Genes structure

 Chromosomes become visible during ___________ and meiosis.

 Chromosomes come in pairs (_______________); one from ______________ and one from
__________
 Chromosomes contain genes; each gene is made of two _______________.

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Structure of nucleic acids

Two types: 1. DNA = ______________________

2. RNA = ______________________

Nucleotide is the monomer, polynucleotide is the polymer.

Each monomer consists of : 1. ____________________________
2. ____________________________
3. ____________________________

1. Phosphate group
Give negative charge to DNA. Phosphates carry negative charges at cellular pH and give the
nucleotides their acidic character.

2. Pentose sugar unit

5 C sugar
RNA is ribose
DNA is deoxyribose (O atom at C2 is removed)

3. Nitrogenous base
2 types: 1. Purine (A,G) 2 rings
2. Pyrimidine (U, T, C) 1 ring

Ribose
Ribose

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Base Nucleoside Nucleotide Abbreviation in
RNA / DNA
adenine adenosine adenylic acid AMP / dAMP
guanine guanosine guanylic acid GMP / dGMP
cytosine cytidine cytidylic acid CMP / dCMP
thymine tymidine thymidylic acid ------ / dTMP
uracil uridine uridylic acid UMP / ------

Adenosine (nucleoside) Adenylic acid (nucleotide)

RNA and DNA

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Differences between RNA and DNA

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DNA replication

DNA twist into double helix (Watson and Crick model, 1953)
The polynucleotides are anti-parallel to each other.
Complementary base pairing
Double helix.

Semiconservative replication
The Meselson-Stahl experiment was an experiment by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl to prove
that DNA replication was semiconservative. Semiconservative replication means that when the double
stranded DNA helix was replicated, each of the two double stranded DNA helices consisted of one
strand coming from the original helix and one newly synthesized.

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Replication of DNA is semiconservative: each daughter helix contains one strand of the parental helix.
(Conservative replication would be where the entire parental double helix was used as a template for
the formation of an entirely new daughter double helix).

Semi-conservative replication:
 Parental _____________________ separate
 Each ________________________ acts as a template
 After replication, each new DNA double helix has one ________ DNA strand and one _________
DNA strand.

Gene expression / protein synthesis

The central dogma of biology

1. Transcription 2. translation 3. Gene expression

1. Transcription: messenger RNA (mRNA) is made on a ____antisense strand DNA____ template in

the _______________.
2. Translation: mRNA moves into the _______cytoplasm_____________, mRNA combines with
ribosomes to direct protein synthesis.
3. Gene expression: the information in a cistron (genes on DNA) is used to make a functional
polypeptide chain by transcription and translation.

The genetic code

- Using triplet codon on mRNA.
- Three-base (triplet) code on the mRNA codes for ____________________ of polypeptides.
- 1 amino acid is coded by 3 bases, e.g. UUU for phenylalanine.

A, U, C, G

4 x 4 x4 = 64 20 aa

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- Possible combinations: __________ combinations, more than enough for 20 amino acids required
by a cell.

- Degenerate code: one amino acid coded by more than one codon, e.g. alanine coded by GCA,
GCC, GCG, GCU.
- Start code, AUG code for methionine ; stop code: UAA, UAG and UGA.
- ATG TAA, TAG, TGA
- Universal for all organisms; chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA slight modification.

Making RNA
1. 2. 3.
1.Transcription
- Transfer of information from DNA to RNA
- Helicase breaks hydrogen bonds of DNA where gene is located (not the whole DNA)
- Start at AUG (_methionine_____________)
- RNA polymerase adds nucleotides (U to A__, C to __G_, etc) starts from the promoter site
- RNA polymerase moves along cistron in 5’ to 3’ direction
- One DNA strand is sense strand (cistron is located). The complementary DNA strand (template) is
the antisense strand (other genes not required at this time).

- So, the mRNA sequence is _UACAAAUGACCA___

- Transcription is terminated at stop codon (___UAA, UAG and UGA __)
- DNA is zipped, RNA is released to nucleoplasm.

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Sense Antisense
strand strand

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2. Processing
- Processed to ribosomal RNA (rRNA) 80%, mRNA 5%, and transfer RNA (tRNA) 15%.
mRNA
- For eukaryotic mRNA, it consists of __________ and exons.
- Introns will be removed and ____________ are spliced together.
- Final mRNA
- The 5' cap is a specially altered nucleotide end to the 5' end of precursor messenger RNA as found
in eukaryotes. The process of 5' capping is vital to creating mature messenger RNA which is then
able to undergo translation. Capping ensures the messenger RNA's stability while it undergoes
translation in the process of protein synthesis, and is a highly regulated process which occurs in the
nucleus.

