BIOL 2900 Week 2

Recall: Central dogma is about releasing information re the information from our genome:
DNA -----(transcription)-----mRNA-----(translation)-----proteins
2 functional roles of DNA
Duplication: the molecule must be replicated and transmitted in each cell division.
Information: the molecule contains information expressed in the sequence of the nucleotides
-

the

sequences

sequences

of

are

transcribed

information

relates

into
to

the

RNA
type

to
of

release

protein

that

their
gets

information
expressed.

- a genome is the arrangement of nucleotides.

DNA
- makes up chromosomes and genes

RNA
- uracil + argenine

- double stranded (consists of 2 anti-parallel strands - single stranded, formed off DNA template inside
of nucleic acids)

nucleus. It migrates to the cytoplasm during protein

- controls all cell activities (ex: cell division and synthesis.

protein synthesis)

- two -OH group on 2 and 3 carbon

- sections of DNA form functional unites called - A=U, C=G

genes
- one OH group on 3 carbon
- A=T, C=G
*** It is the sequence of bases codes heredity information in the genetic code of DNA and RNA ***
Transcription
-

The process of releasing information contained in a DNA sequence

The sequence of bases in the DNA template is copied into an RNA sequence, which is either used
directly or translated into a polypeptide.
Genes

A region of a DNA molecule containing a sequence of bases that is transcribed into a functional product.

Several

regions

are

responsible

for

the

proper

function

of

gene.

transcribed region
Transcribed site
Transcription is the 1ste step in the expression of a gene. Its the formation of a specific RNA
sequence from a special DNA service. Initiation occurs at a promoter, a region on the DNA where RNA
polymerase binds, and it attaches to the promoter and beings to unwind the DNA.
At an initiation site, the polymerase begins reading the DNA template strand and building a
complementary RNA strand from free nucleoside triphosphates. The RNA strand grows by the addition
of these substrate molecules to its 3 end. This is the elongation phase of transcription.
Note that the base in the new nucleotides of the RNA strand form pairs with the bases in the DNA

BIOL 2900 Week 2

strand. Also note that RNA contain the sugar ribose, which has 2-OH groups, where DNA only has 1.
RNA polymerase functions similarly to DNA polymerase. It adds nucleotides to the 3 OH group.
During the reaction, a pyrophosphate ion is release and broken down, releasing energy that fuels
transcription.
Products of transcription
mRNA
Intermediate molecules

rRNA
Functional RNA

tRNA
Functional RNA

Proteins
Active players in most cell

used for transfer the

molecules that are

molecule that serves as

processes

information from DNA

components of the

adapters in translation.

3 major classes of proteins:

to protein.

ribosome.

1) enzymes (catalysts in
tRNA is used to deliver

biological functions;

Carries the genetic code

It is a structural part of

A.A.s from the

DNA/RNA polymerase)

contained in DNA, from

ribosomes, and serves

cytoplasm to the

2) regulatory (those that

the nucleus to ribosomes.

as a link between

ribosome. There is a

initiate translation).

mRNA and tRNA.

different tRNA for

3) structural (shape of the

(ribosomes are the sites

every A.A., so tRNA is

cell/organs).

of protein synthesis).

responsible for bringing

specific A.A. to

Proteins are made of building

ribosomes

blocks called amino acids, and

the synthesis of protein is
accomplished through
translation.

Translation
-

the process of converting information stored in nucleic acid sequences into proteins

genetic code: the ribosomes read mRNA sequences in 3-base codons.

Components of translation
-

mRNA: the template that is used to specify amino acid sequences.

Ribosomes: a complex of proteins and rRNA molecules

tRNA: serves as adapters between in mRNA and A.A. It binds to a serine codon on mRNA (5-UAC-3).
So on tRNA,, the anti-codon would be 3-AUG-5. The 3-OH end of each tRNA is linked to the COOH
group of a specific A.A..
Genetic code

a universal code that is used in the nuclear genome of most organisms.

BIOL 2900 Week 2

Complementary anticodons are present in tRNA molecules, which are specifically linked to A.A.

With 4 bases in RNA, and 3 base codons, there are 64 possible codons, but only 20 A.A. Therefore, the
genetic code is degenerate, where some amino acids are specified by more than 1 codon (and up to 6).
Triplet code

61 A.A. codons, for 20 A.

3 stop codons, to terminate protein synthesis (64 A.A. codons in total).

Protein translation
Mutations
-

In the living cell, DNA undergoes frequent chemical change, especially when it is being replicated. A
mutation is any change in an organisms DNA sequence, which can result if nucleotides get lost,
rearranged, or paired in error. This can lead to a protein that does not function properly when DNA gets
translated. But most of these changes are quickly repaired.

If it doesnt get repaired, we end up with a mutation. Therefore, mutations are an error of DNA repair.
example of mutagens: UV light, radiation, dioxins, smoking, etc.

DNA mutations affect phenotype, ONLY when the mutation is expressed (DNARNAprotein)
and the resulting protein functions abnormally.
Point mutation (a change in a single nucleotide via insertion or deletion; can cause a frameshift)
Types of point mutations

Silent mutation
-

Recall that codons code for different amino acids, some of which are the same one. Mutations that dont
change

the

AA

sequence

of

the

protein

are

known

as

silent

mutations.

