NUCLEIC ACIDS

People nowadays are

very aware about the
technology known as
Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs).
 The main application of this technology
is more on agriculture and to increase the
yield of crop production. But some people
are against it because of some possible
problems regarding quality and natural
value of the crops which are genetically
modified.
Nature of Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are organic
compounds which are
usually nitrogen-containing
compounds and are
polymers found primarily in
cell nuclei.
They also serve as
identification of each living
organism which has a
specific code for the
sequence of proteins.
 Nucleic acids are consist of polymers of
nucleotides. A nucleotide is composed of
three parts:
a. Nitrogenous-containing base
(nitrogenous base)
b. Pentose sugar (five-carbon)
c. Phosphate group
Nucleotides make up the DNA and
RNA.
Monomer of Nucleic Acid which is a Nucleotide
Nitrogenous Bases
The two classes of nitrogenous bases:
a. Pyrimidines
Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) & Uracil (U)
These nitrogenous bases are composed of six
(6) atoms of carbon and nitrogen and formed a
hexagon ring.
b. Purines
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
These are composed of (9) atoms of both nitrogen and
carbon which form two fused rings (hexagon ring and
pentagon ring). And these nitrogenous bases are
attached to five-carbon sugar (pentose sugar).
Pentose (Five-carbon) Sugar
A nucleotide is also made up of pentose sugar. The
sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, which lacks oxygen,
hence the name deoxy while the sugar of RNA is
ribose which has oxygen atom bonded to each carbon
atom.
Phosphate Group
The last component
of nucleotide is the
phosphate group
attached to fifth
carbon of the pentose
ring. There is a
phosphodiester bond
that bonds two
nucleotides.
Types of Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids found in cells of
living organisms are two types
namely the DNA and RNA. The
carrier of genetic information is the
DNA while the RNA is a copy from
a part of DNA and the template for
protein synthesis.
 Comparison between DNA (deoxyribose acid) and RNA
(Ribonucleic acid)
DNA
Consists of two strands of nucleotides
composed of sugar, phosphate , and
nitrogenous bases that pair through
hydrogen bonds.
Sugar is deoxyribose
Paired strands form a twisted zipper shape
called a double helix
Adenine always bonds with thymine and
cytosine bonds with guanine
Located inside the nucleus
Transcribed (given to messenger RNA)
RNA
Single stranded which looks like a one-
half-zipper. RNA is of three major types:
mRNA (messanger RNA), rRNA
(ribosomal RNA) and tTRNA (transfer
RNA).
Sugar is ribose
Adenine bonds with uracil and cytosine
bonds with guanine
Located in the cytoplasm
Located in nucleus or cytoplasm
Translated to give to proteins
The Genetic Code
The arrangement of code words (nucleotide
triplet) in DNA is known as genetic code. It is
the sequence of nucleotide bases in nucleic
acids which is the code for amino acids. The
polypeptide chain of amino acids are the
proteins. The segment of DNA which codes for
one kind of protein is a gene. There are 64
triplet codes for 20 amino acids. Each amino
acid can be specified by more than one code
word.
 There is one codon that corresponds to the
starting codon (initiation codon) which is the
methionine (AUG). The start codon is in the
mRNA sequence.
There are also three stop codons
(termination codons) which signify the end of
a polypeptide these are UAA & UAG. These
stop codons does not correspond to amino
acids. The tRNA has anticodon
complementary to the codons in mRNA.
THE GENETIC CODE
Genetic Mutations
When there is a change in the structure of
genetic material in DNA sequence that may or
may not be inherited is called mutation.
Mutation is caused by some induced factors
such as high-energy radiation, toxic chemicals,
extreme temperatures, and even radioactive
substances known as mutagen. When mutation
affects the body cells, this is somatic mutation.
 They do not affect the offspring. Only
the mutant gene of a body is affected.
Unlike in germ or gametic mutation, it
can be inherited by the next generation
since the affected are the gametes.
Mutation could be (a) point mutation,
(b) frameshift mutation, and
(c)chromosomal mutation.
Point mutation
this type of mutation will cause a change in an
amino acid in a polypeptide chain.
Kinds of Point Mutation
1. Silent Mutation – a nucleotide is substituted
but still the same amino acid in a polypeptide
chain.
For example:
Normal Sequence: ACU CCA GAC ---CCA (Lysine)
Silent Sequence: ACU CCC GAC ---CCC (Lysine)
2. Missense Mutation
a nucleotide is substituted by and results
to different codon that corresponds to
different amino acid.
For example:

Normal Sequence: ACU CCA GAC ---GAC (Aspartic acid)

Silent Sequence: ACU CCA GCC ---GCC (Alanine)
3. Nonsense Mutation
a nucleotide is substituted and results to the
formation of stop codon instead of a codon in
coding an amino acid.
For example:

Normal Sequence: ACU CCA AAA ---AAA (Lysine)

Silent Sequence: ACU CCA UAA ---UAA (STOP)
 Some examples of diseases caused by
mutations sickle-cell anemia, cystic fibrosis
and tay-sachs.
Frameshift Mutation
this type of mutation affects only
one nitrogen base by either being
completely deleted or extra one is
inserted into the middle of a sequence
of DNA.
Kinds of Frameshift Mutation
1. Insertion – a single nitrogenous base is
added in the middle of the sequence so that
wrong amino acid is translated and alters the
protein. For example:

Normal Sequence: CAG UCC ACU

Glu Ser Thr

Frameshift (Insertion): CAG GUC CAC G

Glu Val His ?
2. Deletion- a nitrogenous bases is
deleted or taken out of the sequence of
amino acid.
For example:

Normal Sequence: CAG UCC ACU

Glu Ser Thr

Frameshift (Insertion): CAG CCA CU

Glu Pro ?
Chromosomal Mutation
alteration or error which
cause change in the structure
or number of chromosomes.
Kinds of chromosomal
mutation
1. Deletion – a portion of a
chromosome is omitted
and genes are lost
permanently. Example is
Cri-du-chat or the “cry of
the cat” which is the
deletion on the short arm
of chromosome
2. Insertion – a
portion of a
chromosome is added
to another
chromosome.

3. Inversion - the
order of genes in the
chromosome is
reversed.
4. Duplication – a portion
of the chromosome is
repeated and doubled in
the same chromosome.
Example is Down
syndrome, having an extra
copy of chromosome 21
(trisomy 21).
5. Translocation – the chromosome segments change
positions.