Polyadenylation is the covalent linkage of a poly(A) tail to a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. It is
part of the route to producing mature messenger RNA for translation, in the larger process of protein
synthesis to produce proteins. In eukaryotic organisms, most messenger RNA molecules end with a
poly-A stretch at their 3' ends. The polyadenosine (poly-A) tail protects the mRNA molecule from
exonucleases and is important for transcription termination, for export of the mRNA from the nucleus,
and for translation.

tRNA
- tRNA and rRNA are transcript by special genes (cistrons on DNA)

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- Amino acids are carried by tRNA (anticodon) using information in mRNA (codon)
- 20 types of tRNA, e.g. tRNAcys , tRNAhis , tRNAala , etc.
- Single strand, folded, clover leaf arrangement
- One end attached to amino acid
- Anticodon complementary to codon on mRNA

rRNA
- rRNA major component of ribosomes
- most abundent 80%
- synthesised in nucleolus: nucleolar organiser.
- Exported to cytoplasm join with proteins to form ribosomes

3. Transport
rRNA, mRNA and tRNA are transported through __________________ pore to the cytoplasm.

Protein synthesis
1. 2. 3.

1. tRNA activation
- An enzyme _________________________ makes sure tRNA is carrying the correct amino acid
by its anticodon before it moves to a ribosome.
- Binding in 5’ to 3’ direction
- ATP is required

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2. Translation
- Small subunit of ribosome (rRNA+ protein) searches for AUG (_____________) codon on mRNA
- Big subunit of ribosome clamps to them.
- Creates two sites: _____________(peptidyl) and ______________(aminoacyl)
- Ribosome moves so that AUG is at the A-site
- tRNA with ______________ (AUG) attached enters A-site and binds its anticodon UAC to codon
AUG on mRNA.
- Ribosome moves one triplet codon in 5’ to 3’ direction
- met-rRNA now enters P-site leaving A-site empty
- Second tRNA with proline enters A-site and binds its anticodon ( ) to codon ( ) on mRNA.
- An enzyme peptidyl transferase forms a peptide bond between methionine and the second a.a.
proline.
- The tRNA that was holding methionine is now released from the ribosome, and is free to carry
another methionine molecule.
- Ribosome moves one more triplet codon in 5’ to 3’ direction
- Second a.a proline occupies P-site and the third tRNA ( ) is entering the A-site
- The process continues until ribosome reaches a ‘stop’ codon: UAA, UGA or UAG.
- The mRNA, ribosome, and tRNA molecules separate, and the polypeptide chain is released.
- Complementary base pairing between anticodons and codons ensure correct sequence of a.a.

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IF = initiation factor

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RF = release factor

3. Processing
- According to the final destination
- Includes folding, and adding chains.
- Protein in cell, e.g. haemoglobin, directly from ribosome to cytoplasm.
- Enzymes, are made on RER, transported to Golgi apparatus, modified and packaged. Transported
by Golgi vesicles and secreted by exocytosis.
- Membranes proteins are made on RER and remain/fused in the membrane.

F(h) Polysomes: speeding up translation

- Single ribosome: a single polypeptide chain 15 amino acids per second
- Accelerated by polysomes
- 5 to 50 ribosomes on the same mRNA
- At end of mRNA, ribosomes detached and returns to the beginning on the same mRNA
- Large number of the same polypeptide chains produced

The figure below shows an electron micrograph and its interpretation. DNA and strings of individual
ribosomes attached to a single mRNA (polyribosome) are visible. The mRNA and RNAPol
molecules are barely visible, and the protein polypeptides are too small to be seen.

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Self test:
1. Based on figure below, name the process
A________________________
B________________________
C________________________
Structure
D ____________________
E ____________________
Molecule
F _____________________

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2. Based on the figure below,
a. (i) Name the amino acid P
(ii) State the base sequence at S
(iii) State the name given to the triplet base sequences on mRNA
(iv) Describe the change that would occur to the protein if the base sequence at R was UUU instead
of AUU.
b. Describe what happens to the enzyme molecule after it has left the ribosome until it leaves the cell.

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3. Distinguish between a nucleoside and a nucleotide.
4. By what type of chemical reaction does a phosphodiester bond form?
5. If one strand of DNA has the three base sequence AATCCG, what will be the corresponding base
sequence of its complementary strand?
6. What is a nucleosome?
7. Centromeres contain no genes. What is their main function?
8. Why have telomeres been compared with the tips of shoelaces?
9. What are the functions of :
(i) helicases
(ii) DNA binding proteins
(iii) DNA polymerase
(iv) DNA ligase?

10. What is the name given to the result of adding one or two nucleotide bases to a DNA sequence?
11. Use the genetic table to work out which amino acid has the codon CAU.
12. Distinguish between transcription and translation.
13. A transcribing DNA strand contains the base sequence CGGAATCGT. What will be the base
sequence in the mRNA transcribed from it?
14. What is the role of tRNA.
15. What type of bond attaches a new amino acid to a polypeptide chain?
16. By what process does a tRNA molecule attach onto mRNA during translation?
17. What is a polysome or polyribosome?

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