- ex: CGG CGC (both codes for Argenine)

Missense Mutation
-

Sickle cell anemia resulted from this type of mutation; a point mutation causes a change in the AA
sequence of the protein

TCG TTG (Serine Leucine)

Nonsense Mutation
-

A point mutation that creates a new stop codon; stops translation prematurely

CGG (arg) TAT (tyr) TCG (ser) ATG (met) AAG (lys)

CGG (arg) TAT (tyr) TCG (ser) ATT (STOP) AAG (lys)

Frameshift Mutation
[insertion]
-

CGG (arg) TAT (tyr) TCG (ser) ATG (met) AAG (lys)

CGG (arg) TCA (ser) TTC (phe) GAT (asp) GAA (glu) G

An example of an insertion frameshift mutation. It affects all AA incorporated after the site at which the
mutation occurs.

BIOL 2900 Week 2

[deletion]
-

CGG (arg) TAT (tyr) TCG (ser) ATG (met) AAG (lys)

CGG (arg) TTT (phe) CGA (Arg) TGA (stop) AG

Example of deletion frameshift mutation where adenine gets deleted, and messed up the latter sequence.
Consequences of Mutations
-

Selective advantage;

The activity of the protein is reduced and may cause genetic diseases like sickle cell anemia (glutamic
acid valine [mutant])

Many cancers are caused by defective repair of DNA

Stronger activity of an enzyme

The activity of the protein is reduced

Evolution is the change in the inherited traits of a population of organisms through successive generations.
Its mainly by changes of DNA sequences; mutations.
The Cell Theory
Developed during the mid 1600s (discovery of microscopy)
-

All living organisms are made of cells

New cells are created by old cell dividing into 2

Cells are the basic building units of life.

The cell is the basic unit of all life forms:

-

Unicellular (made up of just 1 cell; bacteria, yeast)

Multicellular

(made

up

of

several

to

billions

of

cells;

most

plants

and

animals)

- these cells work together to help the organisms grow and survive
Cell Structure

Similarities

Prokaryotic
Bound by a cell membrane

Eukaryotic

Carry genetic information (DNA) in chromosomes

Have flagella to facilitate movement

Filled with aqueous cytoplasm

No nucleus

Nucleus present

No organelles

Highly organized with many functional units

DNA is in cytoplasm

Circular chromosomes in nuclear

DNA enclosed in nucleus

region

Have MT to metabolize reactions

called organelles

BIOL 2900 Week 2

Differences

Have endomembrane system

(ex: ER + Golgi Apparatus)

The cell surface

-

Plasma membrane w/ integral membrane

proteins

Cytoplasm
-

Mitochondria

ER

Vesicles (ex: lysosomes)

Plasma Membrane
Function
-

Semi-permeable

and

selective

- ex: if the substrate passing is small, it may pass passively but if its too big or charged, then
ATP

will

be

required

for

transport

- lipid soluble molecules can cross relatively easily across the cell membrane (same with Na +)

Separates the inside of a cell from the outside environment, and from another cell

Selective barrier that provides a surface on which chemical reactions occur

Regulate the passage of materials into/out of cells

Structure
-

The structure of phospholipids is responsible for the basic function of membranes as barriers between 2
polar (water) compartments (depicted by the fluid-mosaic model).
- this is because of the property of phospholipids (hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail) naturally
causes them to bind to each other, so they naturally and spontaneously arrange into a bilayer. Plus, water
molecules and the head of the lipids also have no net charge.
Head Group

Tail

Polar

Non-polar

Hydrophilic (associates with water)

Hydrophobic (repels water)

Phosphate, Glycerol
Vesicles

Vesicles are expelled from the cell via diffusion.

-

A pocket made of membranes that are separated from the cytoplasm of a cell.

A carrier of molecules in and out of the cell w/o crossing the membrane.
Mitochondria

MT are the cells power source of the cell. Its size is similar to prokaryotic cells and ss responsible for
generating most of the ATP through cellular respiration, derived from the breakdown of lipids and

BIOL 2900 Week 2

carbohydrates.
-

It has many similarities to a bacterial cell

- double membrane like some bacteria, to allow greater surface area for ATP production (cristae)
- possess their own DNA (circular DNA); genes for MT dont have introns in them. They are capable of
dividing, independent of cell division.
- produces their own ribosomes

This has led to many biologists to theorize that MT are the descendants of some bacteria which was
endocytosed by a larger cell billions of years ago, but not digested.
Lysosomes

Lysosomes are the cells garbage disposal system, the clean up crew

Break down molecules into their base components using strong digestive enzymes, hydrolase

Participates in solid waste processing and storage of some materials

Nucleus Structure

The nucleus, largest organelle, contains DNA, RNA, proteins

DNA is packed into chromosomes, an assembly of DNA and proteins

The nuclear envelope surrounding the nucleus consists of 2 membranes

This envelope has large pores that allow RNA and other macromolecules to leave or to enter the nucleus

On the inner surface, there are attachment sites for the DNA molecules

The nucleolus is a spherical body located within the nucleus that contains primarily RNA and proteins.