to form gametes
----- passed onto the next generation

17
 Cell division
- 2 kinds of cell division (1) Mitosis
(2) Meiosis

(1) Mitosis
- most parts of the body, cells needs to divide
- organisms grow
replace old or damaged cells
- produced cells ---- should be exactly the same as the replacing cells
- the most common form of cell division
- forms all the cells in our bodies except the sex cells

(2) Meiosis
- only in the sex organs
- some cells divide to produce sex cells or gametes
- gametes -- contain only half the original number of chromosomes
- male gamete + female gamete fertilization zygote (full set of chromosome)
- zygote divides & grow a new individual

18
MITOSIS
- “parent cell”  divides  “daughter cells”
- mitosis  produces  2 daughter cells (genetically identify to the parent cell)
(the same number & type of chromosome as the parent cell)
- the dividing cell --------- must copy (each chromosome before dividing)
- DNA --------- replicates & adds more proteins
- Each daughter cell --------- receive a copy of chromosome & each molecule of DNA

- In plant cells, easiest to see mitosis.

- Coz plant cells ---- large & well defined by their cell walls
- Cells in the root tip of onion ---- divide by mitosis as the root grows
- Process in plant cells = Process in human cells

19
- Each daughter cell formed by mitosis
(i) Diploid condition
(receives a copy of every chromosomes & every gene from the parent cell)
(ii) Genetically identical to the others

- “Clone” --- a group of genetically identical cells produced by “mitosis”

--- all the cells in our body except the sex cells

The words “clone” & “cloning”

- the production of entire organisms (animals & plants) from body cells by mitosis

- Plants parts of leaves or roots --- produce new plants (asexual reproduction)
used commercially to grow plants
“cloning”

- Animals cloning animals --- more different

several species --- grown artificially in the laboratory by mitosis from body cells
(not involve sex cells)

20
 DIFFERENTITAITON OF CELLS

A human  begins life  as a zygote

mitosis
2 cells
mitosis
4 cells
mitosis
8 cells

Embryo
grows
specialized cells (perform particular roles)

- This specialisation -- under the control of the genes “differentiation”

- Different kinds of cell  develop nerve cell (in spinal cord)
epidermal cell (in outer layer of the skin)

All the body cells --- “mitosis”

--- different functions  different proteins  different gene code

An adaptation --- a way that the structure of a cell, tissue or organ is suited (adapted) to its function.
21